Section 8.

2 Multiplication, Division, and Order 357

23. If a is an element of {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2} and b is an 26. A squared square is a square whose interior can be
element of {5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1}, find the smallest subdivided into two or more squares. One example of a
and largest values for the following expressions. squared square follows. The number written inside a square
a. a b b. b a c. a b gives the length of a side of that square. Determine the
dimensions of the unlabeled squares.
24. Fill in each empty square so that a number in a
square will be the sum of the pair of numbers beneath
the square. 27
35

10 _1 29 25

42
33
_8 _7

25. a.Demonstrate a 1-1 correspondence between the sets
given.
i. Positive integers and negative integers
ii. Positive integers and whole numbers
iii. Whole numbers and integers
b. What does part (iii) tell you about the number of whole
numbers compared to the number of integers?
27. Some people learn this rule for adding two numbers whose
signs are different: “Subtract the numbers and take the sign
of the larger.” Explain why this rule might lead to some
confusion for students when doing the problem “4 (6).”
28. In the additive inverse property there is the phrase “there is
a unique integer.” How would you explain the meaning of
that phrase to students?

Problems Relating to the NCTM Standards and Curriculum Focal Points

1. The Focal Points for Grade 5 state “Students should
explore contexts that they can describe with negative
numbers (e.g., situations of owing money or measuring
elevations above and below sea level).” Write two
problems about integers that involve some real-world
context.
2. The Focal Points for Grade 7 state “By applying properties of
arithmetic and considering negative numbers in everyday
contexts, students explain why the rules of adding, subtracting,
multiplying, and dividing with negative numbers make sense.”
Explain one rule of adding or subtracting integers by using
everyday contexts of negative numbers.

8.2 MULTIPLICATION, DIVISION, AND ORDER

Recall that for positive exponents, the following properties hold:

STARTING POINT
74 = 7 # 7 # 7 # 7 70 = 1 75 , 73 = 75-3 = 72 75 # 73 = 75+3 = 78
It is important that the properties of negative exponents are consistent with the
properties of exponents above. If the properties were consistent, what would
72 be equal to? Justify your conclusion. (Hint: Consider 73 75 or 72 72 .)

Reflection from Research Multiplication and Its Properties

If students understand
multiplication as repeated Integer multiplication can be viewed as extending whole-number multiplication.
addition, then a positive times a
Recall that the first model for whole-number multiplication was repeated addition, as
negative, such as 7 6, can be
taught as “seven negative 6s” illustrated here:
(Bley & Thornton, 1989).
3 * 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.
358 Chapter 8 Integers

Now suppose that you were selling tickets and you accepted three bad checks worth $4
each. A natural way to think of your situation would be 3 ( 4) ( 4) ( 4)
(4) 12 (Figure 8.13).

_4 _4 _4

121110987654321 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 8.13

Rules for integer multiplication can be motivated using the following pattern.

THE FIRST COLUMN REMAINS 3 4 12

3 LESS
3 THROUGHOUT. 3 3 9
3 LESS
THE SECOND COLUMN IS 3 2 6
3 LESS
DECREASING BY 1 EACH 3 1 3
ETC.
TIME. 3 0 0
3 (1) ?
3 (2) ?
3 (3) ?
3 (4) ?

This pattern extended suggests that 3 (1) 3, 3 (2) 6, 3 (3)

9, and so on. A similar pattern can be used to suggest what the product of two nega-
tive integers should be, as follows.

THE FIRST COLUMN (3) 3 9

REMAINS (3). (3) 2 6 3 MORE
(3) 1 3 3 MORE
(3) 0 0 3 MORE
Problem-Solving Strategy THE SECOND COLUMN (3) (1) ? ETC.
Look for a Pattern.
DECREASES BY 1 EACH
TIME. (3) (3) ?

This pattern suggests that (3)(1) 3, (3)(2) 6, (3)(3) 9, and so on.

Integer multiplication can also be modeled using black and red chips. Since 4 3
can be thought of as “combine 4 groups of 3 black chips,” the operation 4 3 can
be thought of as “combine 4 groups of 3 red chips” (see Figure 8.14).
Notice that the sign on the second number in the operation determines the color of
chips being used. Since the first number in 4 3 is positive, we combined 4 groups
of 3. How would the situation of 4 3 be handled? In this case the first number
4 –3 = –12
(4) is negative, which indicates that we should “ take away 4 groups of 3 black chips”
Figure 8.14
rather than combine. When the first number is positive, the groups are combined into
a new set that has a value of 0. When the first number is negative, the groups are
taken away from a set that has a value of 0. In order to take something away from a
set with a value of 0, we must add some chips with a value of 0 to the set. This is done
by adding an equal number of red and black chips to the set. After taking away 4
 Section 8.2 Multiplication, Division, and Order 359

groups of 3 black chips, the resulting set has 12 red chips or a value of 12
(Figure 8.15).

0 0 –12

12 blacks and Take away 4

12 reds are groups of 3
inserted blacks

12 reds
remain

Figure 8.15

The number-line model, the patterns, and the black and red chips model all lead to the
following definition.

DEFINITION
Multiplication of Integers
Let a and b be any integers.

1. Multiplying by 0: a 0 0 0 a.
2. Multiplying two positives: If a and b are positive, they are multiplied as whole
numbers.
3. Multiplying a positive and a negative: If a is positive and b is positive (thus b
is negative), then

a(-b) = -(ab),
where ab is the whole-number product of a and b. That is, the product of a posi-
tive and a negative is negative.
4. Multiplying two negatives: If a and b are positive, then

(-a)(- b) = ab,
where ab is the whole-number product of a and b. That is, the product of two
negatives is positive.

Calculate the following using the definition of integer

Example 8.6
multiplication.
a. 5 0
b. 5 8
c. 5(8)
d. 5)(8)
SOLUTION
a. Multiplying by zero: 5 0 0
b. Multiplying two positives: 5 8 40
c. Multiplying a positive and a negative: 5(8) (5 8) 40
d. Multiplying two negatives: (5)(8) 58 40 ■
360 Chapter 8 Integers

The definition of multiplication of integers can be used to justify the following

properties.

PROPERTIES
Properties of Integer Multiplication
Let a, b, and c be any integers.
Closure Property for Integer Multiplication
ab is an integer.
Commutative Property for Integer Multiplication
ab = ba
Associative Property for Integer Multiplication
(ab)c = a(bc)
Identity Property for Integer Multiplication
1 is the unique integer such that a 1 a 1 a for all a.

As in the system of whole numbers, our final property, the distributive property,
connects addition and multiplication.

PROPERTY
Distributivity of Multiplication over Addition of Integers
Let a, b, and c be any integers. Then

a(b + c) = ab + ac.

Using the preceding properties of addition and multiplication of integers, some

important results that are useful in computations can be justified.

THEOREM
Let a be any integer. Then

a(-1) = -a.

PROOF First, a 0 0 by definition.

But a #0 = a 1 + ( - 1) 4Additive inverse
= a(1) + a( - 1) Distributivity
= a + a( - 1). Multiplicative identity
Therefore, a + a( - 1) = 0
Then Additive inverse
Finally a( - 1) = - a Additive cancellation ■

Stating the preceding result in words, we have “the product of negative one and
any integer is the opposite (or additive inverse) of that integer.” Notice that, on the
 Section 8.2 Multiplication, Division, and Order 361

integer number line, multiplication by 1 is equivalent geometrically to reflecting an

integer about the origin (Figure 8.16).

b _a = (_1)a 0 a _b = (_1)b
Figure 8.16

THEOREM
Let a and b be any integers. Then

( -a)b = -(ab).

PROOF

(1)a a
-a)b = 3(-1)a4b
= (-1)(ab) Associativity for multiplication
= - (ab) (1)a a

Using commutativity with this result gives a(b) (ab). ■

THEOREM
Let a and b be any integers. Then

(-a)(- b) = ab for all integers a, b.

PROOF
(-1)a43( - 1)b4 (1)a
-a)(- b) = 3
a
= (-1)( -1) (ab) Associativity and commutativity
= 1ab
3 4 Definition of integer multiplication
= ab Multiplicative identity ■

NOTE: The three preceding results encompass more than just statements about multi-
plying by negative numbers. For example, (a)(b) ab is read “the opposite of a
times the opposite of b is ab.” The numbers a and b may be positive, negative, or
zero; hence (a) and (b) also may be negative, positive, or zero. Thus there is a
subtle but important difference between these results and parts 3 and 4 of the defini-
tion of multiplication of integers.

Example 8.7 Calculate the following products.

a. 3(1) b. (3)5 c. (3)(4) d. (1)(7) e. (x)(y)(z)

SOLUTION
a. 3(1) 3, since a (1) a.
b. (3)5 (3 5) 15, since (a)b (ab).
c. (3)(4) (3 4) 12, since (a)(b) ab.
d. (1)(7) can be found in two ways: ( 1)(7) (7) 7, since (1)a a,
and (1)(7) 1 7 7, since (a)(b) ab.
e. (x)(y )(z) xy(z), since (a)(b) ab; and xy(z) (xyz), since
a(b) (ab). ■
362 Chapter 8 Integers

Finally, the next property will be useful in integer division.

PROPERTY
Multiplicative Cancellation Property
Let a, b, c be any integers with c 0. If ac bc, then a b.

Notice that the condition c 0 is necessary, since 3 0 2 0, but 3 2.

The multiplicative cancellation property is truly a property of the integers (and
whole numbers and counting numbers) because it cannot be proven from any of our
previous properties. However, in a system where nonzero numbers have multiplica-
tive inverses (such as the fractions), it is a theorem. The following property is equiva-
lent to the multiplicative cancellation property.

Connection to Algebra
This property makes it possible
PROPERTY
to solve equations such as Zero Divisors Property
( x 2)( x 3) 0. Because
of this property, it is known that Let a and b be integers. Then ab 0 if and only if a 0 or b 0 or a and b both
either x 2 0 or x 3 0. equal zero.

Division
Recall that to find 6 3 in the whole numbers, we sought the whole number c, where
6 3 c. Division of integers can be viewed as an extension of whole-number divi-
sion using the missing-factor approach.

DEFINITION
Division of Integers
Let a and b be any integers, where b 0. Then a b c if and only if a b c
for a unique integer c.

Example 8.8 Find the following quotients (if possible).

a. 12 (3) b. (15) (5) c. (8) 2 d. 7 (2)

SOLUTION

a. 12 (3) c if and only if 12 (3) c. From multiplication, 12 (3)(4).

Since (3) c (3)(4), by multiplicative cancellation, c 4.
b. (15) (5) c if and only if 15 (5) c. From multiplication, 15
(5) 3. Since (5) c (5) 3, by multiplicative cancellation, c 3.
c. (8) 2 c if and only if (8) 2 c. Thus c 4, since 2(4) 8.
d. 7 (2) c if and only if 7 (2) c. There is no such integer c. Therefore,
7 (2) is undefined in the integers. ■

Considering the results of this example, the following generalizations can be made
about the division of integers: Assume that b divides a; that is, that b is a factor of a.
 Section 8.2 Multiplication, Division, and Order 363

1. Dividing by 1: a 1 a.
2. Dividing two positives (negatives): If a and b are both positive (or both negative),
then a b is positive.
3. Dividing a positive and a negative: If one of a or b is positive and the other is neg-
ative, then a b is negative.
4. Dividing zero by a nonzero integer: 0 b 0, where b 0, since 0 b 0. As
with whole numbers, division by zero is undefined for integers.

Example 8.9 Calculate.

a. 0 5 b. 40 5 c. 40 (5) d. (40) (5)

SOLUTION
a. Dividing into zero: 0 5 0
b. Dividing two positives: 40 5 8
c. Dividing a positive and negative: 40 (5) 8 and (40) 5 8
d. Dividing two negatives: (40) (5) 8 ■

The negative-sign key can be used to find 306 (76) 12 as follows:

(-) 306 : (-) 76 , 12 = 1938
However, this calculation can be performed without the negative-sign key by observ-
ing that there are an even number (two) of negative integers multiplied together. Thus
the product is positive. In the case of an odd number of negative factors, the product
is negative.

Negative Exponents and Scientific Notation

When studying whole numbers, exponents were introduced as a shortcut for multi-
plication. As the following pattern suggests, there is a way to extend our current
definition of exponents to include integer exponents.

a3 a a a
a
a2 a a
a
a1 a
a
a0 1
a
1
Problem-Solving Strategy a1
Look for a Pattern.
a
a
1
a2
a2
a
1
a3
a3

etc.
This pattern leads to the next definition.
364 Chapter 8 Integers

DEFINITION
Negative Integer Exponent
Let a be any nonzero number and n be a positive integer. Then
1
a-n = .
an

1 5 1 -10
1 1 1
For example, 7-3 = ,- 2 = ,3 = , and so on. Also, = = 43 .
73 25 310 4-3 1/43
1
The last sentence indicates how the definition leads to the statement a-n = for
an
all integers n.

It can be shown that the theorems on whole-number exponents given in Section

NCTM Standard
All students should develop an
understanding of large numbers
and recognize and appropriately
use exponential, scientific, and
calculator notations.
3.3 can be extended to integer exponents. That is, for any nonzero numbers a and b,
and integers m and n, we have
am #an = am+n
am #bm = (ab)m
am)n = anm
am
= a m-n .
an
In Section 7.2, scientific notation was introduced in terms of very large numbers
and positive exponents. With the introduction of negative exponents, we can now use
scientific notation to represent very small numbers. The following table provides
some examples of small numbers written in scientific notation.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION STANDARD NOTATION

Mass of a human egg 1.5 109 kilograms 0.0000000015 kilograms
Diameter of a proton 1 1011 meters 0.00000000001 meters
Diameter of human hair 7.9 104 centimeters 0.00079 centimeters

Example 8.10 Convert as indicated.

a. 7.2 1014 to standard notation b. 0.0000961 to scientific notation

SOLUTION

a. 7.2 1014 0.000000000000072 b. 0.0000961 9.61 105 ■

Conversions from standard notation to scientific notation can be performed on most

scientific calculators. For example, the following keystrokes convert 38,500,000 to
scientific notation.
38500000 2nd Sci 3.8507
The raised “07” represents 107. Since the number of digits displayed by calculators
differs, one needs to keep these limitations in mind when converting between scien-
tific and standard notations.

NCTM Standard
All students should develop
meaning for integers and
represent and compare
quantities with them.
Section 8.2 Multiplication, Division, and Order 365
Scientific notation is used to solve problems involving very large and very small
numbers, especially in science and engineering.
The diameter of Jupiter is about 1.438 108 meters, and
Example 8.11
the diameter of Earth is about 1.27 107 meters. What is
the ratio of the diameter of Jupiter to the diameter of Earth?
SOLUTION
8 8
1.438 * 10 1.438 10
= * 7L
1.13 * 10 = 11.3
1.27 * 107 1.27 10 ■
When performing calculations involving numbers written in scientific notation, it
is customary to express the answer in scientific notation. For example, the product
(5.4 107)(3.5 106) is written as follows:
5.4 * 107)(3.5 * 106) = 18.9 * 1013
= 1.89 * 1014.
Ordering Integers
The concepts of less than and greater than in the integers are defined to be extensions
of ordering in the whole numbers. In the following, ordering is viewed in two
equivalent ways, the number-line approach and the addition approach. Let a and b be
any integers.
Number-Line Approach The integer a is less than the integer b, written
a b, if a is to the left of b on the integer number line. Thus, by viewing the number
line, one can see that 3 2 (Figure 8.17). Also, 4 1, 2 3, and so on.
_3 < 2
_6 _5 _4 _3 _2 _1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 8.17
Addition Approach The integer a is less than the integer b, written a b, if
and only if there is a positive integer p such that a p b. Thus 5 3, since 5
2 3, and 7 2, since 7 9 2. Equivalently, a b if and only if b a
is positive (since b a p). For example, 27 13, since 13 (27) 14,
which is positive.
The integer a is greater than the integer b, written a b, if and only if b a.
Thus, the discussion of greater than is analogous to that of less than. Similar defini-
tions can be made for and .
366 Chapter 8 Integers

Order the following integers from the smallest to largest

Example 8.12
using the number-line approach.
2, 11, 7, 0, 5, 8, 13.
SOLUTION See Figure 8.18. ■

_13 _11 _9 _7 _5 _3 _1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13

_13 < _8 < _7 < 0 < 2 < 5 < 11

Figure 8.18

Determine the smallest integer in the set {3, 0, 5, 9, 8}

Example 8.13
using the addition approach.
SOLUTION 8 5, since (8) 3 5. Also, since any negative integer is
less than 0 or any positive integer, 8 must be the smallest. ■

The following results involving ordering, addition, and multiplication extend simi-
lar ones for whole numbers.

PROPERTY
Properties of Ordering Integers
Let a, b, and c be any integers, p a positive integer, and n a negative integer.
Transitive Property for Less Than
If a 6 b and b 6 c, then a 6 c.
Property of Less Than and Addition
If a 6 b, then a + c 6 b + c.
Property of Less Than and Multiplication by a Positive
If a 6 b, then ap 6 bp.
Property of Less Than and Multiplication by a Negative
If a 6 b, then an 7 bn.

The first three properties for ordering integers are extensions of similar statements
in the whole numbers. However, the fourth property deserves special attention be-
cause it involves multiplying both sides of an inequality by a negative integer. For ex-
ample, 2 5 but 2(3) 5(3). [Note that 2 is less than 5 but that 2(3) is greater
than 5(3).] Similar properties hold where is replaced by , , and . The last
two properties, which involve multiplication and ordering, are illustrated in Example
8.14 using the number-line approach.
 Section 8.2 Multiplication, Division, and Order 367

Example 8.14
a. 2 3 and 4 0; thus (2) 4 3 4 by the property of less than and multipli-
cation by a positive (Figure 8.19).

(_2)4 3•4

_8 _2 0 3 12
Figure 8.19

b. 2 3 and 4 0; thus (2)(4) 3(4) by the property of less than and

multiplication by a negative (Figure 8.20).

3(_4) (_2)(_4)

_12 _2 0 3 8

Figure 8.20

Notice how 2 was to the left of 3, but (2)(4) is to the right of (3)(4). ■

To see why the property of less than and multiplication by a negative is true, recall
that multiplying an integer a by 1 is geometrically the same as reflecting a across
the origin on the integer number line. Using this idea in all cases leads to the follow-
ing general result.
If a b, then (1)a (1)b (Figure 8.21).

a<b

(–1)b a 0 (–1)a b

(–1)a > (–1)b

Figure 8.21

To justify the statement “if a b and n 0, then an bn,” suppose that a b

and n 0. Since n is negative, we can express n as (1) p, where p is positive. Then
ap bp by the property of less than and multiplication by a positive. But if ap bp,
then (1)ap (1)bp, or a [(1)p] b [(1)p], which, in turn, yields an bn. In-
formally, this result says that “multiplying an inequality by a negative number ‘re-
verses’the inequality.”