The New Public Service: Serving Rather Than Steering

Author(s): Robert B. Denhardt and Janet Vinzant Denhardt

Source: Public Administration Review, Vol. 60, No. 6 (Nov. - Dec., 2000), pp. 549-559
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Society for Public Administration
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RobertB. Denhardt
JanetVinzantDenhardt
ArizonaStateUniversity

The New Public Service:

Serving Rather than Steering

TheNewPublicManagement haschampioned a visionof publicmanagers

as theentrepre-
neursof a new,leaner,andincreasingly privatized government,emulating
notonlytheprac-
ticesbutalsothevaluesof business.Proponents of theNewPublicManagement havedevel-
opedtheirarguments largelythrough contrastswiththeoldpublicadministration.
Inthiscom-
parison,theNew PublicManagement will,of course,alwayswin.Weargueherethatthe
bettercontrastis withwhatwe callthe --NewPublicService,'a movement builton workin
democratic citizenship,
community andcivilsociety,andorganizational humanism anddis-
coursetheory.Wesuggestsevenprinciples of theNewPublicService,mostnotablythatthe
primary roleof thepublicservantis to helpcitizensarticulate
andmeettheirsharedinterests
ratherthantoattempt tocontrolorsteersociety.

Public managementhas undergonea revolution.Rather
than focusing on controllingbureaucraciesand delivering
services, public administratorsare respondingto admon-
ishmentsto "steerratherthanrow,"andto be the entrepre-
neursof a new, leaner,and increasinglyprivatizedgovern-
ment.As a result,a numberof highlypositive changeshave
beenimplementedin thepublicsector(OsborneandGaebler
1992; Osborne and Plastrik 1997; Kettl 1993; Kettl and
Dilulio 1995; KettlandMilward1996;Lynn 1996). But as
thefield of publicadministration hasincreasinglyabandoned
the idea of rowingandhas acceptedresponsibilityfor steer-
ing, has it simply tradedone "adminicentric" view for an-
other?OsborneandGaeblerwrite,"thosewho steertheboat
have far more power over its destinationthan those who
row it" (1992, 32). If thatis the case, the shift fromrowing
to steeringnot only may have left administrators in charge
of the boat-choosing its goals anddirectionsandcharting
a pathto achievethem-it mayhavegiventhemmorepower
to do so.
In our rush to steer, are we forgetting who owns the
boat?In theirrecentbook, GovernmentIs Us (1998), King
and Stiversremindus of the obvious answer:The govern-
ment belongs to its citizens (see also Box 1998; Cooper
1991; King, Feltey, and O'Neill 1998; Stivers 1994a,b;
Thomas 1995). Accordingly,public administratorsshould
focus on their responsibilityto serve and empower citi-
zens as they managepublic organizationsand implement
publicpolicy. In otherwords,with citizens at the forefront,
the emphasis should not be placed on either steering or
rowing the governmentalboat,butratheron buildingpub-
lic institutionsmarkedby integrityand responsiveness.
RobertB. Denhardtis a professorin theSchoolof PublicAffairsat Arizona
State Universityand a visitingscholarat the Universityof Delaware.Dr.
Denhardtis a pastpresidentof theAmericanSocietyforPublicAdministra-
tion,and thefounderand firstchairof ASPA'sNationalCampaignforPublic
Service,an effortto assertthedignityand worthof publicserviceacrossthe
nation.He is also a memberof theNationalAcademyof PublicAdministra-
tionand a fellowof theCanadianCentreforManagementDevelopment. Dr.
Denhardthas published14 books,includingTheoriesof PublicOrganiza-
tion,PublicAdministration: An ActionOrientation,Inthe Shadowof Orga-
nization,ThePursuit of Significance,ExecutiveLeadership in the PublicSer-
vice, andTheRevitalization of the PublicService.He holdsa doctoratefrom
the Universityof Kentucky.Email:rbd@asu.edu
JanetVinzantDenhardtis a professorin theSchoolof PublicAffairsat Ari-
zona StateUniversity. Herteachingand researchinterestslie primarilyin or-
ganizationtheoryandorganizationalbehavior. Herbook(with LaneCrothers),
Street-Level
Leadership: Discretion
and Legitimacy in Front-Line
PublicService,
was recentlypublishedby the GeorgetownUniversity Press.Inaddition,Dr.
Denhardthas publishednumerousarticlesin journalssuchas Administration
and Society,AmericanReviewof PublicAdministration, PublicProductivity
andManagement Review,andPublicAdministration Theoryand Praxis.Prior
to joininghe facultyat ArizonaState,Dr.Denhardttaughtat EasternWash-
ingtonUniversity and servedin a varietyof administrative
and consulting po-
sitions.Sheholdsa doctoratefromtheUniversity of SouthernCalifornia.
Email:
jdenhardt@asu.edu

TheNew PublicService:ServingRatherthanSteering 549

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Background
As it is used here, the "New Public Management"re-
fers to a clusterof ideas and practices(includingreinven-
tion and neomanagerialism)that seek, at theircore, to use
private-sectorand business approachesin the public sec-
tor.While there have long been calls to "rungovernment
like a business,"the contemporaryversion of this debate
in this country was sparked in the 1990s by President
Clinton's and Vice President Gore's initiative to "make
governmentworkbetterandcost less." Modeledaftercon-
cepts and ideas promotedin Osborneand Gaebler's 1992
book ReinventingGovernment(as well as managerialist
effortsin a varietyof othercountries,especiallyGreatBrit-
ain and New Zealand),the Clinton administrationcham-
pioned a varietyof reformsand projectsunderthe mantle
of the NationalPerformanceReview. In part,whathas dis-
tinguished these reforms and similar efforts at the state
andlocal level, fromolderversionsof the run-government-
like-a-businessmovement is that they involve more than
just using the techniquesof business.Rather,the New Pub-
lic Managementhas become a normativemodel, one sig-
naling a profoundshift in how we think aboutthe role of
publicadministrators, the natureof the profession,andhow
and why we do what we do.
Yet many scholarsand practitionershave continuedto
express concerns aboutthe New Public Managementand
the role for public managersthis model suggests. For ex-
ample, in a recent Public AdministrationReview sympo-
sium on leadership,democracy,and public management,
a numberof authorsthoughtfullyconsideredthe opportu-
nities and challenges presentedby the New Public Man-
agement.Those challengingthe New Public Management
in the symposium and elsewhere ask questions about the
inherentcontradictionsin the movement (Fox 1996), the
values promoted by it (deLeon and Denhardt 2000;
Frederickson1996; Schachter1997);the tensionsbetween
the emphasis on decentralizationpromotedin the market
model and the need for coordinationin the public sector
(Peters and Savoie 1996); the implied roles and relation-
ships of the executive andlegislativebranches(Carrolland
Lynn 1996);andthe implicationsof the privatizationmove-
mentfor democraticvaluesandthe publicinterest(McCabe
and Vinzant 1999). Othershave suggestedthat public en-
trepreneurshipand what Terry (1993, 1998) has called
"neomanagerialism" threatento underminedemocraticand
constitutionalvalues such as fairness,justice, representa-
tion, and participation.
We would like to suggest that, beyond these separate
critiques,what is missing is a set of organizingprinciples
for an alternativeto the New Public Management.We re-
ject the notion that the reinvented,market-orientedNew
Public Managementshould only be comparedto the old
Administration
550 Public 2000,Vol.60, No.6
Review* November/December
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public administration,which, despite its many important
contributions,has come to be seen as synonymous with
bureaucracy,hierarchy,andcontrol.If thatis the compari-
son, the New Public Managementwill always win. We
would like to suggest instead that the New Public Man-
agementshouldbe contrastedwith whatwe termthe "New
Public Service,"a set of ideas aboutthe role of public ad-
ministrationin the governancesystem thatplaces citizens
at the center.
While there have been many challenges to the New
Public Managementand many alternativeideas promi-
nently advancedby scholarsand practitioners,therehave
been no attemptsto organizethese efforts and underscore
their common themes. This article is an effort to do so.
First,it briefly summarizesthe foundationsand majorar-
gumentsof the new publicmanagementas it contrastswith
the old public administration.It then describesan alterna-
tive normativemodel we call the "New Public Service."
This new model furtherclarifies the debateby suggesting
new ways of thinkingaboutthe strengthsand weaknesses
of all three approaches.We conclude by consideringthe
implicationsof placing citizens, citizenship,and the pub-
lic interestat the forefrontof a New Public Service.
TheNew PublicManagementand the
Old PublicAdministration
Over the past decade and a half, the New Public Man-
agement(again, includingthe reinventionmovementand
the new managerialism)has literallyswept the nationand
the world. The common theme in the myriadapplications
of these ideas has been the use of marketmechanismsand
terminology,in whichtherelationshipbetweenpublicagen-
cies and their customers is understoodas based on self-
interest,involving transactionssimilarto those occurring
in the marketplace.Public managersare urged to "steer,
not row" their organizations,and they are challenged to
find new andinnovativeways to achieveresultsor to priva-
tize functionspreviouslyprovidedby government.
In the past two decades, many publicjurisdictions and
agencies have initiated efforts to increase productivity
andto find alternativeservice-deliverymechanismsbased
on public-choice assumptions and perspectives. Public
managershave concentratedon accountabilityand high
performanceand have sought to restructurebureaucratic
agencies, redefine organizational missions, streamline
agency processes, and decentralize decision making. In
many cases, governmentsand governmentagencies have
succeeded in privatizing previously public functions,
holdingtop executives accountablefor performancegoals,
establishing new processes for measuring productivity
and effectiveness, and reengineering departmentalsys-
tems to reflect a strengthenedcommitment to account-
 ability (Aristigueta 1999; Barzelay 1992; Boston et al. The New Public Managementis notjust the implemen-
1996; Kearns 1996). The effectiveness of this reform tation of new techniques, it carries with it a new set of
agenda in the United States, as well as in a number of values, specifically a set of values largely drawnfrom the
other countries, has put governments aroundthe world private sector.As we have alreadynoted, there is a long-
on notice that new standardsare being sought and new standingtraditionin public administrationsupportingthe
roles established. idea that "governmentshouldbe runlike a business."For
These ideas were crystallized and popularized by the most part, this recommendationhas meant that gov-
Osborne and Gaebler's book, Reinventing Government ernment agencies should adopt practices, ranging from
(1992; see also Osborneand Plastrik1997). Osborneand "scientific management"to "totalquality management,"
Gaebler provided a number of now-familiar principles thathave been founduseful in the privatesector.The New
throughwhich "publicentrepreneurs"might bring about Public Managementtakes this idea one step further,argu-
massive governmentalreform-ideas that remain at the ing that governmentshouldnot only adoptthe techniques
core of the New PublicManagement.OsborneandGaebler of business administration,but should adoptcertainbusi-
intendedthese principlesto serve as a new conceptualor ness values as well. The New Public Managementthus
normativeframeworkfor public administration,an ana- becomes a normativemodel for public administrationand
lytical checklist to transformthe actions of government: public management.
"Whatwe are describingis nothingless than a shift in the In making their case, proponentsof New Public Man-
basic model of governanceused in America.This shift is agementhave often used the old public administrationas
underway all aroundus, but because we are not looking a foil, against which the principles of entrepreneurship
for it, because we assume thatall governmentshave to be can be seen as clearly superior.For example, Osborne
big, centralized,and bureaucratic,we seldom see it. We and Gaebler contrasttheir principles with an alternative
are blind to the new realities, because they do not fit our of formal bureaucraciesplagued with excessive rules,
preconceptions"(1992, 321). boundby rigid budgetingandpersonnelsystems, andpre-
Otherintellectualjustificationsfor the New PublicMan- occupiedwith control.These traditionalbureaucraciesare
agement evolved as well. These justifications, as Lynn described as ignoring citizens, shunninginnovation, and
(1996) notes,largelycamefromthe "publicpolicy"schools serving their own needs. According to Osborne and
that developed in the 1970s and from the "managerialist" Gaebler, "The kind of governments that developed dur-
movementaroundthe world(Pollitt1990). Kabooliannotes ing the industrialera, with their sluggish, centralizedbu-
that the New Public Managementrelies on "market-like reaucracies, their preoccupation with rules and regula-
arrangementssuch as competitionwithin units of govern- tions, andtheirhierarchicalchainsof command,no longer
ment and across governmentboundariesto the non-profit work very well" (1992, 11-12). In fact, while they served
andfor-profitsectors,performancebonuses, andpenalties their earlier purposes, "bureaucratic institutions ... in-
(to) loosen the inefficient monopoly franchise of public creasingly fail us" (15).
agencies and public employees" (1998, 190). Elaborating What are the tenets of this bureaucraticold public ad-
this point, Hood writes that the New Public Management ministration,and is it reasonableto characterizeany con-
moves away from traditionalmodes of legitimizing the temporarythinkingwhich falls outside New Public Man-
public bureaucracy,such as proceduralsafeguardson ad- agement as evidence of the old public administration?
ministrativediscretion,in favor of "trustin the marketand Certainlythereis not a single set of ideas agreedto by all
private business methods ... ideas ... couched in the lan- those who contributedover the decades to the old public
guage of economic rationalism"(1995, 94). administration(justas thereis not a single set of ideas that
As such, the New Public Managementis clearly linked all associated with the New Public Managementwould
to the public choice perspectivein public administration. agree to). But there are elements of public administration
In its simplest form, public choice views the government theoryandpracticethatseem to constitutea guiding set of
from the standpoint of markets and customers. Public ideas or a normativemodel thatwe now generallyassoci-
choice not only affordsan elegant and, to some, compel- ate with the old public administration.We suggest this
ling model of government,it also serves as a kind of intel- model includes the following tenets:
lectual road map for practical efforts to reduce govern- * Public administrationis politically neutral,valuing the
ment and make it less costly. And it does so unabashedly. idea of neutralcompetence.
John Kamensky,one of the architectsof the NationalPer- * The focus of governmentis the direct delivery of ser-
formance Review, comments that the New Public Man- vices. The best organizationalstructureis a centralized
agementis clearly relatedto the public choice movement, bureaucracy.
the centraltenet of which is that "all human behavior is * Programsare implemented throughtop-down control
dominatedby self-interest"(1996, 251). mechanisms,limiting discretionas much as possible.

TheNew PublicService:ServingRatherthanSteering 551

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* Bureaucraciesseek to be closed systems to the extent
possible, thus limiting citizen involvement.
* Efficiency andrationalityarethe most importantvalues
in public organizations.
* Public administratorsdo not play a centralrole in policy
making and governance;rather,they are charged with
the efficient implementationof public objectives.
* Thejob of publicadministrators is describedby Gulick's
POSDCORB(1937, 13).
If we compare the principles of New Public Manage-
ment with these principles,the New Public Management
clearly looks like a preferredalternative.But even a cur-
sory examinationof the literatureof public administration
demonstratesthat these traditionalideas do not fully em-
brace contemporarygovernmenttheory or practice (Box
1998; Bryson and Crosby 1992; Carnavale 1995; Cook
1996;Cooper 1991;deLeon 1997;Denhardt1993;Farmer
1995; Fox andMiller 1995; Frederickson1997; Gawthrop
1998; Goodsell 1994; Harmon 1995; Hummel 1994;
Ingrahamet al. 1994; Light 1997; Luke 1998; McSwite
1997; Miller and Fox 1997; Perry 1996; Rabin,Hildreth,
and Miller 1998; Rohr 1998; Stivers 1993; Terry 1995,
1998;Thomas 1995;VinzantandCrothers1998;Wamsley
et al. 1990; Wamsleyand Wolf 1996). The field of public
administration,of course, has not been stuck in progres-
sive reformrhetoricfor the last 100 years. Instead,there
has been a rich and vibrantevolution in thoughtand prac-
tice, with importantandsubstantialdevelopmentsthatcan-
not be subsumedunderthe title "theNew Public Manage-
ment."So there are more than two choices. We will now
explore a thirdalternativebased on recentintellectualand
practicaldevelopmentsin public administration,one that
we call the New Public Service.
Rootsof the New PublicService
Like the New Public Managementand the old public
administration,the New Public Service consists of many
diverse elements, and many differentscholarsand practi-
tioners have contributed,often in disagreementwith one
another.Yetcertaingeneralideas seem to characterizethis
approachas a normativemodel and to distinguishit from
others.While the New Public Service has emergedboth in
theory and in the innovative and advanced practices of
many exemplary public managers (Denhardt 1993;
Denhardtand Denhardt1999), in this section we will ex-
amine the conceptualfoundationsof the New Public Ser-
vice. Certainlythe New Public Service can lay claim to an
impressive intellectual heritage, including, in public ad-
ministration,the work of Dwight Waldo (1948), and in
political theory,the work of SheldonWolin (1960). How-
ever, here we will focus on morecontemporaryprecursors
of the New Public Service, including(1) theoriesof demo-
Administration
552 Public 2000,Vol.60, No.6
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cratic citizenship;(2) models of communityand civil so-
ciety; and (3) organizational humanism and discourse
theory.We will then outline what we see as the main te-
nets of the New Public Service.
Theories of Democratic Citizenship
Concernsaboutcitizenshipand democracyareparticu-
larly importantand visible in recent political and social
theory, both of which call for a reinvigoratedand more
active andinvolved citizenship(Barber1984;Mansbridge
1990; Mansbridge1992; Pateman1970; Sandel 1996). Of
particularrelevance to our discussion is Sandel's sugges-
tion thatthe prevailingmodel of the relationshipbetween
state andcitizens is based on the idea thatgovernmentex-
ists to ensure citizens can make choices consistent with
theirself-interestby guaranteeingcertainprocedures(such
as voting) and individualrights. Obviously,this perspec-
tive is consistent with public choice economics and the
New Public Management (see Kamensky 1996). But
Sandel offers an alternativeview of democraticcitizen-
ship, one in which individualsare much more actively en-
gaged in governance. In this view, citizens look beyond
self-interestto the largerpublicinterest,adoptinga broader
and longer-termperspectivethatrequiresa knowledge of
public affairsand also a sense of belonging, a concernfor
the whole, and a moral bond with the communitywhose
fate is at stake(Sandel 1996,5-6; see also Schubert1957).
Consistentwiththisperspective,KingandStivers(1998)
assert that administratorsshould see citizens as citizens
(ratherthan merely as voters, clients, or customers);they
shouldshareauthorityandreducecontrol,andthey should
trust in the efficacy of collaboration.Moreover,in con-
trastto managerialistcalls for greaterefficiency, King and
Stivers suggest thatpublic managersseek greaterrespon-
siveness anda correspondingincreasein citizen trust.This
perspectivedirectlyundergirdsthe New Public Service.
Models of Community and Civil Society
Recently,therehas been a rebirthof interestin the idea
of communityand civility in America.Political leadersof
both majorpolitical parties, scholars of differentcamps,
best-selling writers and popular commentatorsnot only
agreethatcommunityin Americahas deteriorated,but ac-
knowledge that we desperatelyneed a renewed sense of
community.Despite increasing diversity in America, or
perhapsbecauseof it, communityis seen as a way of bring-
ing about unity and synthesis (Bellah et al. 1985, 1991;
Etzioni 1988, 1995;Gardner1991;Selznick 1992). In pub-
lic administration,the quest for communityhas been re-
flected in the view thatthe role of government,especially
local government, is indeed to help create and support
"community."
In part, this effort depends on building a healthy and
active set of "mediatinginstitutions"that simultaneously
give focus to the desires and interestsof citizens and pro- TheNew PublicService
vide experiencesthatwill betterpreparethose citizens for Theorists of citizenship, community and civil society,
action in the largerpolitical system. As Putnam(1995) ar- organizational humanists, and postmodernist public
gues, America's democratictraditiondepends on the ex- administrationistshave helped to establish a climate in
istence of engaged citizens, active in all sorts of groups, which it makes sense today to talk about a New Public
associations, and governmentalunits. Collectively, these Service. Though we acknowledge that differences exist
small groups constitutea "civil society" in which people in these viewpoints, we suggest there are also similari-
need to work out theirpersonalinterestsin the context of ties that distinguish the cluster of ideas we call the New
community concerns. Only here can citizens engage one Public Service from those associated with the New Pub-
anotherin the kind of personaldialogue and deliberation lic Managementandthe old public administration.More-
that is the essence of communitybuilding and of democ- over, there are a numberof practicallessons thatthe New
racy itself. Again, as King and Stivers (1998) point out, Public Service suggests for those in public administra-
governmentcan play an importantand criticalrole in cre- tion. These lessons arenot mutuallyexclusive, ratherthey
ating, facilitating, and supportingthese connections be- are mutually reinforcing.Among these, we find the fol-
tween citizens and theircommunities. lowing most compelling.
Organizational Humanism and Discourse Theory 1. Serve, rather than steer. An increasingly important
Overthepast25 years,publicadministration theorists,in- role of the public servant is to help citizens articulate
cluding those associated with the radical public and meet their shared interests, rather than to attempt
administrationists of the late 1960s andearly 1970s (Marini to control or steer society in new directions.
1971),havejoinedcolleaguesin otherdisciplinesin suggest- While in the past, governmentplayed a centralrole in
ing thattraditionalhierarchicalapproachesto social organi- what has been called the "steeringof society"(Nelissen et
zationandpositivistapproachesto social science aremutu- al. 1999), the complexityof modem life sometimesmakes
ally reinforcing.Consequently,theyhavejoinedin a critique such a role not only inappropriate,but impossible. Those
of bureaucracyandpositivism,leading,in turn,to a search policies and programsthat give structureand directionto
for alternativeapproachesto managementand organization social and political life today are the result of the interac-
andan explorationof new approachesto knowledgeacquisi- tion of many differentgroupsand organizations,the mix-
tion-including interpretivetheory (for example, Harmon tureof many differentopinions and interests.In many ar-
1981), criticaltheory(Denhardt1981), and postmodernism eas, it no longer makes sense to thinkof public policies as
(Farmer1995;Fox andMiller 1995;McSwite 1997;Miller the result of governmental decision-making processes.
andFox 1997).Collectively,theseapproacheshavesoughtto Governmentis indeed a player-and in most cases a very
fashionpublicorganizationsless dominatedby issues of au- substantialplayer.But public policies today, the policies
thorityandcontrolandmoreattentiveto the needs andcon- that guide society, are the outcome of a complex set of
cernsof employeesinsidepublicorganizations as well as those interactionsinvolving multiplegroupsand multipleinter-
outside,especiallyclientsandcitizens. ests ultimatelycombiningin fascinatingandunpredictable
These trendshave been centralto interpretiveandcriti- ways. Governmentis no longer in charge.
cal analysesof bureaucracyandsociety,butthey have been In this new world, the primaryrole of governmentis
even furtherextended in recent efforts to employ the per- not merelyto directthe actionsof the publicthroughregu-
spectives of postmodern thinking, especially discourse lation and decree (though that may sometimes be appro-
theory,in understandingpublic organizations.While there priate),nor is it to simply establish a set of rules and in-
are significantdifferencesamongthe variouspostmodern centives (sticks or carrots)throughwhich people will be
theorists,they seem to arriveat a similarconclusion-be- guided in the "proper"direction.Rather,governmentbe-
cause we dependon one anotherin the postmodernworld, comes anotherplayer,albeitan importantplayerin the pro-
governancemust be based on sincere and open discourse cess of moving society in one directionor another.Gov-
among all parties, including citizens and administrators. ernmentacts, in concertwith privateandnonprofitgroups
And while postmodernpublic administrationtheoristsare and organizations,to seek solutions to the problemsthat
skepticalof traditionalapproachesto public participation, communitiesface. In this process, the role of government
there seems to be considerableagreementthat enhanced is transformedfrom one of controllingto one of agenda
public dialogue is requiredto reinvigoratethe public bu- setting,bringingthe properplayersto the table and facili-
reaucracyand restorea sense of legitimacy to the field of tating, negotiating,or brokeringsolutions to public prob-
public administration.In other words, there is a need to lems (often throughcoalitions of public,private,and non-
reconceptualizethe field and, both practically and intel- profit agencies). Where traditionally government has
lectually, so as to build a New Public Service. respondedto needs by saying "yes, we can provide that

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Table1 Comparing OldPublicAdministration,
Perspectives:
Primarytheoreticaland
epistemologicalfoundations
Prevailingrationalityand
associatedmodelsof human
behavior
Conceptionof the publicinterest
Towhomare publicservants
responsive?
Roleof government
Mechanismsfor achievingpolicy
objectives
Approachto accountability
discretion
Administrative
Assumedorganizationalstructure Bureaucratic organizationsmarked Decentralized
Assumedmotivationalbasis of
publicservantsand
administrators
and New PublicService
New PublicManagement,
Old PublicAdministration New PublicManagement New PublicService
Politicaltheory,socialand politicalEconomictheory,moresophisticated Democratic theory,varied
commentary augmentedby naive dialoguebased on positivistsocial approachesto knowledge
socialscience science includingpositive,interpretive,
critical,and postmodern
"administrative Technical
Synopticrationality, and economicrationality, Strategicrationality,multipletests
man" "economicman,"or the self- of rationality(political,economic,
interesteddecisionmaker organizational)
defined
Politically and expressedin Represents the aggregationof Resultof a dialogueaboutshared
law individualinterests values
Clientsand constituents Customers Citizens
Rowing(designingand Serving(negotiatingand
Steering(actingas a catalystto
implementing policiesfocusingon unleashmarketforces) brokeringinterestsamongcitizens
a single,politicallydefined and community groups,creating
objective) sharedvalues)
Administering programsthroughCreatingmechanismsand incentive Buildingcoalitionsof public,
existinggovernmentagencies structures to achievepolicy nonprofit,and privateagenciesto
objectivesthroughprivateand meetmutuallyagreed uponneeds
nonprofitagencies
Hierarchical-administratorsare Market-driven-the accumulation of Multifaceted-publicservantsmust
responsibleto democratically self-interestswillresultin outcomes attendto law,community values,
electedpoliticalleaders desiredby broadgroupsof citizens politicalnorms,professional
(orcustomers) standards,and citizeninterests
Limited discretionallowed Wide latitudeto meet Discretionneededbutconstrained
administrativeofficials entrepreneurial goals and accountable
publicorganizations Collaborative structureswith
by top-downauthoritywithin withprimarycontrolremaining leadershipsharedinternally and
a enciesand controlor regulation withintheagency externally
of clients
Payand benefits,civil-service Entrepreneurial spirit,ideological Publicservice,desireto contribute
protections desireto reducesize of government to society.

service," or "no, we can't," the New Public Service sug-
gests thatelected officials andpublic managersshouldre-
spond to the requestsof citizens not just by saying yes or
no, but by saying, "let's work togetherto figure out what
we're going to do, then make it happen."In a world of
active citizenship, public officials will increasingly play
more than a service delivery role-they will play a con-
ciliating, a mediating,or even an adjudicatingrole. (Inci-
dentally,these new roles will requirenew skills-not the
old skills of management control, but new skills of
brokering,negotiating,and conflict resolution.)
2. Thepublic interestis the aim, not the by-product.Public
administrators must contribute to building a collective,
shared notion of the public interest. The goal is not to
find quick solutions driven by individual choices.
Rather, it is the creation of shared interests and shared
responsibility.
The New Public Service demands that the process of
establishinga vision for society is not somethingmerely
left to elected political leadersor appointedpublic admin-
istrators.Instead, the activity of establishing a vision or
directionis somethingin whichwidespreadpublicdialogue
anddeliberationarecentral(BrysonandCrosby1992;Luke
1998; Stone 1988). The role of governmentwill increas-
ingly be to bringpeople togetherin settings thatallow for
unconstrainedand authenticdiscourseconcerningthe di-
rection society should take. Based on these deliberations,
a broad-basedvision for the community,the state, or the
nationcanbe establishedandprovidea guidingset of ideas
(or ideals) for the future.It is less importantfor this pro-
cess to result in a single set of goals than it is for it to
engage administrators,politicians, and citizens in a pro-
cess of thinking about a desired futurefor their commu-
nity and theirnation.
In additionto its facilitatingrole, governmentalso has
a moral obligation to assure solutions that are generated
throughsuch processes are fully consistentwith normsof
justice and fairness. Governmentwill act to facilitate the
solutions to public problems, but it will also be respon-
sible for assuringthose solutions are consistent with the
public interest-both in substanceandin process. In other
words, the role of governmentwill become one of assur-
ing thatthe public interestpredominates,thatboth the so-
lutions themselves and the process by which solutions to
public problemsare developed are consistentwith demo-
craticnormsof justice, fairness,andequity (Ingrahamand
Ban 1988; Ingrahamand Rosenbloom 1989).
In short, the public servant will take an active role in
creatingarenasin which citizens, throughdiscourse, can
articulatesharedvalues and develop a collective sense of

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 the public interest. Ratherthan simply respondingto dis-
paratevoices by forming a compromise, public adminis-
tratorswill engage citizens with one anotherso that they
come to understandeach other's interests and adopt a
longer range and broadersense of community and soci-
etal interests.
3. Think strategically, act democratically. Policies and
programs meeting public needs can be most effectively
and responsibly achieved through collective efforts and
collaborative processes.
To realize a collective vision, the next step is establish-
ing roles and responsibilitiesand developing specific ac-
tion steps to move toward the desired goals. Again, the
idea is not merely to establish a vision and then leave the
implementationto those in government;rather,it is to join
all partiestogetherin the process of carryingout programs
that will move in the desired direction.Throughinvolve-
ment in programsof civic educationand by developing a
broadrange of civic leaders, governmentcan stimulatea
renewed sense of civic pride and civic responsibility.We
expect such a sense of pride and responsibilityto evolve
into a greaterwillingness to be involved at many levels, as
all parties work together to create opportunitiesfor par-
ticipation,collaboration,and community.
How might this be done?To begin with, thereis an ob-
vious and importantrole for political leadership-to ar-
ticulateandencouragea strengtheningof citizen responsi-
bility and, in turn, to support groups and individuals
involved in buildingthe bondsof community.Government
can't create community.But governmentand, more spe-
cifically, political leadership,can lay the groundworkfor
effective andresponsiblecitizen action.People mustcome
to recognize thatgovernmentis open and accessible-and
that won't happenunless governmentis open and acces-
sible. People must come to recognize that governmentis
responsive-and that won't happenunless governmentis
responsive. People must come to recognize that govern-
ment exists to meet their needs-and that won't happen
unless it does. The aim, then, is to make sure thatgovern-
ment is open and accessible, thatit is responsive,and that
it operates to serve citizens and create opportunitiesfor
citizenship.
4. Serve citizens, not customers. The public interest re-
sults from a dialogue about shared values, rather than
the aggregation of individual self-interests. Therefore,
public servants do not merely respond to the demands
of "customers," but focus on building relationships of
trust and collaboration with and among citizens.
The New Public Service recognizes that the relation-
ship between governmentand its citizens is not the same
as thatbetween a business andits customers.In the public
sector, it is problematicto even determinewho the cus-
tomer is, because government serves more than just the
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immediateclient. Governmentalso serves those who may
be waiting for service, those who may need the service
even though they are not actively seeking it, futuregen-
erationsof service recipients,relatives and friends of the
immediaterecipient, and on and on. There may even be
customerswho don't wantto be customers-such as those
receiving a speeding ticket.
Moreover,some customersof governmenthave greater
resourcesand greaterskill in bringingtheir demandsfor-
wardthan others.Does this justify, as it would in the pri-
vate sector, that they be treatedbetter?Of course not. In
government,considerationsof fairnessandequityplay an
importantrole in service delivery;indeed, in many cases,
these are much more importantconsiderationsthan the
desires of the immediatecustomer.
Despite the obvious importanceof constantlyimprov-
ing the quality of public-sectorservice delivery, the New
Public Service suggests that governmentshould not first
or exclusively respondto the selfish, short-terminterests
of "customers."Instead,it suggests thatpeople acting as
citizens must demonstrate their concern for the larger
community,their commitmentto mattersthat go beyond
short-terminterests, and their willingness to assume per-
sonal responsibility for what happens in their neighbor-
hoods and the community.After all, these are among the
defining elements of effective and responsible citizen-
ship. In turn,governmentmust respondto the needs and
interestsof citizens. Moreover,governmentmustrespond
to citizens defined broadlyratherthan simply in a legal-
istic sense. Individualswho arenot legal citizens not only
are often served by governmentprograms,they can also
be encouragedto participateand engage with their com-
munities. In any case, the New Public Service seeks to
encourage more and more people to fulfill their respon-
sibilities as citizens and for governmentto be especially
sensitive to the voices of citizens.
5. Accountabilityisn't simple. Public servants should be
attentive to more than the market; they should also at-
tend to statutory and constitutional law, community
values, political norms, professional standards, and citi-
zen interests.
The matterof accountabilityis extremelycomplex. Yet
both the old public administrationand the New Public
Managementtend to oversimplifythe issue. For instance,
in the classicversionof the old publicadministration, public
administratorswere simply and directly responsible to
political officials. As Wilson wrote, "[P]olicywill have no
taint of officialism about it. It will not be the creationof
permanentofficials, but of statesmenwhose responsibility
to public opinionwill be directandinevitable"(1887, 22).
Beyond this, accountabilitywas not really an issue; politi-
cians were expected to make decisions while bureaucrats
carriedthem out. Obviously,over time, public administra-
TheNewPublic
Service:
Serving
Rather
thanSteering555
tors assumed great capacities for influencing the policy
process. So, at the other end of the spectrum,in the ver-
nacularof the New Public Management,the focus is on
giving administratorsgreatlatitudeto act as entrepreneurs.
In theirentrepreneurialrole, the new public managersare
called to accountprimarilyin terms of efficiency, cost ef-
fectiveness, and responsivenessto marketforces.
In our view, such models do not reflect the demands
andrealitiesof public service today.Rather,public admin-
istratorsareandshouldbe influencedby andheld account-
ableto complexconstellationsof institutionsandstandards,
including the public interest, statutoryand constitutional
law, other agencies, other levels of government,the me-
dia, professional standards,community values and stan-
dards,situationalfactors,democraticnorms,andof course,
citizens. Further,the institutionsand standardswhich in-
fluencepublicservantsandto whichthey areheld account-
able interactin complex ways. For example, citizen needs
andexpectationsinfluencepublic servants,but the actions
of publicservantsalso influencecitizenexpectations.Laws
create the parametersfor public administrators'actions,
but the mannerin which public servantsapply the law in-
fluences not only its actualimplementation,but also may
influence lawmakersto modify the law. In other words,
public administratorsinfluence and are influenced by all
of the competing norms, values, and preferences of our
complex governancesystem. These variablesnot only in-
fluence and are influencedby public administrators,they
also representpoints of accountability.
The New Public Service recognizes the reality and
complexity of these responsibilities. It recognizes that
public administratorsare involved in complex value con-
flicts in situationsof conflicting and overlappingnorms.
It accepts these realities and speaks to how public ad-
ministratorscan and should serve citizens and the public
interestin this context. First and foremost, the New Pub-
lic Service demandsthat public administratorsnot make
these decisions alone. It is through the process of dia-
logue, brokerage,citizen empowerment,andbroad-based
citizen engagement that these issues must be resolved.
While public servantsremainresponsiblefor assuringthat
solutions to public problems are consistent with laws,
democraticnorms, and other constraints,it is not a mat-
ter of their simply judging the appropriatenessof com-
munity-generated ideas and proposals after the fact.
Rather,it is the role of public administratorsto makethese
conflicts and parametersknown to citizens, so that these
realities become a part of the process of discourse. Do-
ing so not only makes for realistic solutions, it builds citi-
zenship and accountability.
6. Valuepeople, not just productivity. Public organiza-
tions and the networks in which they participate are
more likely to succeed in the long run if they are oper-
556 Public
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ated through processes of collaboration and shared
leadership based on respect for all people.
In its approachto managementand organization,the
New Public Service emphasizesthe importanceof "man-
aging throughpeople." Systems of productivityimprove-
ment, process reengineering,and performancemeasure-
ment areseen as importanttools in designingmanagement
systems. But the New Public Service suggests that such
rationalattemptsto control humanbehaviorare likely to
fail in the long termif, at the same time, insufficientatten-
tion is paid to the values and interestsof individualmem-
bersof an organization.Moreover,while these approaches
may get results, they do not build responsible, engaged,
and civic-mindedemployees or citizens.
If public servantsare expected to treatcitizens with re-
spect,they mustbe treatedwith respectby those who man-
age public agencies. In the New Public Service, the enor-
mous challenges and complexities of the work of public
administratorsarerecognized.They areviewed notjust as
employees who crave the security and structureof a bu-
reaucraticjob (old public administration),nor as partici-
pantsin a market(New Public Management);rather,pub-
lic servantsarepeople whose motivationsandrewardsare
morethansimply a matterof pay or security.They wantto
make a difference in the lives of others (Denhardt1993;
Perryand Wise 1990; Vinzant 1998).
The notion of sharedleadershipis criticalin providing
opportunitiesfor employees andcitizens to affirmand act
on their public service motives and values. In the New
Public Service, sharedleadership,collaboration,and em-
powermentbecome the norm both inside and outside the
organization.Sharedleadershipfocuses on the goals, val-
ues, and ideals thatthe organizationand communitywant
to advance; it must be characterizedby mutual respect,
accommodation,and support.As Bums (1978) would say,
leadershipexercised by workingthroughand with people
transformsthe participantsand shifts theirfocus to higher
level values. In the process, the public service motives of
citizens andemployees alikecan be recognized,supported,
and rewarded.
7. Value citizenship and public service above entrepre-
neurship.The public interest is better advanced by pub-
lic servants and citizens committed to making mean-
ingful contributions to society rather than by
entrepreneurial managers acting as if public money
were their own.
The New PublicManagementencouragespublicadmin-
istratorsto act and think as entrepreneursof a business
enterprise.This createsa rathernarrowview of the objec-
tives to be sought-to maximize productivityand satisfy
customers, and to accept risks and to take advantageof
opportunitiesas they arise.In the New PublicService,there
is an explicit recognitionthatpublic administratorsarenot
 the businessownersof theiragenciesandprograms.Again,
as KingandStivers(1998) remindus, governmentis owned
by the citizens.
Accordingly,in the New Public Service, the mindsetof
publicadministrators is thatpublicprogramsandresources
do not belong to them. Rather,public administratorshave
accepted the responsibilityto serve citizens by acting as
stewardsof public resources(Kass 1990), conservatorsof
public organizations(Terry1995), facilitatorsof citizen-
ship anddemocraticdialogue(ChapinandDenhardt1995;
King and Stivers 1998; Box 1998), catalysts for commu-
nity engagement(DenhardtandGray 1998;LappeandDu
Bois 1994), and street-levelleaders(VinzantandCrothers
1998). This is a very differentperspective than that of a
business owner focused on profit and efficiency. Accord-
ingly, the New Public Service suggests thatpublic admin-
istratorsmust not only sharepower,work throughpeople,
and brokersolutions, they must reconceptualizetheirrole
in the governanceprocess as responsibleparticipant,not
entrepreneur.
This change in the public administrator'srole has pro-
foundimplicationsfor the types of challenges andrespon-
sibilities faced by public servants.First, public adminis-
tratorsmustknow andmanagemorethanthe requirements
andresourcesof theirprograms.This sort of narrowview
is not very helpful to a citizen whose world is not conve-
niently divided up by programmaticdepartmentsand of-
fices. The problemsthatcitizens face are often, if not usu-
ally, multifaceted,fluid, and dynamic-they do not easily
fall within the confines of a particularoffice or a narrow
job descriptionof an individual.To serve citizens, public
administratorsnot only must know and managetheirown
agency's resources, they must also be aware of and con-
nected to other sources of supportand assistance,engag-
ing citizens and the communityin the process.
Second, when public administratorstakerisks, they are
not entrepreneursof their own businesses who can make
such decisions knowing the consequences of failure will
fall largely on theirown shoulders.Risk in the public sec-
tor is different.In the New Public Service, risks and op-
portunitiesreside within the largerframeworkof demo-
cratic citizenship and sharedresponsibility.Because the
consequences of success and failure are not limited to a
single privatebusiness,publicadministrators do not single-
handedlydecide what is best for a community.This need
not mean that all short-termopportunitiesare lost. If dia-
logue andcitizenengagementis ongoing,opportunitiesand
potential risks can be explored in a timely manner.The
importantfactor to consider is whetherthe benefits of a
public administratortakingimmediateand risky action in
response to an opportunityoutweighs the costs to trust,
collaboration,and the sense of sharedresponsibility.
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Implications
andConclusions
Froma theoreticalperspective,the New Public Service
offers an importantandviable alternativeto boththe tradi-
tional and the now-dominantmanagerialistmodels. It is
an alternativethathas been builton the basis of theoretical
explorationsandpracticalinnovations.The resultis a nor-
mative model, comparableto other such models. While
debatesamongtheoristswill continue,and administrative
practitionerswill test and explore new possibilities, the
commitmentsthat emerge will have significant implica-
tions for practice.The actions that public administrators
take will differ markedlydepending on the types of as-
sumptions and principles upon which those actions are
based. If we assumethe responsibilityof governmentis to
facilitate individual self-interest,we will take one set of
actions. If, on the otherhand, we assume the responsibil-
ity of governmentis to promote citizenship, public dis-
course, and the public interest, we will take an entirely
differentset of actions.
Decades ago, HerbertKaufman(1956) suggested that
while administrativeinstitutionsare organizedand oper-
atedin pursuitof differentvalues at differenttimes, during
the periodin which one idea is dominant,othersare never
totally neglected. Building on this idea, it makes sense to
thinkof one normativemodel as prevailingat any point in
time, with the other(or others)playing a somewhatlesser
role within the context of the prevailingview. Currently,
the New Public Managementandits surrogateshave been
establishedas the dominantparadigmin the field of gov-
ernanceandpublic administration.Certainlya concernfor
democraticcitizenshipandthe publicinteresthas not been
fully lost, but ratherhas been subordinated.
We argue,however,thatin a democraticsociety, a con-
cernfor democraticvalues shouldbe paramountin the way
we think aboutsystems of governance.Valuessuch as ef-
ficiency andproductivityshouldnot be lost, but shouldbe
placedin the largercontextof democracy,community,and
the public interest.In terms of the normativemodels we
examinehere, the New Public Service clearly seems most
consistentwith the basic foundationsof democracyin this
countryand,therefore,providesa frameworkwithinwhich
othervaluabletechniquesandvalues,suchas the best ideas
of the old public administrationor the New Public Man-
agement,mightbe playedout.Whilethis debatewill surely
continuefor many years,for the time being, the New Pub-
lic Serviceprovidesa rallyingpointaroundwhichwe might
envisiona publicservicebasedon andfully integratedwith
citizen discourseand the public interest.
TheNewPublic
Service:
Serving
Rather
thanSteering557
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