Political Geography Notes

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Folder: Bappy’s 4th year note: 406
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:
According to Vladimir Kolossov, Political geography is an academic discipline studying the interaction between
political activity of people and integral geographical space, which includes physical, economic, social, cultural, and
political spaces.
According to Oxford Dictionary of Geography, Political geography is the geographical analysis of political studies
which concerns with spatial expression of political ideas, the consequences of decision making by political entity and
with those geographical factors that influence political activities or political problem.
GEOPOLITICS:
Geopolitics is the view that location and physical environment are important factors in the global power structure; the
state may be seen as a realm in space (Oxford Dictionary of Geography). Early proponents of the study were Halford
Mackinder and Friedrich Ratzel, and the 1970 domino theory may be seen as a branch of geopolitics (Mayhew, 1995).
It is a science or relationship between space and politics (Mckeen).
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GEOPOLITICS AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:
SL Difference Political geography Geopolitics
1 Definition The branch of geography that deals with the Politics, especially international relations,
boundaries, divisions, and possessions of as influenced by geographical factors.
states.
2 Subject Internal geographic condition and their Space required by states.
matter influences on the state.
3 Focus Spatial analysis of politics. Space of state.
4 Study of Spatial factors of state dynamics. Changes of state or state dynamics.
dynamics
5 Description Very descriptive. Less descriptive.
nature
6 Objective To serve knowledge the geographer. To serve knowledge to the nation.
7 State State empowerment is associated with Considers space as a powerful entity.
consideration various spatial phenomena.
8 Broader It is a part of geography. It is more close international relationship
scope study.
9 Dependency Depends on spatial, temporal, social, Depends on time and location.
environmental and physiographic factors.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:

THE NATURE
Different leading authorities in the field of the political geography have defined the nature and the scope of this subject
in the different terms. There is no unanimity of the opinion in the matter. However, the students of an introductory
course in the subject need not be bogged down by this multiplicity of the views. Following discussion is enough to
understand the basic nature and the scope of this sub-discipline.
Political geography personified has a nature, just as any human being has a peculiar nature or the psychological
tendency. As says H.J. Mackinder, the geography is a science, the arts and the philosophy by nature. So, it follows
that the political geography is a science, arts and philosophy, too.
It is a science because it follows the scientific methods of the observation, the collection of the data, the hypothesis,
the theory and the model building ever open to the scientific scrutiny in terms of the relationship among variables
under the study and the validity of such a relationship.
It is an art, since it involves quite a subjective approach, too in terms of the skilful organization of the field studies,
the collection of the data, the map drawing and the interpretation of the results.
It's a philosophy, too, in terms of ever trying to philosophize the questions of the human beings and the environment
relationship in the political terms. It tries to frame the postulations as to what, why, how and where a political activity
takes place in a particular corner of the globe or the spatial point in the universe?
Finally, it of course inter alia is interdisciplinary, flexible, dynamic, friendly and far-reaching, too.
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Basic Concepts/ Natures in Political Geography and Geopolitics:

1. Advanced cultures and civilizations do not develop in climates which are extremely hot or cold.
2. Nations which are located in isolated areas of the world and away from the major friction zones have more
latitude in establishing a society without outside interference.
3. Nations which are located in physical proximity to a major superpower or in a friction zone are more apt to
be involved in power politics.
4. Landlocked nations are at a disadvantage in world trade. They often must depend on a friendly neighbor to
assist them with foreign commerce.
5. The topography of a nation plays a pivotal role in determining a sound national defense.
6. A nation's resources determine the economic and often the political and social prosperity of that nation.
7. Industrialized nations are dependent on the availability of raw materials.
8. The development of free or less restrictive trade policies and collective security agreements can reduce the
international tension growing out of the search for raw materials.
9. Nations which have been established on the basis of artificial boundaries are less cohesive and suffer from
more frequent internal dissension than do nations which have been established with natural boundaries.
10. Recent technological advancements in weapons, including nuclear weapons and sophisticated missiles and
bombers, have altered international relations in terms of geography, power, and policy.
THE SCOPE
The scope, ambit or area of the political geography is quite vast both in the temporal and the spatial terms, besides the
applicability. The Universal Integrated Cubical Temporal - Spatial - Applicability Scope model of the Scope illustrates
it aptly. The given cube can easily be sliced into 90 pieces (3 Temporal faces x 6 Spatial faces x 5 Applicability faces).
Each slice represents one face each of the Temporal - Spatial - Applicability Scope. Thus, we may elaborate the scope
of the subject in 90 different ways.
For example, let us cut the slice with the 3 following faces: the Future, the Philosophical and the Asthenospheric. This
slice means that the political geography can be studied from the point of view of the philosophical questions related
to the use of the Asthenospheric resources at any given point of time in the future.
Although Hartshorne and Alexander opine that "the geographer is concerned primarily with variations from place to
place rather than from time to time" yet a geographer can't escape studying the temporal aspects, too in terms of
studying the varied geographical patterns of the phenomena prevailing at any given point of time on the Earth.
A complete and detailed exposition of all the above mentioned 90 integrated slices is beyond the scope of this article.
So, I have attempted the following brief description of the various facets of the scope of this challenging dynamic
subject:
(i) The Temporal Aspect/Scope

With the emphasis on the current contemporary situation, it includes in its ambit the scope of going back into the
times, since the ills of many countries today have their roots in the past geographical economic spatial patterns like
during the great age of discovery, 30 million young people aged 15-35 years were removed from the Africa during
the Slave Trade Era which depleted the human resources of that continent.
It caused a lack of the significant political development in the Africa whereas the slave trading nations like the U.K.,
Spain, etc., flourished and built up the enormous monetary and the capital assets which helped them later to kick start
and sustain economic/political development in their own countries. This led to the spatial variation in the
economic/political development in that bygone era. But, its repercussions are still felt in the Africa where the
economic/political development has quite been low due to the bequeathing of no significant economic/political
development by their preceding generations.
Thus, one may divide the temporal aspect into following broad categories:
1. Ancient 2. Medieval 3. Great Age of discovery 4. 19th century
5. 20th century 6. Contemporary 7. Recent 8. Present
(ii) The Spatial Aspect/Scope

Political geography has enormous spatial scope which includes the following aspects/points:
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1. The Vertical:
It includes the spatial locations right from the ocean bed to the mountain top and the related economic/political
phenomena. It includes the aspects like the asthenospheric, the lithospheric, the atmospheric and the galactic.
For example, there is a lot of extra-terrestrial scope. With the opening up of the extra-terrestrial scope, the political
geography shall have to take into consideration the availability of the economic/political activities/possibilities in the
outer space like the Moon, the Mars, etc.
The experiments carried out to produce the special kinds of the minerals aboard the spacecrafts to score the political
points over the rival nation-State fall within the spatial scope of the political geography.
2. The Horizontal:
It includes a study of the politico-geographic aspects in the horizontal direction in terms of the phenomena like the
lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere, etc.
(a) The Continental Scope: It includes the studies of all the continents/islands in the political terms and their
interactions.
(b) The Hemispheric Scope: The political geography may be studied in terms of the eastern, the western, the northern
and the southern hemispheres.
(iii) The Political Activities Scope

a. The Production: It includes the studies of the production of all kinds of the political activities at all the levels from
the local to the international.
b. The Exchange: It includes the value addition to each political product, goods, services created by the specialized
services provided at each level of the handling, including the packaging, the promotion, the financing and
merchandizing of the political product.
c. The Consumption: It includes both the pattern of the political consumption and the spatial aspects of the political
consumer behaviour.
d. The Developmental Scope:
It includes the study of the spatial variation in terms of the political development, i.e., the different categories of the
countries like the more developed and the less developed countries.
(iv) The Other Aspects/Scope

(a) The Integrative Scope: It includes the study of the spatial variation in the political activities in terms of an
integrated approach to all the spheres, i.e., the lithosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. It
includes the studies of the underground spatial aspects like the asthenosphere, the sial, the sima, the mantle and the
core so as to determine their influence on the political activities of the human beings.
(b) The Global Scope: It has the global scope because of the variations in the level and the interdependencies that
exist in the international political development. The whole Earth has become a global system with the shrinking
economic/political distance. So much that even a person in the most remote geographical/economic/political areas of
the world now participates in a political system that is less the local and the regional and more the national and the
international in the scope.
(c) The Theoretical Scope: It has enormous theoretical scope. The theories are used in so far as possible to explain as
to why the political activities happen spatially, i.e., the Heartland, the Rimland and the Libensraum are the excellent
examples. It includes the concepts in the analytical work like the neighbourhood effect.
(d) The Interdisciplinary Scope: It takes the help of the other subjects like the economics, the agriculture, the climate,
the math, etc., to gauge the effects on the spatial variation in the political activities, of the factors like the climate and
the economy of a nation, the macro forces associated with the transition of the world polity from an authoritarian to a
democratic base, the international political system and the multinational corporations.
(e) The Methodological/Approaches Scope: Broadly speaking, the following are the "15 Golden" or the main methods
of/ways of/approaches to the study of "the political geography" and any other sub-discipline in the field of the
geography or any other subject:
1. The Descriptive, Analytical, Prescriptive
2. The Empirical (inductive)/Normative (deductive)/Optimiser/Satisficer
3. The Deterministic (environmental/natural, human, nature-human)
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4. The Subjective/Artistic, Objective/Scientific

5. The Holistic/Whole/Homogeneitic, Isolationist/Parts/Heterogeneitic/Choreal, Particularitic
6. The Systems, Systematic
7. The Political: The Socialist, Capitalist, Communist, Democratic, Fascist, Liberal, Neo-liberal, Neo-conservative
8. The Activity, Principle
9. The Quantitative/Mathematical, Qualitative/Behavioural/Humanistic
10. The Temporal, Spatial, Spatio-Temporal
11. The Philosophical, Theoretical, Practical/Applicability
12. The Ecological/Environmental/Consequential, Inter-disciplinary
13. The Gender, Racial
14. The Civilian, Military
15. The Economics, Geographical, Econo-Geographical
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

Main social processes Main social ideas and Dominant Key authors
and historical features tendencies in the social scale of
sciences political
geography
studies
1897–1914 Imperial rivalry between Social Darwinism; The world as Friedrich Ratzel,
Great Britain, USA, “primordialist” theories of a whole, the Halford Mackinder,
Germany, and other nations and nationalism state André Siegfried
countries; colonialism;
rapid industrialization and
urbanization; the
appearance of mass
socialist parties; the
creation of nation-states
1915–1949 World Wars I and II and The organic theory of state; The world as Halford Mackinder,
the consequent remaking the theory of “natural” – a whole and Isaiah Bowman,
of the world political borders the state; Jacques Ancel, and
map; creation of the both of these others
USSR and the bipolar scales in
geopolitical world order their
integrity
1950-1973 Rapid industrial growth The dominance the of The state; Richard Hartshorn,
/75 and relative social positivism as and diffusion the world as Steven Jones, Jean
stability in most of new quantitative the whole Gottmann, and others
developed countries; methods; the wide
geopolitical rivalry popularity of neo-Marxist
between West and East; theories, as well as of the
decolonization; growing “ecological approach” in
signs of crisis and the electoral studies
appearance of challenges
to U.S. hegemony by the
end of the period
Since Coming of the The theories of All the All the scales John Agnew, Paul
1973/75 postindustrial epoch; scales long waves and their Claval, Kevin Cox,
globalization of the economic and political interrelations David Harvey, Michel
economy and of social development; the Foucher, Ronald
life as a whole; structuralist theory; the Johnston, Yves
disintegration of the concept of postmodernism Lacoste, John
USSR and the socialist O’Loughlin, Peter
system Taylor, and others
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ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:

The physical elements: The human elements: The economic elements:
(Valkenburg, 1963) 1. Population 1. Food resources
1. Location 2. Racial composition 2. Power resources
2. Size 3. Linguistic pattern 3. Minerals and other
3. Shape 4. Religious composition resources
4. Relief 5. National structure 4. Industry
5. Climate 6. Political organization 5. Trade
6. Inland water bodies 6. Transportation
7. Seas and oceans
8. Coasts
9. Island
10. Peninsulas
GEO-STRATEGY
According to Couto (1988), Geostrategy, a subfield of geopolitics, is a type of foreign policy guided principally by
geographical factors as they inform, constrain, or affect political and military planning. As with all strategies,
geostrategy is concerned with matching means to ends in this case, a country's resources (whether they are limited or
extensive) with its geopolitical objectives (which can be local, regional, or global). Strategy is as intertwined with
geography as geography is with nationhood.
MACKINDER’S HEARTLAND THEORY

Mackinder gave this theory in 1904. This theory regards political history as a continuous struggle between land and
sea powers with the ultimate victory going to the continental power.
This assertion was also supported by Kjellen. According to this theory, the continental power was represented by the
world island which consisted of Eurasia and Africa (comprising seven- eighth of total world population and two-third
of the total land area of the world). Mackinder called it the Heartland (total area being 11 million square kilometres).
This Heartland was perceived as the greatest natural fortress on earth surrounded on all sides by geographical barriers.
Postulate:
Mackinder postulated the following, which became known as the Heartland Theory:
 Who rules Eastern Europe commands the Heartland
 Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island
 Who rules the World Island commands the world
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The "heartland" he also referred to as the "pivot area" and as the core of Eurasia, and he considered all of Europe
and Asia as the World Island. The Heartland is inaccessible from sea as all the rivers either drain inland (e.g. Volga,
Oxus, Jaxartes) or into the icy sea (e.g. Obi, Yenisei, Lena which drain into the Arctic Sea).
World landmass and heartland:
With its vast industrial and agricultural resources, the Heartland could conquer Europe, the Middle-East, India and the
Far-East. The other landmasses would follow later. These landmasses included the following:
 Inner or Marginal Crescent: This included the rest of Europe, India, South-East Asia and much of China.
 Outlying Island: These included England and Japan.
 Secondary Heartland: This was represented by Sub-Saharan Africa connected to the main Heartland
through a main bridge (Saudi Arabia).
 Outer or Insular Crescent: This was represented by the Americas and Australia.
Mackinder predicted that whoever got the balance of power in its favor would rule-the World Island. He divided
Europe into east and west by a line joining the Adriatic to the Baltic. This dividing line was also a zone of struggle
between the Teutonic (Germany) and the Slavs (Russia) with no established balance of power.
Example of the theory: The Nazi party was in favor of the concept during World War II. The idea was very popular
with the party, and they sought to achieve it. Also, the theory was accepted by the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
Each nation made great territorial strides toward the heartland, but to no avail.
Critical analysis of the theory:
The Heartland concept inspired Kjellen and Haushofer in their study of geopolitics. This concept is an analysis of the
political pattern of the world and includes predictions based on this analysis. Its simplicity and boldness have been
achieved at the cost of accuracy regarding the historical and the geographical details. One major drawback of this
theory is its inability to make allowances for the technological advances.
The theory was formulated at the end of the railway age. Mackinder saw it as a high point of communication system
capable of uniting the whole Heartland into a cohesive unit. That never actually happened. Although the age of
aeroplanes had begun, the theory failed to take into account its potential. His map (Mercator projection of the world
enclosed within an ellipse) exaggerated the extent of the Arctic Ocean.
Also, China later went on to join the communist sphere, while the Saudi Arabia-Sahara barrier could not prevent the
Cold War from spilling over into Africa. Anyway, the advances in satellite, missile, atomic and space technologies
have overshadowed the strategic importance of geographic factors.
NICOLAS J. SPYKMAN’S RIMLAND THEORY:

In 1942, Nichols Spyman created a theory which countered Mackinder’s Heartland theory. Spyman stated that
Eurasia’s rimland, the coastal areas, is the key to controlling the World Island.
Rimland: Spykman’s emphasizes a rimland which has 3 sections: the European Coastland, Arab-Middle Eastern
Desert land, and the Asiatic Monsoon Land.
Spykman’s premises:
 Who controls the rimland controls Eurasia and he who controls Eurasia controls the world.
 He argued that the power of the heartland could be kept in check by the peripheral rimland.
 By forming alliances along the Rimland the members can contain the heartland.
 Coastal areas or the Rimland has the advantage because of the population, resources and access to sea.
Example of the theory: His theory was influential mainly during the Cold War. The Soviet Union desired to control
the rimland around them. If accomplished, the Soviet Union would control the heartland, rimland, and the World
Island.
Mackinder vs Spykman
 Mackinder asserts that Eastern Europe is destine to gain control of the world due to its control of the heartland.
 Spykman asserts that rimland States like Japan, Great Britain and China would likely become superpowers
because of their greater contact with the outside world.
 Mackinder thought countries like Australia and the Americas were insignificant as they were not a part of
the world island; therefore they were not essential to world dominance.
 Spykman saw the world as consisting of two great landmasses, Eurasia and North America & three islands,
South America, Africa, and Australia. He realized that
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Spykman’s Division of the World

 Spykman divided most states into three types:
a. “landlocked states,”
b. “island states,”
c. “States that have both land and sea frontiers.”
d. Spykman asserted that landlocked states usually faced security problems from their immediate
neighbors.
 Island states normally faced potential pressure from other naval powers, but if they are offshore island states
(Great Britain and Japan) they could also face security problems from nearby coastal powers.
 States with both land and sea frontiers determined their security based on several factors, including the extent
of their sea and land frontiers and the power potential of their immediate or nearby neighbors.
Spykman realized that nations acted based on their geography. Spykman realized that all states have a tendency to
expand. He also realized this was true of both sea powers and land powers, and that shifts in the balance of power
would change the dynamics of geopolitics. Therefore the heartland could not remain a constant seat of power.
Criticism:
 It was a self-fulfilling prophecy.
 In his concept of air power he did not include the use of modern missiles with nuclear war heads.
 The Rimland is not a region but a unit, otherwise the epitome of geographical diversity.
 The Rimland-Theory is biased towards Asian countries.
 The Rimland-Theory does not take into the various conflicts going on between its different countries(India
vs. Pakistan, etc.)
ORGANIC STATE THEORY:

A country, behaves like an organism-to survive, a state requires nourishment, or territory, to gain political power.
The basic idea of the organic theory is to show that the state is, in its nature, like a biological organism or a living
being and that the relation between the state and the individual is the same as between an organism and its cell. The
organismic theory is essentially a biological concept which describes the phenomena of the state in biological terms.
According to this theory, the state is not a mere aggregation of individuals, but an organism having parts and organs
which arc related to one another in the same way as the different organs of an animal or a plant are related to one
another. Ratzel’s Idea was further developed by Kjellen.
State and organism:
1. Both state and an organism show a similar process of growth and evolution from simplicity to complexity. State
in the beginning was just a tribal organization but it has developed from that primitive stage to the modern
complex structure with a multiplicity of functions.
2. Both state and organism have three main systems ; a sustaining system; a distributory system; a regulating system.
Sustaining system of an organism consists of digestive system by which food is digested and life of an organism,
is sustained.
3. As an organism is composed of cells, so the state is composed of individuals. In both cases, the component units
contribute to the life of the whole.
4. An organism is constantly subjected to the process of constant wear and tear. Old and worn out cells die out and
their place is taken by the fresh cells formed by the blood.
5. Health of an organism depends upon the health of the cells organs. In case they get diseased, the whole organism
suffers. In the similar way, health of the state depends upon the moral and physical health of the individuals, and
associations of individuals.
6. Both organism and state exhibit a "similar cycle of birth, growth, decay and death. From these points of agreement,
the conclusion is drawn that state is an organism and there is a lot of identity between the two.
Example: Ratzel's idea was translated into policies, which led to expansionist Nazi Philosophies of the 1930's.
BANGLADESH GEOPOLITICS:
Location: 20°33´ N- 26°34´ N, 88°01´-92°41´ E
Boundary: 5139 km (India: 4144 km, Myanmar: 283 km).
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Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The country's maritime territory
in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area.
Geo political Weakness and its impacts of Foreign policy:

 Landlockness: Truly Bangladesh is clearly locked by India both in land and water except a little border with
Myanmar. Geopolitics may be a disadvantage when a country is landlocked b or shares common border mostly
with one country. While sharing common border if she is in dispute relationship with her neighbor, her foreign
policy will largely conditioned by fear psyche.
 Security: Also the security consideration of a country is greatly dictated by geographical location. Bangladesh’s
nearness of border with India may appear as a weakness in her defense against any future military conflict with
India.
 River flow weakness: Common sharing of Rivers also appears as a weakness for Bangladesh because the flow
of water which depends of the source of the rivers.
 Natural strategic defense: Due to its almost flat topography Bangladesh also doesn’t have the natural strategic
defense that can be a barrier for the external attackers. The flow of 54 common rivers from India into Bangladesh
territory creates yet another weakness to Bangladesh. Construction of Farakka barrage and possibility of
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constructing more other barrages also appeared as a weakness given by the nature to Bangladesh which we are
considering as a geopolitical disadvantage to Bangladesh.
 Shiligori corridor: Shiligori corridor between Bangladesh and both Nepal, Bhutan which also appears as a
weakness to Bangladesh, as it could has brought more advantageous position if it were Bangladesh part. This
small land separate Bangladesh from linking Nepal and Bhutan. If Bangladesh had linkage with Nepal or Bhutan
it could have made easier linkage to china which could have been strengths in bargaing to formulate Bangladesh's
foreign policy. This peculiar location in the region has forced to consider India as the significant factor in the
formulation of countries foreign policy. Though there we have only but small option to go out avoiding India
but the political realities of that country still can't make any positive chance for Ban-gladesh.
 Closeness of nuclear power: Bangladesh's geopolitical location on the very besides of giant nuclear powerful
India and its smallness and not deserving of abandoned natural resources dictates its pol-icy maker not to take
such policy which avoids India. Very practically we see now and then Indian BSF solders kills many
Bangladeshis but we cannot take those killings in consider to talk to them avoiding the geo political reality.
 Policy with India: In our foreign policy with India we see that until the mid-august, 1975 Bangladesh had
cordial relations with India. It seems that the policy makers at that time realized the significance of geopolitical
reality. Geopolitics dictates Bangladeshis closer relation with India It is realized through the signing of the
friendship treaty which demonstrating to integrate Bangladeshis security with India. Bangladesh due to her
political and security dependence on India did not strengthen relations with countries having odds with India.
There is not the same risk of the Chinese cutting off Assam as there was in 1962, since in the course of hostilities,
the northern Bangladesh is likely to be overrun by the Indian forces, and he communica-tion lines with Assam
will be broadened rather that narrowed down or closed"
 Improper Bargaining with Transit: Since independence Bangladesh is being used as transit route by rail and
inland water ways between India's two parts. It gives India benefits in terms of quick movement s of goods and
less freight cost. For what we see India's great interest to take corridor facility-ties through land roads and using
Chittagong port. For the foreign policy decision makers of Bangladesh this transit facilities more correctly
corridor as India proposed has been an important factor to bargain and to mitigate other problems like water
dispute, border dis-pute , sea border dispute with India.
Geo political Strength and its impact upon foreign policy:
 Increasing importance of South Asia in International Politics: Bangladesh being situated in South Asia its
importance because of its geopolitical location is increasing day by day with the increasing importance of South
Asia and broadly Asia in International Politics. 'South Asia comprises of and where it is situated in the world, it
becomes a vital position in the world at the end of the 20th century. The eight countries - Afghanistan, Pakistan,
India, Nepal, Bhutan Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and the Maldives- that constitute South Asia are a zone of fire.
China is situated in the north of this zone, Russia is on the North and West, the Middle East, Balkans and Europe
are on the West, and the Indian Ocean on the South. The Indian Ocean connects the Atlantic and the Pacific
oceans. If the 19th century was the century of the Atlantic and the 20th century of the century of the Pacific,
then, as the calculations of India and some other countries go, the 21 st century will be the century of the Indian
Ocean.
 Asian Highway: For the fulfillment of Asian high way Bangladesh is Significant part it links India with south
eastern countries through easier low cost way. Though Bangladesh yet hasn't linked with the Asian high way
because of disagreement with India one another's proposal still Bangladesh remains as not to be avoided.
 Transit Way: First of all geopolitical location of Bangladesh appeared for itself in some cases has been
disadvantages as so its been very disadvantageous to India also. To communicate with the north western part
India has the only and small corridor which is shill gory between Bangladesh and India. Incase of any dispute
or war with china India's northwestern part becomes very much vulnerable to be separated. What we observed
in Sino-India war of 1962 on border dispute. We understands Bangladesh's geopolitical importance from a re-
nowned Indian Strategic analyst K.SUBRAHMANYAM where he wrote in July ,1971, "there is not the same
risk of the Chinese cutting off Assam as there was iin 1962, since in the course of hostilities, the northern
Bangladesh is likely to be overrun by the Indian forces, and he communication lines with Assam will be
broadened rather that narrowed down or closed" just after the Bangladesh's emergence Subramanian was
confident to say that "This country need no longer to be afraid that incase of military pressure from china. Assam
will be cut off from the rest of the India" Since independence Bangladesh is being used as transit route by rail
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and inland water ways between India's two part. It gives India benefits interms of quick movement s of goods
and less freight cost. For what we see India's great interest to take corridor facilities through land roads and using
Chittagong port. For the foreign policy decision makers of Bangladesh this transit facilities more correctly
corridor as India proposed has been an important factor to bargain and to mitigate other problems like water
dispute, border dispute , sea border dispute with India.
 Geo political importance of Bangladesh for other countries: Not only India has interest over the geopolitical
location of Bangladesh. But also courtiers like Nepal, Bhotan, China, and USA and even courtiers like Japan
and Australia are showing their interest considering the geo political importance of Bangladesh. Nepal and
Bhutan being land locked and not having sea access very much interested to use Bangladeshis sea ports to foster
their trade. As china has competing relationship with India always seeks opportunities to contain India
geostratagically where Bangladesh becomes one of the perfect positions to her intention. Though USA has its
biggest naval base in Andaman Nicober islands it’s intend to use chittagong Sea ports to strengthen its strategic
position in the south Asia considering the importance of the region in World politics. More clearly interms of
any dispute with India and china Chittagong port is the better place to contain two nuclear power and which are
growing as a super power in international system. Japan and Australia also for their national interest maintain
good relations with Bangladesh and where Australia has different project and aid in great deal in Chittagong hill
Tracks. No state regulates its foreign policy without being motivated by its national interest.
FOREIGN POLICY OF BANGLADESH:

Foreign Policy:
 Prince Otto Von Bishmark defined foreign policy as, “the extension of domestic policy.”
 Henry Kissinger gave a simplistic definition: “Foreign policy begins where domestic policy ends.”
 According to Prof. Tailor, “Foreign policy of a sort which will go on so long as are sovereign states”
Objectives of Bangladesh Foreign policy
 Self-Preservation
 Economic Advancement and Integration
 Safeguarding as well as augmenting national power
 Upholding National Ideology
 Upholding National Prestige
 Building national and International cooperation
 Developing political harmonies in the world
 Ensuring global peace in the world
 Maintenance of Territorial Integrity
 Multilateralism
 Combating Terrorism
 Increasing Remittances and Intellectual Investment
 Mobilization International Support for debt reduction
 Market expansion
 Promotion of Trade
Principles of Bangladesh Foreign Policy:
Every state follows some principles upon which the entire foreign policy revolves. As an active member of the United
Nations (UN) and Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Bangladesh follows the principles enshrined in the UN Charter
and the principles of NAM. In fact, Bangladesh’s foreign policy has stemmed out of constitutional declaration.
Article 25 of the Bangladesh Constitution stated:
Bangladesh shall base its international relations on the principles of respect for national sovereignty, and equality,
non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries, peaceful settlement of international disputes and respect
for international law and the principles enunciated in the UN Charter.
The same article also states, “Bangladesh will strive for renunciation of the use of force in international relations
and for general and complete disarmament.” The same article further upholds “the right of every person freely to
determine and build up its own social, economic, and political system by ways and means of its own free choice and
supports the oppressed people’s throughout the world waging a struggle against imperialism, Colonialism, or
racism.“
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Characteristics of Foreign policy of Bangladesh:

 Friendship to All, Malice to None
 Nonintervention in the Internal Matters of Other States
 Equality and Mutual Benefit
 Respect for Sovereignty, Territorial Integrity, and Political Independence of Other States
 To Ensure International Peace and Security
 Peaceful Co-Existence
Determinants of Bangladesh Foreign Policy:
Foreign policy of a country is influenced by several factors; these factors are classified into two broad categories,
internal and external.
Internal Factors:
 Size (the size of state territory as well as its population)
 Geography (includes its fertility, climate, location in relation to other land masses and water ways).
 Culture and history.
 Economic development.
 Social structure (A society which is divided on the basis of wealth religion, regional imbalances etc. cannot
pursue effective foreign policy.)
 Public mood
 Technology
 National capacity (depends on its military power, its technological advancement and economic development.)
 Political organization (quick foreign policy decisions in autocratic system as compared to democratic
systems.
 Political accountability
 Leadership
 Role of Press and Media
External Factors
 Power structure
 International organization
Recent Achievements:
 Maritime boundary dispute between Bangladesh and Myanmar settled on 14 march 2012.
 Delimitation of the maritime boundary between Bangladesh and India in 2014.
 Bangladesh-India Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) passed in Indian parliament and executed.
 Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina received the South-South Award, Champion of the Earth and many
International awards.
 Bangladesh’s active role in international organization.
 Success on Counter terrorism.
 Increase of migration and remittance.
 Economic aid and cooperation from China, Japan, World Bank and India.
Challenges of Bangladesh Foreign Policy:
 Rise in religious intolerance and other form of extremism
 Critical relationships between India-Bangladesh
 Inequitable distribution of resources
 Mistrust and misunderstandings
 One way foreign trade and investment
 Shortage of Foreign diplomatic missions in abroad
 Inexperienced diplomats
MARINE BOUNDARY SOLUTION OF BANGLADESH:

The International Tribunal for the Law of the Seas (ITLOS) in Hamburg, Germany, gave its judgment on the maritime
boundary dispute between Bangladesh & Myanmar (case 16), on 14 March 2012. The judgment was given according
to Article 287 of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea of 1982 (UNCLOS III).
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 Maritime Boundary with Myanmar: Myanmar argued in ITLOS case 16 for an equidistant line following 232
degree azimuth from the Naf River outfall. Bangladesh argued that (para 213), on account of the specific
configuration of its coast in the northern part of the Bay of Bengal, and of the double concavity characterizing it,
the Tribunal should apply angle-bisector method in delimiting the maritime boundary between Bangladesh and
Myanmar. Bangladesh claimed (para 217) its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and the continental shelf (CS) by a
delimitation line through the angle-bisector method, specifically through 215 degree azimuth line from 12 nm
south of the St Martin’s Island. The tribunal limiting to12 nm Territorial Sea around St Martin’s Island (para 337)
shifted the end of Bangladesh baseline at the outfall of Naf River. The tribunal however decided to deflect the
equidistance line (para 340) for delimitation of the continental shelf, in view of the geographic circumstances of
the case (para 329), to 215 degree azimuth to the southwest. The tribunal’s final judgment (paragraphs 500-505)
states that the delimitation line along 215 degree azimuth shall continue until it reaches the area where the rights
of third States may be affected.
 Maritime Boundary with India:

Though the Tribunal in Hamburg
awarded 111,631 sq km area of the
Bay of Bengal to Bangladesh; some
part of it was claimed by India on a
162 degree azimuth line from the
mouth of Hariabhanga estuary. We
argued on natural prolongation
stated as per article 76 of UNCLOS
III on the basis of bathymetric map
of the Bengal depositional system.
On that argument, India has no right
anywhere to the east of Swatch of
No Ground (Line D Figure 1), as
sediment from Indian Territory does
not reach there. The verdict given by
the PCA in The Hague on maritime
disputes between India &
Bangladesh, on 7 July 2014 is
roughly shown by the line F in
Figure 1. This verdict (article 509)
has fixed three delimitation points
from the land boundary terminus: (1)
21°38′40.2″N, 89°09′20.0″E (2)
21°26′43.6″N, 89°10′59.2″E & (3)
21°07′44.8″N, 89°13′56.5″E. From
the third point it will be along a
geodetic line that has an initial azimuth 177°30´00˝ until it meets the Bangladesh Myanmar delimitation line.
According to the verdict, Bangladesh lost 6,135 sq km only, out of India’s claim on 25,602 sq km of area. The
verdict arrived with four votes to one as Dr PS Rao concurring in part and dissenting in part.
 Bangladesh Oil & Gas Blocks: The verdict of ITLOS was not based on Natural Prolongation but on Equidistant
Line from the baseline of Myanmar and Bangladesh. The tribunal decided to accept Angle Bisector Method
argued by Bangladesh, and fixed the equidistant line following 215 degree azimuth beyond 12 nm west of St
Martin’s Island. As a result Bangladesh could retain some oil & gas blocks in its deep sea but lost 200 nm EEZ
beyond 12 nm south west of St Martin’s Island. Bangladesh also lost oil & gas blocks DS-08-18, DS-08-22, DS-
08-23, DS-08-26, DS-08-27, DS-08-28 totally, and DS-08-13, DS-08-17, DS-08-21, DS-08-25 blocks partially.
A part of the shallow sea block 18 was also lost to Myanmar. Bangladesh also lost a large part of the Continental
Shelf beyond 200 nm EEZ. ITLOS in its verdict estimated the Bangladesh relevant sea area to about 111,631 sq
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km. This area at 180 degree azimuth from the Hariabhanga estuary was never claimed by Bangladesh in the past.
This amounted to about 6000 sq km extra areas west of our oil & gas blocks.
UNO (UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATIONS)

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international cooperation and to
create and maintain international order. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was
established on 24 October 1945 after World War II with the aim of preventing another such conflict. At its founding,
the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, and
is subject to extraterritoriality.
UNO includes-
1. The United Nations international children’s fund (UNICEF)
2. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
3. The International Labour Organization (ILO)
4. The World Health Organization (WHO)
5. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
6. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
7. World Bank (WB)
8. International Monetary Fund (IMF)
9. International Atomic Energy Agencies (IAEA)
10. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
11. Universal Postal Union (UPO)
12. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
13. World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
14. International Maritime Organization (IMO)
15. World Intellectual property Organization (WIPO)
Objectives and principals of United Nations:
Objectives: The objectives of the United Nations as set forth in the Charter are…
 To maintain international peace and security based on respect for the principle of equal human rights and self-
determination of peoples.
 To develop friendly relations among nations.
 To cooperate in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character.
 To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in achieving these ends.
 To protect environment & to justify use of natural resource.
Principals: The United Nations act in accordance with the following Principals.
 All member states are sovereign and equal.
 All are pledged to fulfill their obligations under the Charter in good faith.
 All are pledged to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering international
peace, security and justice.
 They are to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against any other state.
 They are to give the UN every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the Charter.
 The United Nations shall not intervene in matters which are essentially domestic ones of any state except when
it is acting to enforce international peace.
UNO is controlled by the great power:
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a
global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft
power influence, which may cause middle or small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions
of their own. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power
capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions.
While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is no definitive list of them. Sometimes the status
of great powers is formally recognized in conferences such as the Congress of Vienna.
Especially the permanent members of UN has that power such as- China, France, Russian Federation, the United
Kingdom, and the United States.
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Peacekeeping function of UN:

The UN has two major functions to perform:
1. To maintain international peace and security by solving disputes between nations and by developing friendly
relations among them;
2. To foster worldwide cooperation and understanding to solve international economic, social, cultural and
humanitarian problems.
Peacekeeping by the United Nations is a role held by the Department of Peacekeeping Operations as "a unique and
dynamic instrument developed by the organization as a way to help countries torn by conflict to create the conditions
for lasting peace." It is distinguished from peace building, peacemaking, and peace enforcement although the United
Nations does acknowledge that all activities are "mutually reinforcing" and that overlap between them is frequent in
practice.
Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing
the peace agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including confidence-building
measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social
development. Accordingly, UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their light
blue berets or helmets) can include soldiers, police officers, and civilian personnel.
There are three principles are inter-related and mutually reinforcing:
1) Consent of the parties
2) Impartiality
3) Non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate
FAILURE AND SUCCESS OF UN PEACE MISSION; ASSESSMENT IN GENERAL:

There are nine factors, the probability that a peacekeeping operation makes a positive contribution to durable peace
increases if (Lijn, 2010):
1) The parties are sincere and willing to cooperate with the implementation of the operation.
2) The operation is able to provide a sufficient sense of security to the parties.
3) The operation has sufficient attention to the causes of the conflict both in depth and in breadth.
4) The operation receives co-operation from important outside actors and parties
5) The operation is deployed timely and at the right time.
6) The operation is implemented by competent personnel under competent leadership, and with clear command
structures.
7) The operation is part of a long term approach.
8) The ‘policy tools’ implemented in the operation are coordinated within the operation, as well as externally.
9) The operation provides ‘ownership’.
Based on the factors, it can be said that the security issues of UN peace mission is not maintained accordingly but still
they are not tend violate the basic principles of peacekeeping missions. It is still friendly but need monitoring and
management.
Successes of UN Peace mission; Particular Assessment:

 Peace: The big one – and the record is not as bad as we sometimes make out. Thanks in part to UN conflict
resolution and peacekeeping initiatives, the number of people dying in conflicts has declined rapidly since
1945 – worldwide, fewer people died in conflict in the first decade of the 21st century than any decade of the
20th.
 Prosecutions of Charles Taylor and Slobodan Milosevic: The Liberian and Serbian leaders were both
prosecuted for war crimes by tribunals set up by the United Nations, with Taylor sentenced to 50 years’
imprisonment. Milosevic died of a heart attack before a verdict was reached, but the precedent that dictators
can face impartial, rather than victors’, justice has been established.
 Ending famine: The world is an unequal place, with large parts beset by poverty and hunger, and thousands
still die of malnourishment every year. But as with war, the numbers have fallen from the 20th century, when
more than 70 million died from famine. Again, intervention by the UN’s World Food Programme, Food and
Agriculture Organisation and UN-sponsored emergency aid management can take some of the credit.
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 South Africa, Kazakhstan, and the other countries who gave up The Bomb: Never before in history have
countries voluntarily decided to give up weapons because they were too efficient. South Africa did this at the
end of apartheid, and Kazakhstan when the Soviet Union fell apart. A number of other countries have
committed to ending nuclear weapon research programmes and submit to inspections by the UN International
Atomic Energy Agency.
 Protecting the Galapagos Islands and 1,000 other World Heritage sites: Since the Islands became one of
12 initial sites named by the UN cultural organisation Unesco in 1978, its listings have become the
international benchmark for protection of the world’s most important natural and historic places. That has
allowed tourism and its economic benefits to develop in step with conservation.
Failures of UN Peace mission; Particular Assessment:

 Rwanda Genocide: The UN had an “Assistance Mission” for Rwanda in 1994, which knew about the
impending genocide, but its peacekeepers failed to stop the majority Hutus going on a murderous rampage
and killing almost a million members of the Tutsi minority. The imprecation “Never Again”, which after the
Holocaust hung over the founding of the UN, was never more studiously ignored.
 Rape and child sex abuse in the Congo: UN peacekeepers were accused of paying women and young girls
they were supposed to be protecting for sex, and sometimes raping them, in the Democratic Republic of
Congo in early 2005. Subsequent reports found there had been similar allegations in countries ranging from
Cambodia to Bosnia to Haiti.
 Spreading cholera in Haiti: Genome testing showed that the most likely source of the world’s worst recent
outbreak of cholera, which swept through Haiti after the 2010 earthquake, was a Nepali peacekeeping force.
Although more 700,000 were infected and 8,000 died, the UN claimed immunity from a subsequent law suit.
 Iraq oil for food programme:This was the programme whereby Iraq could gain relief from international
sanctions by selling oil through the UN, which would supervise the delivery of food and medicine with the
resulting cash. However, large sums of money were channelled into private pockets through the programme
– with some even being used to buy influence at the UN itself. It is regarded as the worst financial scandal in
UN history.
 Srebrenica: The massacre of more than 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men at the hands of Serb forces in Srebrenica
in 1995 was an even more specific failure for the UN than Rwanda - in that the town had been declared a
“safe zone” and given its own Dutch protection force precisely to stop this happening. The sight of the Dutch
commander drinking a toast with General Ratko Mladic, the Serb commander, further damaged the UN’s
reputation.
Bangladesh’s Role in Peace keeping Missions:
 History and present State: The Bangladesh Armed Forces and the Bangladesh Police have been actively
involved in a number of United Nations Peace Support Operations (UNPSO) since 1988. Bangladesh Army
started its journey in the UN peacekeeping mission in 1988 with 15 observers in UNIMOG (Iraq-Iran). Since
then it is maintaining its dominance as a leading troop contributor country in UN peacekeeping.
 Statistics: Bangladesh Armed Forces has so far participated in 54 peacekeeping missions in 40 countries. A
total of 1, 28,545 members from Bangladesh Armed Forces have participated in the noble task of
peacekeeping.
 Countries: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Angola, Burundi, Cambodia, Congo, Croatia/East Slovenia, East Timor,
Ethiopia / Eritrea, Georga, Haiti, Iraq, Iran/Iraq, Iraq, Ivory Coast, Kosovo, Kuwait, Liberia, Liberia,
Macedonia, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, South Sudan, Tajikistan,
Uganda / Rwanda, Western Sahara, Yugoslavia(Former), Sierra Leone, Chad, Darfur, Lebanon etc.
 Force Contribution: Army>Navy>Air Force>police (respectively by contribution).
 Position in world: It is 2nd in the position by providing troops (7053 peacekeepers) to UN. First is Ethiopia
and third is India.
SOME DEFINITIONS ABOUT PEACE

Peace: Peace is the concept of harmony and the absence of hostility. In a behavioral sense, peace is a lack of conflict
and freedom from fear of violence between individuals and heterogeneous social groups.
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Conflict: Conflict refers to some form of friction, or discord arising within a group when the beliefs or actions of one
or more members of the group are either resisted by or unacceptable to one or more members of another group.
Violence: Violence is the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another
person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death,
psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation (WHO).
International Cooperation: According to European Union, International cooperation is a cross-cutting priority of
Horizon 2020 following the EU's strategy for international cooperation in research and innovation. The strategy is
driven by the importance of cooperating internationally to:
 Give Europe access to the best talent, knowledge and resources wherever they are located;
 Tackle global societal challenges in the most effective way in a partnership approach;
 Help establish new opportunities for European high-tech industries through participation in global
value chains and access to new and emerging markets;
 Have a leading voice in global debates and developments.
ROLE OF SAARC IN PEACEKEEPING AND SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH ASIA:

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is the regional intergovernmental organization
and geopolitical union of nations in South Asia. Its member states include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India,
Nepal, the Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC comprises 3% of the world's area, 21% of the world's population
and 3.8% (US$2.9 trillion) of the global economy, as of 2015.
SAARC was founded in Dhaka on 8 December 1985. Its secretariat is based in Kathmandu, Nepal. The organization
promotes development of economic and regional integration. It launched the South Asian Free Trade Area in 2006.
SAARC maintains permanent diplomatic relations at the United Nations as an observer and has developed links with
multilateral entities, including the European Union.
Economic Achievement:
 SAPTA(SAARC preferential trading arrangement)was
 signed on 7 December, 1995
 SAFTA(South Asian Free Trade Area) was signed in
 Islamabad in January 2004
 SAARC chamber of commerce and industry (SCCI)
 SAARC constitutes South Asian Development Fund (SADF)
 Signed an agreement of mutual assistance.
 Avoidance of double taxation were signed.
Integrated Programme of Action:
 Agriculture
 Rural development
 Science and technology
 Health
 Transport
 Sports
 Arts
 Culture and
 Population activities
Literacy and Education:
 Till 2013 going to establish a common university for education in Delhi. Other regional activities are
observed in different countries.
Poverty alleviation:
 Regional food security essence
 Promoted global objective of shelter for all
Peacekeeping Activities:
 Convention on terrorism was signed in November, 1987
 SAARC convention on narcotic drugs signed on November, 1990
 SAARC terrorist offences monitoring desk (STOMD)
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 SAARC drug offences monitoring desk (SDOMD)

The SAARC Anti-Terrorism Mechanism
 3 meeting have been held in Delhi in order to strengthen the peacekeeping strength.
 At 31st session, 37th session and 16th SAARC summit, there have been discussion and decision making
processes undertaken about anti-terrorism and peacekeeping.
 The Member States reaffirmed its commitment to implement the SAARC Regional Convention on
Suppression of Terrorism and its Additional Protocol and SAARC Convention on Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances. The leaders re-emphasized the importance of coordinated and concerted response
to combat terrorism. The Leaders also recognized in this regard the value of the proposed UN Comprehensive
Convention on International Terrorism and noted the progress made during the recent rounds of negotiations
and called for an early conclusion of the Convention.
How Indian-Pakistan relation is a barrier in peacekeeping in South Asia:
 India tried to dominate the SAARC since the beginning.
 The Pakistan-Indian relation and hatred is an obstacle on the way of development in peacekeeping.
 The India-Pakistan land conflicts such as Jammu-Kashmir conflicts are one of the biggest complications in
regional development and peacekeeping.
 Lack of organizational integration between these two countries.
 Lack of agreement and integration of politics between them.
 Trade and commerce barrier and unfriendliness between these two countries.
 Hostile attitude and attitude of not working together.
NATIONALITY, NATIONALISM AND INTERNATIONALISM

Nationality is a legal relationship between an individual person and a state. Nationality affords the state jurisdiction
over the person and affords the person the protection of the state. What these rights and duties are varies from state to
state. Burgess defines a nation as a “population of an ethnic unity inhabiting a territory of a geographical unit.”
Nationalism is a political, social, and economic system characterized by promoting the interests of a particular nation
particularly with the aim of gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, over the group's homeland.
The political ideology therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and
is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism is further oriented towards developing and maintaining a
national identity based on shared characteristics such as culture, language, race, religion, political goals or a belief in
a common ancestry.
Internationalism is a political principle which transcends nationalism and advocates a greater political or economic
cooperation among nations and people. Supporters of this principle are referred to as internationalists, and generally
believe that the people of the world should unite across national, political, cultural, racial, or class boundaries to
advance their common interests, or that the governments of the world should cooperate because their mutual long-
term interests are of greater importance than their short-term disputes.
Difference between Nation and Nationality
As mentioned above, the difference between nation and nationality is vague, but it is essential for students of political
science to know the difference.
1. According to modern ideas, a sovereign political organization is the symbol of a nation, but a nationality does
not have such an organization.
2. A nationality comprises of people bound together by a common religion, race, culture, history and ideology;
it becomes a nation by getting a political organization with the power of self-determination.
In the words of Hayes, “A nationality by acquiring unity and sovereign independence becomes a
nation.” The Jews, for example, formed a nationality, because they belonged to the same stock, they
had a common religion and culture, a common history and a sentimental unity created through
common sufferings and enjoyments. They developed into a nation when they got the right of self-
determination by establishing a state of their own in Palestine.
3. Sometime a nation may combine more nationalities than one.
The Indian Nation, for instance, consists of the Hindu, the Muslim, and Sikh and the Anglo-Indian
nationalities. Here the boundary of nation and nationality is the same because every nationality does
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not desire to form a state of its own and all of them aspire to live under the same political
organization.
4. Nation can also be used as a substitute for “country” or “state” (again, not in the US sense). It is not, however,
as well defined as nationality in the formal sense, in so far as a nation may not necessarily coincide with a
legal sovereign state. Some sovereign states consist almost exclusively of a single ethnic group (often called
“nation-states”); examples include Japan and Hungary.
5. Many states now and in the past explicitly encompass multiple “nations”, such as the Austro-Hungarian
Empire. Others are in reality multi-ethnic, but are presented as a unified nation by some dominant or majority
community. Modern examples of this situation abound, but are politically very contentious so I will refrain
from listing them.
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION:
Population distribution is the pattern of people and their demographics. It is encompassed with population density and
distribution. Population distribution is the spread of people across the world, i.e. where do people live. Population
density is the number of people living in a particular area – usually 1 square mile or 1 square kilometer – and can be
written as total population/land area.
Population distribution and densities of the world:

Source: CIA World Factbook-2013. Total Population: 7.023 Billion.
Continent Population Distribution Population Density (people/km2)

Asia 4.1 Billion 86
Africa 0.99 Billion 32
Europe 0.75 Billion 70
North America 0.52 Billion 23
South America 0.39 Billion 21
Oceania 36.1 Million 4
Antarctica 4.5 Thousand (Impermanent) 0.03
Most populous Country: (Crore, 1 Crore=10 Million) Most Dense Country: (people/km2)
1. China: 135 1. Singapore: 7301
2. India: 120 2. Bahrain: 1646
3. USA: 32 3. Bangladesh: 964
4. Indonesia: 23 4. Mauritius: 631
5. Brazil: 19 5. Taiwan: 634
6. Pakistan: 18 6. South Korea: 487
7. Nigeria: 17 7. Rwanda: 407
8. Bangladesh: 16 8. Lebanon: 404
9. Russia: 14 9. Netherland: 404
10. Japan: 12 10. Israel: 371
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Population Growth Trend:

Population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population. Global human population growth
amounts to around 83 million annually, or 1.1% per year.
Years passed Year Billion
– 1800 1
127 1927 2
33 1960 3
14 1974 4
13 1987 5
12 1999 6
12 2011 7
12 2023* 8
14 2037* 9
18 2055* 10
33 2088* 11
Source: United Nations Population Division
Population and Politics:
 Population distribution is required for resource distribution and planning.
 For policy making.
 Population is one of the prime elements of a government system.
 Population density knowledge is necessary for avoiding regional inequality.
 Increasing population may affect the government system by crossing its capability.
 Food security, healthy environment, health safety and other sustainable phenomena will affect the validity of
current government policy and vision.
 The government policies need to be updated and upgraded frequently with the dynamical change of
population.
 The largeness of population can be used as a powerful resource for a nation.
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 The largeness of population can be a malediction if not managed properly.

 Change in distribution and density of a particular language, religion, political view, ideology carrying
population will slowly but firmly affect the state of the country.
 Politics and population demographics are reliant on each other in many dimensions.
 Human resource development and the development of human index will felicitated the political state of a
country.
 Maternal mortality rate, birth rate, death rate, infant mortality rate etc. demographics should be taken into
consideration in any sustainable political movement.
MAJOR GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD:

1. Africa: Africa contains countries such as Libya, Niger and Zimbabwe. The weather across most of Africa
tends to be hot and dry with little rainfall. Some of the world's most famous wildlife including lions and
elephants inhabit this zone. These animals have perfectly adapted to handle Africa's range of biomes. Biomes
are environments classified by weather and the adaptations of the living things that inhabit them. There are
five biomes: aquatic, desert, tundra, forest and grasslands. Africa contains three of these: deserts, grasslands
and forests. As a result, Africa has a diverse array of plants, animals and weather. Africa is also
geographically diverse. The tallest peak is Mount Kilimanjaro with a summit of 19,340 feet, while the
famously flat Serengeti Plains stretch on for 12,000 square miles.
2. Asia: Asia contains countries such as Iraq, India, Japan and China. Asia is stunningly diverse, containing all
five of Earth's biomes. The Caspian Sea, the world's largest inland lake, is bordered by several countries in
this region, including Kazakhstan and Iran. The Gobi Desert, the largest desert in Asia, covers more than
500,000 square miles, while Asia's largest grassland, the Central Anatolian steppe in Turkey, stretches on for
nearly 10,000 square miles. Asia is home to the world's largest forest, the Taiga, as well as several alpine
tundras, such as the one that tops the Himalayan mountain range in Tibet. Familiar Asian animals include
tigers, pandas and snow leopards.
3. Caribbean: The Caribbean region consists of islands and coasts in or around the Caribbean Sea. It contains
countries such as Aruba, the Bahamas and Saint Lucia. The majority of the Caribbean boasts a warm, tropical
climate, with many of its islands being popular vacation destinations. However, this region can be prone to
tropical storms and hurricanes. The Caribbean contains just two of Earth's biomes: the aquatic and forest
biomes. The rainforests found in some parts of the Caribbean, such as the Guajataca rainforest in Puerto Rico,
are rich in wildlife. Animals such as macaws and poison arrow frogs thrive there. Ocean wildlife in the
Caribbean includes sea turtles and dolphins.
4. Central America: Central America contains the smallest number of countries in any of the eight geographic
regions. These countries are Belize, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.
Central America's climate is mostly warm, with temperate to tropical climates. Like the Caribbean, it contains
only the forest and aquatic biomes, but it is rich in wildlife. Animals such as ocelots, capuchin monkeys and
crocodiles call this region home. Central America contains some of the most active volcanoes on Earth,
including the Santa Maria volcano in Guatemala, which has been active for more than 100 years.
5. Europe: Europe contains countries such as England and Ireland, as well as the world's largest country:
Russia. Europe is home to all of Earth's biomes except for the desert biome. From the famous Lake Loch
Ness in Ireland to the Siberian Tundra in Russia, Europe is geographically diverse. Southern Europe is
mountainous, with the highest mountain peak being Mont Blanc in the Alps at a height of 15,778 feet. Flat,
grassy plains are common throughout Eastern Europe. Europe contains 24 large lakes, the largest of which
is Lake Vänern in Sweden. Some of Europe's most famous wildlife includes hares, lynxes and hedgehogs.
6. North America: North America contains countries such as the United States, Canada and Mexico as well as
some countries within the ranges of the Caribbean and Central America. North America is one of the most
biologically and geographically diverse regions, containing all five of Earth's biomes. Interesting geological
formations in this zone include the Rocky Mountains, the Kalaallit Nunaat tundra in Greenland and the
Everglades swamp lands in the southern U.S. Weather varies greatly throughout the North American region.
Temperatures on the tundra can average minus 30 degrees Fahrenheit, while in the U.S., the Mojave Desert
reaches temperatures of over 130 degrees. Because of these varied environments, North America contains a
diverse array of life from alligators to polar bears.
21
7. Oceania: Oceania contains countries such as Australia and New Zealand along with many small islands,
such as Christmas Island. Four of Earth's five biomes can be found in this region, with the exception being
tundra. The Australian Outback is one of the most famous desert regions in the world with summer
temperatures averaging over 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Meanwhile, some island nations in the Oceania region,
such as Papua New Guinea, boast tropical rainforests. Some of the well-known animals in this region include
kangaroos, Christmas Island red crabs and kiwis.
8. South America: South America includes countries such as Chile, Peru and Argentina. This region contains
only the desert and forest biomes, but more plant and animals species can be found in South America than in
any other region. This is because of the Amazon Rainforest, which stretches through most of Brazil. The
Amazon is the largest tropical rainforest on Earth, boasting more than 10 million plant and animal species
and producing about 20 percent of Earth's oxygen. South America also contains the world's longest
continuous mountain range – the Andes Mountains – which stretch along the western edge of South America.
Well-known South American animals include jaguars, sloths and capybaras.
Geopolitical importance of south Asia:

 Consist large landmass.
 Consist large populations.
 International trade and commerce (Large export and imports, specially jute and rice).
 Maritime trade and commerce (Suez Canal).
 Inland trade commerce (Asian Highway)
 Nuclear holding countries like Pakistan, India.
 Powerful military forces like Indian Army.
 Huge natural resources.
 Most fertile land.
 Regional disputes also affect the international politics (e.g. India-Pakistan conflicts).
 Support of external powerful entities like China, Japan.
 Important for maritime trade entities like India and Bangladesh.
GEO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CHITTAGONG PORT:

The vast economic potential of Chittagong and Chittagong port. More than 85% of total foreign trade of the country
take place in Chittagong port. Chittagong is a city with unique advantages of ports, roads and railways, largely remains
untapped 44 years on, since our independence. The port city can well drive the economy to achieve the coveted middle
income status and reach the target of USD 50 billion garment export, according to a leading economist.
Hosting about 40 percent of the country's heavy industries and the second RMG heartland, the commercial city has
the potential to cement the nation's status, and one could argue, its future, with traditional and emerging sectors like
tourism, shipbuilding and steel.
This extraordinary growth, however, has mostly been driven by individual entrepreneurs overcoming unplanned and
inadequate infrastructure, energy shortage and most strikingly, the lackluster performance of its port.
There is room for improvement in the ways the Chittagong Port—which can become a bridge between ASEAN and
SAARC—operates. Loading and unloading of cargo, reportedly, take a painstakingly long time with various 'hidden
costs' adding to the woes of exporters. Business leaders are demanding a deep-sea port in Sonadia, off the coast of
Cox's Bazaar.
POWER AND STATE POWER

Power is the ability to influence or outright control the behaviour of people. The term "authority" is often used for
power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is
accepted as endemic to humans as social beings. In business, power is often expressed as being "upward" or
"downward". With downward power, a company's superior influences subordinates. When a company exerts upward
power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader or leaders (Virgina, 1988).
State power is the capacity of the states to regulate behavior and enforce order within their territory for the betterment
of the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of their inhabitants (Encyclopedia Britannica).
22
Elements and pre-condition of power:

There are two type of elements of power.
1. The national core
a. Geography (physiography, relief, location)
b. People (population, age distribution, education, health and morale)
c. Government
2. The national structure
a. Technology
b. Transport system
c. Information and communication system
Pre-conditions are:
1. Constitution
2. Justice system
3. Law enforcement availability
4. Public deliberation
5. Public participation
6. Collective decisions
7. Social network
8. Universalism
9. Particularism
10. Market system
11. Public right
12. Constitutional right for all
FRONTIER AND BOUNDARY

Frontier:
In the past, during the political evolutions of a state, states were separated by areas, not lines. The function of the
intervening area was to prevent direct contact between the neighbouring states and it was referred to as a frontier.
A frontier, can, thus, be defined as a politico-geographical area, lying beyond defined borders of a political unit into
which expansion could take place (for instance, European penetration into the Zulu-Natal area and, in modern times,
Antarctica). It is a physical and moral concept which implied looking outwards and moving outwards. It is not an
abstract concept but a ‘fact of life’—a manifestation of the tendency for spontaneous growth of ecumene.
According to Lapradelle, there are three stages in the evolution of a frontier, viz., (i) designated zone of influence of
different physical phenomena; (ii) anthropological-geographical concept; (iii) political frontier.
Boundary:
It implies the physical limit of sovereignty and jurisdiction of a state; it is a manifestation of integration and is oriented
inwards.
Its characteristics are as follows:
 It is still possible to recognise frontier characteristics in boundaries, especially in sparsely populated regions,
such as deserts. This leads to minimum friction. An example is the boundary between Spain and Portugal.
 It is an appropriate concept for the modern state where all that is within the boundary is bound together by
common law, economy, physical features, idea or creed with a government or central authority in effective
control of the territory and activities within the boundaries.
 It may be reached by expanding into frontiers when the natural limits are reached. For instance, the westward
expansions of the USA into desert frontiers till the coastlines were reached.
 It is an outer line of effective control of the central government keeping the enemy out and the resources in.
 It is a legal-political phenomenon which is not created but fixed by the political decision makers.
 It signifies differences in goals, ideology, structure, interests etc. from those of the neighbouring states.
Boundary and Frontier—A Comparison:
1. A boundary is oriented inwards. It is a manifestation of integration, and is a centripetal force; a frontier is oriented
outwards and is a manifestation of the spontaneous tendency to grow, of ecumene, and is a centrifugal force.
23
2. A boundary is created and maintained by the will of the government. It has no life of its own, not even a material
existence; a frontier is a ‘fact of life’ and exists physically on ground as a dynamic entity.
3. A boundary is well-defined and regulated by law. It possesses uniform characteristics. A frontier is a
phenomenon of history and, like history, it is unique.
4. A boundary is a separating factor whereas a frontier provides scope for mutual interaction and exchange.
INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY IN BRIEF

International boundary is the line that both countries and the rest of the world have agreed upon. Borders are
geographic boundaries of political entities or legal jurisdictions, such as governments, sovereign states, federated
states, and other subnational entities. Borders are established through agreements between political or social entities
that control those areas; the creation of these agreements is called boundary delimitation.
Types of Boundary: It has 4 types-
1. Physical/morphological boundary (Boundary with physical obstacles, e.g. Spain-France, 1.1)
1.1: Mountain Barrier
1.2: Water barrier (sea or river)
2. Cultural boundary (Boundary that is created from cultural perspective or the cultural division of people and
that relies on people’s culture ,e.g._India-paksitan)
3. Geometric boundary (Boundary that has no impact of morphological or cultural influence, which is purely a
product of geometrical calculations)
4. Complex boundary (Boundary where needs more than one method mentioned the above, e.g.-Spain-France
is separated by mountain barriers but the people on the both side have same cultural practices, so there needs
more than morphological boundary)
Boundary demarcation method: There are 3 methods.
1. Territorial allocation (distribution of land/ acquisition of boundary
1.1: Purchase (powerful country buys land from less powerful country)
1.2: Arbitral Award (division of boundary by International organizations)
1.3: Referendum (people’s vote on the boundary of the state they want to live)
2. Delimitation (defining boundary by agreement or treaty)
3. Demarcation (marking/drawing the boundary with high technology like GIS)
Functions of boundary:
1. Defense
2. Smooth movement of people and goods at the border
3. Resource acquisition and development at the border
4. Ensuring international exchange
Problems of boundary: Buffer zone, cultural assimilation, crime and terrorism at border, international conflicts with
border line and resource possessing, trade and commerce conflicts etc.
Solution: International jurisdictional system, mutual agreement, natural landform change etc.
GOVERNMENT AND ITS TYPES

Government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, often a state. In the case of its
broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a
means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. Each government
has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy. Typically the philosophy chosen is
some balance between the principle of individual freedom and the idea of absolute state authority (tyranny).
Types of government:
Democracy: A system of government in which political authority is held by the people. Democracies typically feature
constitutional governments with majority rules, a belief in individual worth and in equal rights for all people, freedom
of expression, political freedom, and freedom of choice.
Direct Democracy: A system of government in which are made directly by the people. Thus, all the people
of the community must vote on every decision. Since this is very difficult to do outside of small communities,
most Democracies are Representational.
24
Representational Democracy: A system of government in which the people choose political leaders to voice
their ideas and beliefs, as well as make policy decisions on their behalf. It is this system that is currently used
in the United States.
Dictatorship: A system of government in which the leader(s) take control through force and often times fear. The
people have little, if any, control. In some cases, government officials are not elected by the people. In others, elections
are unfair or manipulated by those in control. Dictatorships' authority may rest on a combination of their leaders'
political power, military power, wealth, and/or social position. Dictators achieve and maintain power through force.
Autocracy: If the power in a dictatorship is concentrated in the hands of a single person it is an autocracy. Autocratic
rulers can be brutally harsh at times, while others can be extremely benevolent to the people in their country.
Oligarchy: If a small group of people hold the power it is called and oligarchy.
Monarchy: Monarchies are one of the longest lasting governments in the world. A monarchy is typically characterized
as having royalty of some kind that gets their power and authority through inheritance.
Federal system: Powers are divided up among national, state and local governments. In this system, some powers
belong only to the national government, others only to state and/or local governments, and still others are shared by
all three. The United States, Germany, India and Malaysia are all examples of federal systems.
Unitary system: All legal power is held by the national, or central government. Local governments, such as those for
provinces and cities, have no independent powers and are simply local representatives of the national government.
Their job is to carry out decisions made by the national government. The United Kingdom, Israel, and Japan are
examples of unitary systems.
Confederate System: This is where independent states join together to accomplish common goals. There may a small
central government, or one may not even exist. However, the power and authority rests firmly in the hands of local
government. The United States was a confederation from 1781-1789. The Articles of Confederation were replaced
with the U.S. Constitution and a federal system of government. Today, Canada, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates
are examples of confederations. The European Union is a confederation of nations made up of 15 established countries
(expanding to 23) that joined together to promote economic and political cooperation.
Parliamentary system: The executive, often called the prime minister or premier, is chosen by the parliament, or
legislature. The prime minister and other officials appointed from the parliament make up the executive. If the
executive loses the parliament's support, a new prime minister, cabinet member and other formerly agreed upon leaders
must be chosen, and/or a new legislative election is held.
Constitutional: Real power rests in the hands of the people of the country, who are allowed to elect leaders on their
behalf to run the country. (Much like a representational democracy). However, the royal family can still carry some
power and acts as the symbol of their country. There are many examples in Europe of Constitutional Monarchies.
Theocracy: In these countries religion is the mandate of the law. Usually the religious leader is also the countries
leader. It is not important how the person got to their position of power. What is important is that all decisions are
based on that person's interpretation of the religious text(s) used by that country. Theocratic tendencies can exist
alongside other government systems. For instance, a country could be a theocratic monarchy. Iran could be considered
a theocratic oligarchy.
Other: Communist, socialist, capitalism.
NON-ALIGN MOVEMENT:
The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is a group of states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power
bloc. As of 2012, the movement has 120 members.
It was established in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. An initiative of Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito led to the first
Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries. The term non-aligned movement appears
first in the fifth conference in 1976, where participating countries are denoted as members of the movement.
The purpose of the organization has been enumerated as to ensure "the national independence, sovereignty, territorial
integrity and security of non-aligned countries" in their "struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism,
racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony as well as against great
power and bloc politics," by Fidel Castro in the Havana Declaration of 1979. The countries of the Non-Aligned
Movement represent nearly two-thirds of the United Nations' members and contain 55% of the world population.
Membership is particularly concentrated in countries considered to be developing or part of the Third World, though
the Non-Aligned Movement also has a number of developed nations.
25
Although many of the Non-Aligned Movement's members were actually quite closely aligned with one or another of
the superpowers, the movement still maintained cohesion throughout the Cold War, even despite several conflicts
between members which also threatened the movement. In the years since the Cold War's end, it has focused on
developing multilateral ties and connections as well as unity among the developing nations of the world, especially
those within the Global South.
COLONIALISM AND NEO COLONIALISM:

The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning farmer. This root reminds us that the practice of
colonialism usually involved the transfer of population to a new territory, where the arrivals lived as permanent settlers
while maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin.
Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another. One of the
difficulties in defining colonialism is that it is not easy to distinguish it from neocolonialism. Frequently the two
concepts are treated as synonyms. Like colonialism, neocolonialism also involves political and economic control over
a dependent territory. The etymology of the two terms, however, provides some clues about how they differ.
According to Longman Contemporary English Dictionary 'colonialism' is when a powerful country rules a weaker one
and establishes its own trade and society there.
Origin of colonialism: Before the abolition of the slave trade by Denmark in 1802 and Britain in 1807. The entire
West African Coast witnessed trade in slaves which were need for the plantations of the then Industrialized new world.
The nations involved were France, Britain, Denmark, Portugal and Germany.
About forty years later the trade changed to that of colonialism - conquest and occupation by Europeans. The Berlin
West African Conference of 1884 - 1885 gave international recognition to a situation that was already in existence.
1945 - 1960 witnessed a reversal of the process of colonization - decolonization while 1960 till date is witnessing a
reincarnation and a resurrection of colonialism - neocolonialism.
Below shows a chronology of dates and the sequence of events from colonialism to neocolonialism and the present
day ongoing process of neocolonialism.
Meaning of Neocolonialism: The term "neocolonialism" was first coined by Kwame Nkrumah, the first post-
independence president of Ghana, and has been discussed by a number of twentieth century scholars and philosophers,
including Jean-Paul Sartre and Noam Chomsky
Neocolonialism is the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and cultural forces to control a country (usually
former European colonies in Africa or Asia) in lieu of direct military or political control. Such control can be
economic, cultural, or linguistic, by promoting one's own culture, language or media in the colony, corporations
embedded in that culture can then make greater headway in opening the markets in those countries. Thus,
neocolonialism would be the result of business interests leading to deleterious cultural effects.
Neocolonialism as defined by Longman's contemporary English Dictionary is "when a powerful country uses its
economic and political influence to control another country".
Deference between colonialism and neocolonialism
 In colonialism, the principal actor is the coloniser, all major officials are from the colonizing country, they though
outnumbered rule with the cooperation of locals who are given advantages over their countrymen. It is old theory
and no longer used.
 Neo-colonialism is when due to circumstances forcing the coloniser to leave they upgrade their local
collaborators to positions of power. In this scenario the local governments work not for the betterment of the
people, but to continue the colonial system of transferring wealth to the colonising country.
WORLD BANK:
The World Bank (French: Banque mondiale) is an international financial institution that provides loans to countries
of the world for capital projects. It comprises two institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD), and the International Development Association (IDA). The World Bank is a component of the
World Bank Group.
The World Bank's stated goal is the reduction of poverty which its Articles of Agreement define as commitments to
the promotion of foreign investment and international trade and to the facilitation of capital investment.
26
The World Bank was created at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference along with the International Monetary Fund
(IMF). The president of the World Bank is, traditionally, an American. The World Bank and the IMF are both based
in Washington, D.C., and work closely with each other.
Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom
were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations. The intention behind the founding of the World
Bank was to provide temporary loans to low-income countries which were unable to obtain loans commercially. The
Bank may also make loans and demand policy reforms from recipients.
NATO:
NATO is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries based on the
North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its
independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO
Headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near
Mons, Belgium.
NATO was little more than a political association until the Korean War galvanized the organization's member states,
and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two US Supreme Commanders. The course of
the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact that formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the
relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the
credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the
independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966 for 30
years. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization became involved in the breakup of
Yugoslavia, and conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999.
Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the
alliance in 1999 and 2004.
ASEAN:
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations is a regional intergovernmental organization comprising ten Southeast
Asian countries which promotes Pan-Asianism and intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political,
security, military, educational and socio-cultural integration amongst its members and other Asian countries, and
globally. Since its formation on 8 August 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand, the
organisation's membership has expanded to include Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. Its principal
aims include accelerating economic growth, social progress, and sociocultural evolution among its members,
alongside the protection of regional stability and the provision of a mechanism for member countries to resolve
differences peacefully. ASEAN is an official United Nations observer, as well as an active global partner. It also
maintains a global network of alliances, and is involved in numerous international affairs. Communication by member
states takes place in English.
ASEAN covers a land area of 4.4 million square kilometres, 3% of the total land area of Earth. ASEAN territorial
waters cover an area about three times larger than its land counterpart, making it particularly important in terms of sea
lanes and fisheries. Member countries have a combined population of approximately 640 million people, 8.8% of the
world's population, more than EU28, though in terms of land, a bit smaller. In 2015, the organisation's combined
nominal GDP had grown to more than USD $2.8 trillion. If ASEAN were a single entity, it would rank as the sixth
largest economy in the world, behind the United States, China, Japan, France and Germany. ASEAN shares land
borders with India, China, Bangladesh, East Timor and Papua New Guinea, and maritime borders with India, China,
Palau and Australia. Both East Timor and Papua New Guinea are backed by certain ASEAN members for their
membership in the organisation.
ADB:
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank established on 19 December 1966, which is
headquartered in the Ortigas Center located in the city of Mandaluyong, Metro Manila, Philippines. The company also
maintains 31 field offices around the world to promote social and economic development in Asia. The bank admits
the members of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly
the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East or ECAFE) and non-regional developed countries. From 31
27
members at its establishment, ADB now has 67 members, of which 48 are from within Asia and the Pacific and 19
outside. The ADB was modeled closely on the World Bank, and has a similar weighted voting system where votes are
distributed in proportion with members' capital subscriptions. ADB releases an annual report that summarizes its
operations, budget and other materials for review by the public. The ADB-Japan Scholarship Program (ADB-JSP)
enrolls about 150 students annually in academic institutions located in 10 countries within the Region. Upon
completion of their study programs, scholars are expected to contribute to the economic and social development of
their home countries. ADB is an official United Nations Observer.
WTO:
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. The
WTO officially commenced on 1 January 1995 under the Marrakesh Agreement, signed by 124 nations on 15 April
1994, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. It is the largest
international economic organization in the world. The WTO deals with regulation of trade in goods, services and
intellectual property between participating countries by providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and
a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements, which are signed by
representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments. Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on
derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1993).
The WTO's current Director-General is Roberto Azevêdo, who leads a staff of over 600 people in Geneva,
Switzerland. A trade facilitation agreement, part of the Bali Package of decisions, was agreed by all members on 7
December 2013, the first comprehensive agreement in the organization's history. On 23 January 2017, the amendment
to the WTO Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement marks the first time since the
organization opened in 1995 that WTO accords have been amended, and this change should secure for developing
countries a legal pathway to access affordable remedies under WTO rules.
IMF:
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization headquartered in Washington, D.C.,
consisting of "189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate
international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the
world." Formed in 1945 at the Bretton Woods Conference primarily by the ideas of Harry Dexter White and John
Maynard Keynes, it came into formal existence in 1945 with 29 member countries and the goal of reconstructing the
international payment system. It now plays a central role in the management of balance of payments difficulties and
international financial crises. Countries contribute funds to a pool through a quota system from which countries
experiencing balance of payments problems can borrow money. As of 2016, the fund had SDR477 billion (about $666
billion).
Through the fund, and other activities such as the gathering of statistics and analysis, surveillance of its members'
economies and the demand for particular policies, the IMF works to improve the economies of its member countries.
The organisation's objectives stated in the Articles of Agreement are: to promote international monetary co-operation,
international trade, high employment, exchange-rate stability, sustainable economic growth, and making resources
available to member countries in financial difficulty.
STATE:
State is a politically organized territory with a permanent population, a defined territory and a government; to be a
state a state an entity must be recognized as such by other states.
The state is a geographic feature which we visualize on the political map (Harstshorne).
The state is one part humanity and one part land (Ratzel).
Elements of state:
1. Population
2. Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty
5. International recognition
28
Function of state:
1. To provide services to citizen
2. To introduce law
3. To gain taxes
4. To introduce defense service
5. National attitude or emotional attachment
Organization framework:
Legislative body and Judiciary body, these two control executive bodies.
Executive body (ministries) includes- Administration and Finance, Energy and Environmental Affairs, Education,
health and human service, Housing and Economic Development, Labour and Workforce Development, Transportation
and Public Works, Public Safety and Security, Environment and Hazards etc.
Government Structure is as- national government, provincial government and local government.
Historical development:
Theories of state formation have two distinct focuses, depending largely on the field of study:
1. The early transition in human society from tribal communities into larger political organizations. Studies of this topic, often
in anthropology, explore the initial development of basic administrative structures in areas where states developed from
stateless societies. Although state formation was an active research agenda in anthropology and archaeology until the 1980s,
some of the effort has changed to focus not on why these states formed but on how they operated.
2. In contrast, studies in political science and in sociology have focused significantly on the formation of the modern state
Early State Formation: States are minimally defined by anthropologist David S. Sandeford as socially stratified and
bureaucratically governed societies with at least four levels of settlement hierarchy (e.g., a large capitol, cities, villages, and
hamlets). Primary states are those state societies that developed in regions where no states existed before. These states developed
by strictly internal processes and interaction with other non-states societies. There are currently ten archaeologically known cases
of primary state formation in Eurasia, the Americas, and the Pacific.
Studies on the formation of early states tend to focus on processes that create and institutionalize a state in a situation where a
state did not exist before. Examples of early states which developed in interaction with other states include the Aegean Bronze Age
Greek civilizations and the Malagasy civilization in Madagascar. Unlike primary state formation, early state formation does not
require the creation of the first state in that cultural context or development autonomously, independently from state development
nearby. Early state formation causation can thus include borrowing, imposition, and other forms of interaction with already
existing states.
Modern State Formation: Theories on the formation of modern states focus on the processes that support the development of
modern states, particularly those that formed in late-medieval Europe and then spread around the world with colonialism. Starting
in the 1940s and 1950s, with decolonization processes underway, attention began to focus on the formation and construction of
modern states with significant bureaucracies, ability to tax, and territorial sovereignty around the world. However, some scholars
hold that the modern state model formed in other parts of the world prior to colonialism, but that colonial structures replaced it.
LOCATION, SIZE, SHAPE OF STATE:
Location: Absolute, relative and physical (continental (Chad), Littoral (Spain, Norway), Isthmian (Panama, Costa Rica), Insular
(Maldives, Greece), Peninsular (India, Italy).
Size: Large/great, medium and small.
Shape: Compact (Uruguyay), Fragmented (Indonesia), Elongated (Chile), Prorupted (Thailand), Perforated (Switzerland,
Vatican City), Complex (Italy).
SCHOOLS OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:
1. Political landscape school (The area, terminal elements, internal pattern, external pattern)
2. Political ecological school (The human group, economy, adjustment in area controlling, boundary delimitation, external
arrangements)
3. Organismic school (physical properties of the area, the anatomy of political area, the people, the integrated population
area organism)
APPROACHES IN POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY: According to Hartshorne-
1. Power analysis approach
Physical power, Economic power, Demographic power, Organizational power, Military power and External relationship
power.
2. Historical approach
3. Morphological approach
4. Functional approach

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Folder: Bappy’s 4th year note: 406

NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:

Basic Concepts/ Natures in Political Geography and Geopolitics:

(i) The Temporal Aspect/Scope

(ii) The Spatial Aspect/Scope

(iii) The Political Activities Scope

(iv) The Other Aspects/Scope

4. The Subjective/Artistic, Objective/Scientific

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

ELEMENTS OF POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY:

MACKINDER’S HEARTLAND THEORY

NICOLAS J. SPYKMAN’S RIMLAND THEORY:

Spykman’s Division of the World

ORGANIC STATE THEORY:

Geo political Weakness and its impacts of Foreign policy:

FOREIGN POLICY OF BANGLADESH:

Characteristics of Foreign policy of Bangladesh:

MARINE BOUNDARY SOLUTION OF BANGLADESH:

 Maritime Boundary with India:

UNO (UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATIONS)

Peacekeeping function of UN:

FAILURE AND SUCCESS OF UN PEACE MISSION; ASSESSMENT IN GENERAL:

Successes of UN Peace mission; Particular Assessment:

Failures of UN Peace mission; Particular Assessment:

SOME DEFINITIONS ABOUT PEACE

ROLE OF SAARC IN PEACEKEEPING AND SOCIO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH ASIA:

 SAARC drug offences monitoring desk (SDOMD)

NATIONALITY, NATIONALISM AND INTERNATIONALISM

Population distribution and densities of the world:

Continent Population Distribution Population Density (people/km2)

Population Growth Trend:

 The largeness of population can be a malediction if not managed properly.

MAJOR GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD:

Geopolitical importance of south Asia:

GEO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CHITTAGONG PORT:

POWER AND STATE POWER

Elements and pre-condition of power:

FRONTIER AND BOUNDARY

INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARY IN BRIEF

GOVERNMENT AND ITS TYPES

COLONIALISM AND NEO COLONIALISM:

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