Yolume ll Issue 126

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I 950s Aircraftcarriers
Consultant Editor: Malor General Sir
F m work Jeremy Moore KCB OBE MC, Comman- Pistols of Worid War I
der of British Land Forces during the Modern Tracked Prime Movers
Falklands campaign.
Light Aircraft of lVorld Wu II
Modern Underwater Weapon Systems
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 $Tnarinesof
tjbrldltVa
From 1914 to 1918 submarines progressed frombeing short-
tange coastal craft to large ocean-going vessels capable of
extended cntises. Germany soon realized their value and
launched a submafine campaign against Great Brttain which
came close to winning the war.
1n the course of a Bntrsh naval exercise in the early years of the 2Oth
century, a submarine informed the opposing admiral that he had just
been 'sunk'. The latter rephed to the effect that he 'would be damned rf
he was', and carried on, Such entrenched attitudes were typical, despite
the fact that similar evolutrons had consistentiy demonstrated the sub-
marine's potential: the truth was unpalatable and was therefore best
ignored. (A current parallel exists in the average warship's totally in-
adequate defences against a wide variety of aerial threats,)
It is fair to say that by August 1914 submariners understood their craft's
potential but had failed to convince those who mattered in the conduct of
the surface war, This was the more strange in the UK, where the
redoubtable Jacky' Frsher remained in close touch with submarine
development: indeed, they were contemptuously drsmissed as 'Fisher's
toys' by Admiral Lord Beresford, who really should have known better.
Wrthin weeks of the outbreak of war, the British E9 under Horton had
sunk the crurser Hela near Heligoland, and Weddigen's U t had drs-
posed of three 'Cressy' class cruisers before breakJast, followed shortly
by HMS Hawzke, The Bntish BJ J penetrated the Dardanelles defences to
-arul
The major navies consistently
attempted to deslgn submarines
with long range and high surface
speed lo opera te in close support o!
the batUefleet, but experience
proved this to be unworkable.JT,
seen right, was built for the Royal
Australian N avy in I I I 7.
knock out the Messoudjei, offset by ihe loss to submarine attack of the
first battleship, HMS Formidabie, off Portland, In the Adriatrc, Austrran
boats dealt as harshly with the French and ltalians, and the long Bntrsh
tradition of close biockade came to a bloody finale when Hersing's U 21
sank two more battleships ofi Galhpoli, havrng made the long passage
from Germany for the occasion. In a bare nine months, the submarine
had flrmly stated that war at sea would never again be the same. Under
the German flag it went on to the controversial war against merchant
shipprng In srnktng nearly eight million gross registered tons of British
shtpping rt nearly won the war but, in the process, so outraged the
neutral Amerrcans that they flnally declared for the Allied cause, Ger
many's war-winnrng weapon ultimately worked against her own in
terests and brought about her downfall,
Detail of one of the Royal Navy'E'class boats off theDardanelles with a French
submarine in the background.lt fell toELto make thelast patrol there in
January 1916 as theAllied evacuation was completed. The land campaign may
have been a disastrous failure, but the submarine operations were a credit to
theRoyalNavy.
 'UB' classes
Adriatic, and one of these, von Heim-
burgs UB J4, sank the troop transpofi
Royal Edward near Kos in August 1915
with the loss of almost 1,000 lives, In the
November he sank also the British sub-
manne E20, wrrch was keeping a com-
promised rendezvous,
Though the 'UB Is' met their de-
signed aims, they rnevitably proved
inadequate with the war staiemated on
Iand and therefore, becominq of grea-
ter importance at sea. Their 1915-6 fol-
low-ons, the 'IJB II' class boats, were
therefore considerably enlarged to
allow for twin screw propulsion
together with greater power and
rangte. As there was no lonqer any
prospect of rarl transportation, they
could be gdven saddle{anks, the dou-
ble-hulled consl ruc-ron aJiowrng some
tanks to be carried outboard, thus in- Specification
creasrng space within. Thrs in turn per, 'UB I'class
mjtteo lwo 500-mrr t19,7-_n) tubes to Displacement: 127 tons surfaced and
be carried forward, vertically drs- 142 tons dived
posed, together with four reloads, A Dimensions: lenqth 28. 10 m (92 ft
50-mm (1.97-in) deck gun and a radio 2.5 in); beam 2,97 m (9 ft 9 in); draught
installation were also fitted in the class, 2,90 m (9 ft 6 in)
which ran to 30 boats (UB-|8 to UB 47). Propulsion: one diesel delivenng
Beginning in 1917, the first ofBS IJB III' 44,7 kW (60 bhp) and one eiectric
class boats (UB 48 Io UB- I32) came into motor deliverinq 89 5 kW ( 120 hp) to
service. Compared with the 263/292 one shaft
tons of the 'UB IIs', these were of 516/ Speed: 6.5 kts surfaced and 5.5 kts
651 tons and large enough for unres- dived
tricted operations around the whole of Range: 3000 km ( I 864 miles) at 5 kts
the UK. With five tubes and an BB-mm surfaced, and 85 km (53 mrles) at 4 ks
(3 46-rn) qun, they were comparable in dived
srze to earlier sea-gotng U-boats. Eight Armament: one machrne-gun, and two
'UB Is became wal losses, as did 21 'UB 450-mm (17,7-in) torpedo tubes (bow)
IIs and 40 'UB ills. with four torpedoes
Complement: 14

S hort- r ange coas tal subm arines

originally intended to be transported
by rail to their area oI operations, the
little'UB I'class boats had only two
torpedo tubes and four torpedoes.
?ftr rs tIB-{ which operated in the
Channelbefore meeting its end at
the hands of the Q-shrb Inverlyon.

i.ina

iiSJ ctasses
'-r:er 'UC I') class was built in
-.-,= UC
;.:.. =, ,'.--:i ihe 'UB I taking its hull as
- :-: ::*: stretchrnq rt for duty as a
: -:: :--:-:iayer, no torpedo tubes
- =-- : '-= i NI'ring the reeming coas-
.. - ,- : .=:.=s of rhe UK was a partrcu-
.:,. ::s.-:-ect-re form of warfare but
',';:j- problems in the narrow
-r-=:::
=---r :- ,-:-::ed channels, and a small
: : :. :ssentrai. Something under
.-.

: .. ; - -. longter than the 'UB I', the

:-:=,=.-:: :nployed a new principle
,- :-:;--=,:: sx centreline minetubes
:':i-i--l :;:: ihrough the hull forward
-- := _:, :t:m the bottom these tubes
:,:;-r 1. :: about 30" and were free-
i-::-:; =acn could accommodate
- :-- :.j.: ,', r.:h. being regatrvely
:-:r'=:- '.'.-:::l attached to thetr sink-
,: j . ' -- r :: lropped our of rhe bor-
-:: :: .:-: j:es rvrth the boat movLnqt
. : ''.-, .- -:al Futeen of the class (UC-l
--
--l-,': ;'::e b'ult ior assembly else-
r':-=:= r-:i-j r915, and the hazards of
:' r:r: ','.=re such rhat only one
.,:.-,-.-:: .: ::e end of the war. Not the
,=..: !::i:-::: -;;as a boat's liability to
,-:- - :.:: : ,,:. rrunes nvO (and pOSS-
.
'
:. :- ^. : .- -'re, of the class berng
. --
-- ,-:- -l- --:-:er drawback was that
-ha min_os 66uld
---, := r:::i o:tce at sea

'C-l a-as stran ded and captured by

::"e Pc;a! Navy;sfie js seen fiere on
:j-r;-'a-r' al Temple B ar pier in I I I 6.
i-:: ga-'r'ied no torpedoes, iust 12
.:--: e,- , a un clr e d via six vertical tubes
;r.:-:: -:assed rtgrft t through the hull.
 During 1915 foreign pubhc opinion
obliged the Germans to restrict their
U-boar operarjons, and mrnelayrnq
took on a greater signiflcance. Furillei
specialized boats were required and,
as in the 'UBs', the size was increased,
The resulting'UC II'class was of 49,4 m
(162.1 ft) overall length, had twin
screws and was of 4171493 tons dis-
placement. Each of the sx tubes could
take an extra mine by virtue of a deep
casing forward and a wide and sub-
stantial keel. A further improvement
was to include also three 500-mm ( 19.7-
in) torpedo tubes and an BB-mm (3,46-
in) gnrn to permir offensive operarions
on the completron of the lay, T\ryo of the
tubes were external to the pressure
hull, flanking the tops of the mine
chutes in the forward casing; the third
was inboard and right ail, cramprng
the rudder and hydroplane gear. Sx-
ty-four 'UC lis' were built (UC-16 to
UC-79), 43 becomrng war losses, and
these were followed by 25 'UC III' class
boats (UC-90 ro UC-ll4) which im-
proved upon the poor surface sea-
keeping qualities of the 'UC II' and had
a 105-mm (4. 13-in) Wn.
Tfto types of ocean mrnelayer, the
l0 boats of the 655/830{on 'UE I' class
and the l0 boats of the 1,165/1,512{on
Above :U C-7 4 was one of the longe s t-
rangedvessels of the'UC-ll' class
minelayers. Bigger boats than their
predecessorg the class carried six
100-cm (39.4-in) mine tubes with I I
UC 200- type mines. Her sisler UC-65
s ank H MS Aiadne off Beachy H ead in
I 9 I 7, but was herself sunk by the
British C-Il later in the year.
'UE II' class, were also available with
capacities of 32 and 48 mines respec-
tively, Iaid fuom a dry-storagTe cham-
ber througrh two tubes aft,
Specification
'UC I'class
Displacement: l68 tons surfaced and
183 tons dived
Dimensions: length 34.00 m (111 ft
6,5 in); beam3,20 m (10 ft6 in); draught
3,00 m (9 ft 10 rn)
Propulsion: one diesel deliverrng
67 kw (90 bhp) and one electnc motor
delivering 130,5 kW (175 hp) to one
shaft
Speed: 6 kts surfaced and 5 kts dived
Range: 1400 km (870 mlles) at 5 kts
surfaced, and 95 km (59 mrles) at 4 kts SubmarineJaunched mines accounted for many Allied warships, including
dived HMS Hampshire, mined byU-75 (Lord Kitchener was among the dead) ; the
Armament: 12mines I talian battleshrb Regina Margherita (mined by the Austro-HungarianUCl{) :
Complement:16 and the French crur'serKl6ber (m ined at the entrance toBrestbyuc6t).

'U- 19' class

The U-19 was not a great technical
advance over the 14 U-boats that pre-
ceded her all of which were to play a
war role; what she did introduce when
completed in l9l3 was the diesel en-
grne, Earlier boats had been prop-
elled on the surface usually by Koting
engines which burned paraffin or
heavy oil, deemed safer than the petrol
enqine used rn earlier British boats
though, interestingly, the latter had
stafied to use diesels in the 'D' class
boats some three years earlier.
Though the Germans had the diesel,
they were still proving its lonQi{erm
reliability. Diesels, besides being saf-
er, were far more economic, an impor-
tant factor with respect to operational
radiLrs, One diesel per shaft could also
develop more power than the two
K6rting engines previously used in
:andem, savinq qreatly on overall
i:nqth.
The desigm contrnued the tried four-
tube layout, with two forward and two
in the cramped a-fter sections, but in-
creased the calibre from 450 to
500 mm (17 7 to 19,7 in). This arange-
ment was to be favoured for the major-
ity of the following war-builtclasses.
An important innovatron was the adop-
tion of a deck gnrn, an BB-mm (3.46-in)
weapon. The circular-section press-
ure hull was flanked by substantral
saddle tanks with flattened top sur-
faces, usually awash, and the narrow
centreline casing had a sheer forward
to assist in better surface seakeeping,
Light, folding masts were carried to
spread the wireless aenals.
Only four 'U-19' class boats were
built (U-79 Io U-22), the desrqn then
being stretched by 0,5 m (1.64 ft) to up- Specification
rate the dresels by a cylinder aprece. 'U-19'class
With only minor vanations, U-23 Io U Displacement: 650 tons suriaced
4l followed this arangement, account- 837 tons dived =:
ing for sea-going U-boat deljverres un- Dimensions: Ienqth 64,20 m (2 iO :
til early 1915, Of the original gnoup 7 5 1n); beam 6. 10 m (20 ft 0 rn); dra:;::,
U-21 become known under her com- 360m(1Ift10in)
mander, Hersinq, who inflicted the first Propulsion: Lwo diesels dehver:;
loss on the Royal Navy by submarine 1268 kW (l 700 bhp) and ftvo eie::-:
attack when, on 5 September 1914 he motors delivering 895 kW (i.20-l :r' :,
sank the scout crurser HMS Pathfinder two shafts
in the North Sea, On 29 January 1915 he Speed: 15,5 ktssurfacedalci9.c ks
cheekily surfaced off Walney Island to dived
bombard the Barrowworks of Vrckers, Range: 13900 km (8,637 mles) a : <-.
only to be chased off by a shore bat- surfaced, and 150 lan (93 mrlesl a-: -<:
tery. Survivinq the war, U-21 'found- dived
ered en route to surrender. Armament: one BB-mm (3.46-nl g'-::-
and four 500-mm (19.7-in) tcr,ce::
l ubes (two bow and rwo srerl','; :..r
torpedoes
Complement: 37
U -23 to U-41 were stre tched versiotzs
of the'U - I I' class submarrnes. Of tft e
four builtin the class,U-Zl had an
ex cep tional re cor d, sinking H MS
Pathfinderin I I ) 4 - the firct Royal
Navy loss to submarine attack. She
went on to sink the French cntiser
Amiral Charner and later, offthe
Dardanelles, the British battleships
Goliath and TriumplL both on tfte
saneday.

:'€,=+
The Great lJllar benecffh fhe woves
In 19 I4 the submarine was regarded by many naval officers as
a short-range defensive weapon manied by'grubby engineer
types, and not even the Germans appreciated its potential as a
war-winner.In fact the development of underwaterweapons
revolutionized naval warfare; battleships remained thehnal
arbiters of war at sea, but the submarinewas evolvingrapidly.

It was f ortunate for the U K that pre-war German exercises had failed to highlight
tne great potenr a o' rhe J-boat. The -K nerself had slrs3iy 66rnritted co.r-
siderable resources to submarines, so that the r poss bil ties were more widely
apo'eciared. BLrt the man^er o- the.r waTt rne use a^d an accJ-ale oe'inition o' ffiffi d*6
the threat that they posed to indivrdualwarships, to the battlefleet and, equally
importantly, to nnerchant shipping, was far from formulated. Peacetime exer-
cises tended to be set-piece affairs, modifying established doctrine rather than
evolving new concepts, particularly any as ievblutionary as using submarines rn
an aggressively offensrve role.
Probabiv the submarine's greatest drawback was in its being vrewed as a
piece of machinery rather than a shrp, a device for engineers rather than seamen
at a tlme when 'oily rags'were viewed as an nf erior race. Submariners rnrere of a
closed order (known defensively rn the Royal Navy as 'The Trade'l anc tne:r craft
were looked upon as neaT-seas defensrve weapons wrth 1 111s i-6is,,i3nc: tc'leei
nnatters. Just'as the Germans had falled to'foresee their s'!ora'n3 e:ri's
offensrve qualitres, so had the Br + sh fa ted to deve op su tabie:i'e3r ,.'3 nsa::5
'or Lnei, oelec o- o o op:L -- o
Fven by 1914 Ine S-b',-:c <€| nao progrecseo .:--. eJ
'sp ndle' tVpe to larqer sadl e{ar<ed or double-hulled varier es .ra. l:ssessed U-8was the firstU-boat lost, being sunk byHMSMaorjand HMS Gurkha on 4
far greater usable nternal volunle and vastly improved sea<eei -g lie art-.r March 1915. The ramwas a favourite method of submarine destruction:IJ-2:
po nt was of great mpo.t3nce ior s'ubmarines (oi' 'sub.lers,c::s' ,.,,rr rherr was the unluckiest in this respect, being rammed by the t 8,A00-ton bulk of
poor submerged perfcrn-ance, ',rere expected to operate icr tr: g":a:er oart on HMS Dreadnou ght tw o w e e k i I a te r.
the surface, divinq for evas cn or attack. Little thouahi nac beer :e,,:rei to tne
problems posed by extenCed patrols or to equrpprng then :rr-use :ga nst therr weapons led 10 the introduction of 533-mm (21-in) and 5OO-mm 119
-
most likely targets. Thus, for rnstance, when the Germans d scc'e-=i 'Io tne,. caLibres. These, inevltably, demanded larger boats bu1 could strrke from a s:'-
own surprse as much as anybody's) that the U-boat's range and e rarraice ,"vas range. The extra srze brought about the abandoning of athwartships tubes bi,-.-.
considerably greater lhan ant c;pated, an rmmedrate rmitat,or v'ias IccseC by Brtish and iess stress on manoeuvrabilty for rapid disengagement.
the few torpedoes carr ed. Th s, wjth ex st ng boats, wolld res, , 1 iil irul As British boats would likely be operating against warships, -quns were I tt -
patrols being curtalled ano rnordinate t me spent rn transri I a i,a,. :a.' rct be evidence at the outset. lnadequaie 6-pdi g"uns were superteded by 12:,
'oJno lo 'es-po,\, 01 Slo o^ o, oevelop ot^e rooe) .. ,'. ' .'a.*et - weapons and jater boats carned one or two 102-mm (4 in) quns as the a=,
lorpeooes were rese'ved'or n.gr.vd ue o'o 'icu | 'o qi > .. ^' - I means of countering surtaced U boats As an alternative to ihe torpedoinc ,
the protection of which Germany rapidlydiscovered to ce t.e -( s ...::< pcrnt. merchantmen, the Germans found the gun indispensible, rts calibre jumi -.
could be sunk by gun or demolition charge. ln turn, ho'"\,e'!e,, rr s r:br,ed the -ro- 50 -m {" .97 in, p ogre:s vely ro 88 n'r ,3 46 ^ . ' 05 rr- 14.1J r
.l
U-boatof itsareatestadvantage, stealth, and resu ied;n ccurte..reasrres such eventually 50 mm (5.9 in), with somelimes two guns fitted. Though airc-.'
as'O'shrps. Slow submergence had been seen n peacet'r:e as of l,ttle attacks were mounted on submannes, the latter's light automatic weap:-:
consequence, but proved gravely d sadvantageous wnen ihe 13ilis3 r,r'r-c1; 5si-
denly turned. lmprovements could often be made s n ply bv c"tt,irg 3xi5a l Tber Armed with a single torpedo tube and crewed by eight men, the I 13-ton HM
ho es ir I^e cas tg stTrlcIUre. SubmarineNo.2was the first submarine to enter service with the RovalNaw.'.
Torpedoes in general wor[ed we for their i rne, b ]t t1e ,ac o: rarce :nd N o. I foundered while on tow in I I I 3, only to be fou nd again in I I I I i s he is
krllrng power of the British 457 mm (18-in) and the Gei-rr'an 450-n-"' t';7 7 :at being restored at the submarine museum at Gosparl.

%,

'i.,i
,ru
Wrl
;l?
--'rl*
1gc

:&,

tF^ 1
 Submarines of World War I

On e of the victims : s u bm arine a ttack accounted for the los s o f I I h e avy

;;;;;;;; a";i;; Wor\d War t. The I 4,000'ton cruiser I{MS Drake.w-as-^
t;;;;A;;J ;;A sunk bytJ -79 off Rathtin I sland, Northern I reland' U-79 was
iriiarity a minelayer but had two external tarpedo tubes'

were not viewed spectfically in an AA context. Large-calibre weapons, as tltted

planes were widely deployei, part cularly by the Br trsh, boli''':-- . - - -
in 'monitor' submaiines, w6re an aberration and contrlbuted nothlng to marn- and surface ship, but conti'buted tt e of note Perhaps sir-.-: i
days of 'towed arrays', hydrophones were being towed asie'- :' :' -.
stream submarine develoPmeni.
and multi unit arravs as earlyas 1 9'17, butthe blg breakthro;;. ?i'. : -: =
Minelaying was taken seriously by the Germans, who apprecrated rts cost-
effectivenesi far more than dld the'British. Where the latter converted a few byAsdic(laterSonar), achievedoperatona status usttoo a.: -'.:- :- :
itunaurO nou1u, the former built many coastal and ccean boats confrgured for
this time, neariv all submar nes weTe \'ery cluttered exte'n:' -. -"
propellers and were extreme y no sv blt detectjor si: ' -::::-- ' -
ir'.,u turt. Eoth sides used ioughly the same system, wth m nes la;d
irorn --
free-flooding stowage chules; it was hazardous,and slow' ho'A'ever, ano tne after thev had broken cover to attacf, leav ng tnel' i r:-:' " .- -:: i
g"t.h .h""-g"O to riru stowage tn the length of the casrng and laid over the Bamming and gunf re were both used against suira:-: s-:l..:'
5le r n.
these coull usudlly submerge quickly enougil ic 3''. -- ::--::-
- .:: : :
"'ifViietess charge rapidlycame into itsown. lnitiallY, British croc,i'-:
communication was, forthe most part, of unpred ctabie range and
sc' that the sort of centrallzed command exercised over the U-boats ol
quality,'War average of oniy 200 being expended each month :r',?'- : . :
Wortcj I
ll was not posiibl" in World War Aerials demanded that sub-
marlnes were encumbdred with two tall telescoplc or fold ng masts
Communications between a submerged boat and a suriace sh p were n tne
exoerimental Staqe rn 1g14 and mergeciwith research already being conducted
ini[ lf," O"iucfui ot submarines by*passive acoustic means. Dlrectional hyro-

i: :\ :it:t;t;:iil
"a,{t '1
The Great Warbeneaththe waves

Searnln resf in the cramped interior of aBiitish'sabmarine. As lfte.boafs

became/arger sodid thelrcrews, and spacewAs allways atapiemium.lt
became noticed that submarines invariably sme af stale cabbage, which has
remaraeda djsagreeable feature of submariners'lives ever since,

Periscope dep th abo ar d a R oy aI N avy s ubm ar ine. O nce atse a, Wo r Id W ar I Sear iere at,Sca p a F low among the pride of the Grand Fleet, Gl4 raras one of a
submarinecomnanderswerevesy much'Je{t ta their own devjces, srnce tie L4-strong class olsubmarines ardered heloyethewarin respo4se to
radia technologty which allowed lJre Germans lo control their U-boats from ex aggerated.rumours of the performance of G erman submarines. Royal N ar,
a s h ore dut ing Wa r Id W ar I I w as only in iti lnf ancy. suhm driners aequitted fiems eli€s very well in World Wat l .

lnrs number had increased tenfold. 1n the. end the U-boat was not so much
iefeated by hardware as {iustrated by tactics, for the tardy introdrct;on oi
:cnvoy reduced the horrif.y.ing 5.75 million gross regrstered ion mercantile loss
zf 1917 10 a,rnanageable 2.65 million fc,rthefirst 10 months oi 1918.
Eariy German research to produce.ar reliab'le diesel engine benefitteC their
3cats wrth €xcellent m.achinery, qnly a f ew cjf the very earliest hari:ng the smcky
(orting engine that burned high f lashpolnt fuel. Only with ihe 'D' ciass haci the
3!-itish switched from the more haza.rdous p.elrolengine though, rn ils Cefence, ii
:culd be pointed out that ii was more com.pact and had a signritcantly better
oower-to-weigh! ratio. Diesels were staried, arid often reversed, by lsing the
rrain propulsron nnotors. Storage balte.ry. technology of the iime permrtted
s;:bmerged ranges typically less than l85 km {100 rniles)
All tvpes of submarne grew considerably in size during the w'ar. Thev were
ess agrle as a resul.t and easier to detect; butboth endurance and nabltabilitv
,r.er-e greatly jmproved so that pairo.ls of
isix and seven weeks were possible.

Left: The 'K' class was desrgned as Above: The,short-range coastal C-

fleet.submarines capable of 24 kts
surfaced; No contemparary diesels
were equal to tfie taskso steam
turbmes were fitted together with a
diesel to drive the generator. Over a
third of the hull was devoted ta ,
ilassboats were lhe first cJass to be
built in.]aige numbers for the Royal
Navy. Despite their short range and
petrol engines, they saw extensive
war service.

maihinery:

a::6
E= 'ffibg' class (Type
Resumption of unrestricted submarine
warfare by the Germans in February
1917 went far toward obliQring the USA
to declare war rn April 1917. Failing to
anticipate thls result, the Germans
were caugtht short of boats suitable to
carry the mercantile war to the Amer-
ican eastern seaboard, and the rearm-
rngt ofthe slow and vulnerable Handeis
U-Baote emphasized this predica-
ment, The construction of these large
boats had, however, yielded useful ex-
perience and enabled a proqramme of
large cruising submarrnes to be
undertaken with confidence, Already
being built at the US declaration were
the big ocean minelayers and a pair of
cruiser classes, the larger by far of
which were the 'U- I39' class boats, De-
spite their size, these cruiser sub-
marines could still carry only 13 spare
iorpedoes. so much debate was given
to surface armament for the purpose of
despatchinq'soft' targets, Eventually
they were qiven two l5O-mm (5.9-in)
gmns and were fitted for, but not neces-
sarily with, a further BB-mm (3.46-tn)
prece abaft the fin. A low bulwark
around the amidships section was de-
sigrned to keep down the amount of
free water that would otherwise have
swilled about to hamper gunlaying,
and a retractable 4-m (13,]-ft) range-
finder was housed in the after end of
the superstructure. A respectable sur-
face speed was as important as long
endurance, but diesels of high enough
power were only in the development
stage. Steam propulsion was consl-
dered but wisely rejected and a 150-mm and two BB-mm Enrns, with top-
speed of kts had to be accepted,
16
though even thls was not achieved tn
F 'ilibl' class (Handels U-Boote)
Germany blockadinq the UK with her
U-boats was, in turn, blockaded by the
Royal Nalry, Only a short war had been
planned by the Germans so, even by
1 9 1 5, shortages were appearing in vil-
al commodities, notably nickel and
rubber both of whrch were freely
available in the still-neutral USA. Of-
ficial plans to bnnq across small quan-
tities in existinq submarines were re-
placed by a commercial proposal to
build speciahzed, unarmed, cargo-
carrying U-boats (Handels U-Boote).
Investment was underwrttten by the
state and an operating company, the
Deutsche-Ozean Red GmbH was
estdblrshed A degree of urgency
attended the construction of the flrst
two boats, the largest yet ordered:
hulls were built in one yard and frtted
out in another; machinery was made
available from official sources in the
form of auxiliary machinery from capit-
al ships then under construction; and
completion took only 672 months, TWo
internal cargo spaces were provided,
and the free-flooding volume between
the pressure hull and the outer casinqf
was uti[zed for further stowage for
such as raw rubber while providing
scope for further deep-framing of the
uA or u-Kreuzer)
It was then too late to build such
submarines in any numbers, because
of shortages of skilled labour and
materials, and of conflicts of priorities,
and the three boats were not commls-
sioned until 1918, A planned follow-on
'U-142' class was even Iarger at 2,160/
2 7BS tons (dwarfing anythinq used in
World War II), addins a second BB-mm
gmn, 1B reload torpedoes and a 40750-
km (25,320-mile) cruisinq range. Only
the lead ship of a planned nine was
ever completed, Also planned, but
never built, was an even larqer 110-m
(360,9-ft) boat with an armament of four
sides armoured for surface combat
Only a handtul of corsairs ever
large-drameter hull. About 350 tonnes
could be carried in total. Access to the
inner carqto spaces was understand-
ably poor but, for such a venture, time-
ly arrrval took precendence over
speed of handling, Surfaced, the hull
had a hiqrh freeboard, double-ended
appearance, the stern particularly
having a quite mercantile form with a
deep skeg supporting a simplex{ype
rudder separating the twin screws,
which were fully bossed. The first
boat, Deulsciland, made two success-
ful trips to the USA with grreat attendant
propaqanda value but the second, Bre-
men, disappeared on her maiden
voyage. Nevertheless, six more boats
were ordered. By then (1916-7) they
had to share prrorities with other pro-
l
I'
i:'
$
+ economy. Atter their fellow
Submarines of World War I
).rr'@rrrr::::.
reached the Western Atlantrc oper- The shape of things to come : a'U- I 39'
ationally, Their success was limited type long-range cruiser submarine.
but their nuisance value was consider- which displaced over 2,000 tons. The
able, partrcularly in obliqinq the powerful gun armament of two I 5A-
Amerrcans to adopt a convoy system, mm (5.9 - in) weapons w as impor tant.
with its attendant delays. as despile ther'r size they could onJ';
accommodate I 9 torpedoes.
Specification
'U-I39'class
Displacement: I 930 tons surfaced and
2 483 tons dived
Dimensions: lenqth 92 00 m (301 ft
lO ir) beam9 lO n 129 ft I0 25 rn):
draught 5 30 m (17 ft 5 in)
Propulsion: two diesel-electric drives
delivering 2946 kW (3,950 bhp) and
two electric motors de[vering
1268 kW (1,700 hp) to two shafts
jects and were dellered late, This,
together with the USA's entry into the
war and possibly with doubts regrard-
ing the structural strength following
the loss of the Bremen, resulted in a
changre of role, The'U-151'class boats
were armed with two i50-mm (5.9-in)
gnrns and two torpedo tubes and used
as lonq-ranqe cruisers, Deutschland
became the U 155 and alone took sx
tubes. These biqr boats had a two-
month endurance and operated large-
ly in the central Atlantrc where, thouqh
their tally was small, they caused the
British much anxiety because of the
difficulty rn providrng countermea-
sures in so remote a reglon.
The'U- 15I' class begran Me as
submarine freighters (with names)
built to carry vital cargo from the
neutral USA to G erm any. avoiding
the RoyalNavy blockade whichwas
slowly strangling the German
submarines had brought America
into the war, the'U- I5I s'were used
as long-range submarine cnsisers.
Firsf of fheAces
U-35remarn s to this day the mostsuccessful submarine of alltime. She sank 224
ships, totalling 535,900 tons, mostof themwhileunder the command of Lothar von
Arnauld delaPeridre; bycomparison, themost successfulsubmarine of WorldWar
II (the GermanU-49) sank 52 ships totalling 310,000 tons. After two years in the
Mediterranean her commander returned to Germany and took over one of the latest
U-boats, but the war ended before he could substantially improve hjs score.
On 12 November 1915, the German submarine perishing, Her status allowed a submerged
U-35 returned to its forward base in the then attack with no warning but, in order to con-
Austro-Hungarian portof Cattaro, Her com- serve torpedoes, von Arnauld had wisely con-
mander, Kophamel, in a month ranging the scripted a good gunner from the fleet, Whrie, in
eastern Mediterranean, had sunk about 49,000 the next two days, two ships were sunk by
Jross tons of shrpping, He was now appointed gn-rnfire, a thlrd escaped because the boat's
:o command the new refitting base at Pola, movement made shooting dtfficult. On 29
being relieved by an unknown with an unlikely February four torpedoes were expended in U-35receires drspatches from a Friederikshafen
background, sinking the British sloop HMS Primula. The first seap/ane in the Mediterranean. The Kaiser once
Lothar Eugen George von Arnauld de la took her bows off, but the little ship went full used U-35 fo defiver a personal messagre to tie
Periere, not yet quite 30 years of age, had astern, not only evading two further shots but King of Spain" On hisway to andfrom Cartegena,
Von Arnauld expended over 500 rounds of
lrench aristocratic antecedenis traceable to also attempting to ram the submarine, Respect- ammunition against Allied merchantmen.
ie early 15th century, Hrs father was a State ing her two 102-mm (4-in) guns, the German
Audrtor in Potsdam but a great grandfather had drew off and sank her with his last torpedo, On 26 July he sailed again for the same area
earned a Pour le M6rite with Oakleaves while which obliged him to return to Cattaro after a on what was to be the wa'r's most productive
servrng as a Generalleutnant under Frederick patrol of only one week, U-boat patrol, In 25 days he destroyed 54 shrps
:he Great in 1757 Returning immediately, von Arnauld found totalling about 90,000 grt, all of which were
The lO-year-old Lothar was placed as a nav- the area almost devord of shipping, a month's attacked wrth the U-35 surfaced, Von Arnauld
al cadet at Wahlstatt, loimng the Kaiserliche patrol yieldlng only one respectable prize, the took consrderable risks to abide by the rules.
lv4arine seven years later, Specializing in tor- ]3,540-ton British transporl Minneapolis, which On 14 Augnrst, for instance, in sinkrng no less
oedoes, he served in the cruiser Emden in the took two days to founder. than I I small Italian traders roundrng northern
- ar East rn 1911-3 before berng drafted to the Following rectification of machinery defects, Corsica, he was jumped by the same number cl
sralf of Admrral von Pohl, soon to be C in-C ol U-35 appeared in the western Mediterranean French anti submarine ships. Next day, having
-ne Hrgh Seas Fleet, His next move was to the inJune 1916, Between 10 and 24 June he sank 40 stopped a small vessel, he was approached b;,-
t'-35 ships, mostly small French and Italtan traders, another, large and unmarked, whrch suddenl;.-
Ominously, Kophamel had reported the but aggregatlng 57,000 grt, With so many opened a hearry fire at '60 hectametres' (abou:
l'"'lediterranean eastern basin to be a good targets available, it was noteworthy that when
runting ground, r,vrth 'few patrols' and 'shipping the Brrtrsh ship Clodmoor made a spirited de- U-35 fies on the surface observing four warships
steaming over the horizon in April 19 17; von
.icilowing) prescribed courses', After a short fence, she survived. On 21 June von Arnauld
Arnauld had the mortifying experience of missing
refrt, U-35 sailed on 20 February 1916 to oper- entered Cartagena to deliver a letter frorn the the large French crujser Waideck Rousseau lfte
a.e between Malta and Creie, His first ktll, on Kaiser to King Alfonso of Spain and finally re- previous year. Most ofU-35's kils were achieved
25 February, was the French auxiliary Prore- turned only when 520 rounds of ammunition by surface action, whichwas notforgotten by the
:ce II, over half the 1,800 troops aboard had been expended veterans joining the inter-war Kriegsmarine-

U-35makesa rendezvous with a later-model U-
boat. Lack of radio equipment meant that
'Wolfpack tactics'were notyetpossible, but on the
other hand surface vessels had few weapons or
sensors and the AIIied navies took a long time to
mount a serious ASW effort.
6,500 yards). Von Arnauld submerged raprdly
but the ship, the Italian decoy CittA dt Sassan,
pulled away, On his return he had expended
over 900 rounds of 105-mm (4 13-1n) ammuni-
tron but only four torpedoes, one of which had
missed the French armoured crurser Waldeck-
Rousseau.
His next patrol netted 22 shlps of oyer
70,000 qrt, Typlcal of the larger victims was the
3,840-ton Benpark, on passaqe from North
Amenca to Genoa, with a manifest including
5,000 tons of piece goods, manufactured steel,
machine tools, 900 bars of copper and 1,000
tons of coke, During thrs operation he again
called at Cartagena to pick up a party of Ger-
man officers engaged on an undisclosed mis-
sion; among them, interestingly, was a 'Lt Cdr
Canaris', later head of German miltiary rntelh-
gence, Von Arnauld was awarded the Pour le
Merite and, patrol by patrol, steadily added to
hrs total, With the convoy system becoming
organized, however, lack of targets gradually
forced him to operate outside Gibraltar,
Early in 1918, with 195 ships totalling over
grt to hrs credrt, von Arnauld returned
500 000
to Germany to take command of the big U-
Kreuzer U-139 to spearhead the assault on
Amerrcan waters, Though others, includrng
Kophmel's U-14a, anived rn the summer, von
Arnauld was recalled and, operating subse-
quently west of Spain, had little luck against
weil escorted convoys, and the new experi-
ence oibeing heavily depth-charged, Thouqh
he had received the honour ofbeing personal-
ly received by the Kaiser, he returned to Kiel
on 14 October 1918 to flnd the fleet in a state of
revolt, and shared in iis joint shame.
With no submarines in the postwar fleet, von
Arnauld found himself until 1925 commanding
the equivalent of naval brigades in Stralsund
Submarines of World War I
Von Arnauld de la Peridre ended the war in
command of U-I39, one of the large ocean-going
cruiser submarines which could range right
across the AUantic. Here his former commandU-31
lies amongst other surrendered boats at Harwich
in 1918.
and Stettin, There followed a year as navigatlng
officer in the old battleshrp EJsass before being
appointed to the Naval Staff rn Wilhelmshaven,
In 1931 as a Kowettenkapitan, he joined the
new submarine command; still only 45 years of
age, his experience was grafted onto the root-
stock ofa new generation olsubmarine heroes,
U-35 recejves vrsrtors in the shape of the crew of a
small'UB' class submarine during a cruise in the
Mediterranean.The small size of the UB boat is
obvious. The figure in British uniform onU-35
forwardof the 88-mm gun is CaptainWilson,
King's Messenger, taken prisoner by von Arnauld
earlier in the patrol.
First of the Aces

1
I

U-boats increased in size and amament throughout thewar. Early boats

carried so few torpedoes that their offensive capacitywas severely limited,
whereas the later units of the'U-93'class could carry up to 16 torpedoes and
mounted a heavy gun armamenL
 Submarines of World War I

Unterseeboof U-150
By 1 9 8 I U - boats had evolved to a s ize and s hape fores hadowing that of the
boats thatfoughtthe second battle of theAtlantic duringWorldWar II.
Displacing 820 tons surfaced and I ,000 tons submerged, the 'U- 160' group
was a logical development of the earlier U-boats. Like the 'U-87' class they
were fi tted with a heavy bow arm amen t of s ix 500 -mm ( I 9.7 -in) torpe do tu be s,
and ended the war mounting I 05-mm (4. l -in) and 88-mm (3.46-in) dual-
purpose guns. Commerce raiding was hedged with a series of restrictions
imposed by the Hagrue Convention to which both Great Britain and Germany
were signatories; for submarinet lftese conditions posed veryserjous
prohlems because of their vulnerability when surfaced. The conventionwas
violated early in thewar by theRoyalNavy aswell as by theGermans. Neutral
opinionwas upsetby the actions of both sides, theGermans achieving
greatest opprobrium only as their sink-on-sight policy gathered pace. The
U-boats soon inflicted terrible damage on the Allied merchant marine ; it is
often torgotten that fatal damage was already being done before the Germans
embarked on unrestricted submarine warfare. U-160 was n ot launched until
February 19lBwhenthe U-boats had been all but defeated, andunrestinthe
German fleet would soon lead to mutiny.

*-"*l
:
='l American submarines
l:=-,';ar emphasis in US submarine
:::-; had beert based largely on the
,-,:=is of coastal defence, with sub-
::::;ed handiness and rapid diving
i:-!:nalit considerations This rather
-:-:=*ar approach was rudelY shaken
:::- i914 when German U-boats de-
:--:--:lred rheir capabLlitres tn ocean
'i.':l::re. Until 1913, almost all boats
:--j been of Holland design, excepting
::-;:he three'G'class boats of 1911 3
ri: ro the desiqn of Simon Lake but
:,=-d by the navy to be too complex)
=:-: a srngile Laurenti type, the G-4 of
-:-2 (found to be unstable in practice,
=:::blem discovered also by the Brit-
.:- ':l ther boats built to Laurenti de-
.-;) The narry had little confidence in
=:b:iarrnes in gTeneral but beinqt
::-.-cusly so far behind EuroPean
!riJlce, characteristically began to
:- i. ihough increasrnq the size of
:r::essive classes with qreat caution,
-l-ll American submartnes after L9l0
:.i dresels for surface propulsioni
--,^:: burlt pre-war were typically of
:, - :cns or Iess but the excellent 'H'
class ciabout 360 tons was available in
,: -: ihe British Admiralty havingt
::-::-; more built than the American's
:-:-:- Eleven 'L' class boats between
,:-: and l9i7 raised the sudace ton-
rr: :o beyond 450 and, for the first
-,,:-: :he boats mounted a 76-mm (3-in)
:=:k giun, when not rn use this re-
:-,-.:C barrel vertical, into a space-
FRANCE
'Dupuy de L6me' class
TheUS Navy developed its
submarine arm at a leisurely pace,
and at the end of thewar was
surprised at the superiority of the U-
boats it inspected; close examination
ofU-l11revea/ed adrybridge and a
sound propulsion system. Many US
vessels, Iike the'K' class, suffered
fr om unr e li able diesels.
consuming stowage in the pressure
hu]], The 'L' class boats were followed
by an assortment of largteiy similar 'N',
'O' and 'R' class boats, all of the same
armament and constructed at Hol-
land's successor, the Electric Boat
Company. They were rated for opera-
tions down to 6l-m (200-ft) submerg-
ence.
At the USA's entry into the war her
nalry had a respectable 50 boats in
service, but many of these were obso-
lete and little was to be achieved by
them In October l9l7 a flotrlla of 'L'
class boats was sent to the Azores and
a further flotilla (labelled 'ALs' to void
coniusion with the British 'L class)
operated in -western Irish waters
against U-boats, for German surface
targets were by this time vrrtually
nonexistent, They had no dlrect suc-
cess, although the German I/B-65 poss-
rbly torpedoed herself and was
while trying to sink the lZ-2
tradeoff for seaworthtness. Steam
propulsron in itself was a handicap in
drving, with the boiiers having to be
shut down, funnels secured and blank-
ed-ofl and electric propulsion run up.
fhe early Pluviose type sea-going
boats of 1907-10 had two sets oftiple-
expansion steam engines, and all thelr
torpedoes were carried in the unsatis-
factory external drop-collars rather
than tubes. They were followed bY
one-off larqter steam-propelled boats,
the generally similar firc,hmdde of
1909 and the improved Gustave Z6d6
of 1913, The latter had two tubes for
lorpedoes bul retarned dropplng gear.
as did the ultimate pair, the'Dupuy de
L6me'class boats, Dupuy de L6me and
San6 of 1915-6. Like all French sub-
marines, they were constructed in
state dockyards, in this case at Toulon
Specification
'L'class
Displacement: 456 tons surfaced and
524 tons dived
Dimensions: length 50 29 m (165 ft
O in); beam4,50 m(14 ft9 in); draught
4.04 m (13 ft 3 in)
Propulsion: -wo diesels deliverin g
895 kW (1,200 bhp) andtwo electric
Their size enabled them to maintain
17 kts on the surface but it must be
doubtful if they ever reached therr
claimed 11 kts submerged After the
war they were re-engdned with 895-
kW (1,200-bhp) diesels removed from
ceded German boats, This gave them
a Qreatly increased radius and more
internal space as a result of the com-
pactness of the machinery, They also
received eight torpedo tubes and
served through until 1935.
Specification
'Dupuy de L6me' class (as built)
Displacement: 833 tons surfaced and
l2BTtonsdived
Dimensions: lenqth 75.00 m (246 ft
1 in); beam 6 40 m (2 I ft 0 in); draught
4 60 m(15 ft I in)
Propulsion: two sets of lrrple-
motors deliverinq 597 kW (B0O hp) to
two shafts
Speed: 14 kts surfaced and l0 kts
dived
Range: not known
Armament: one 76-mm (3-in) gun and
four 457-mm (18-in) torpedo tubes
(bow) with eight torpedoes
Complement: 28
The 'O' class were typical of the
submarines constructed in America
before the USA entered the war.
Displacingjustover 500 tons, they
carried a crew of 28 and were fitted
withfour 457-mm (19-in) torpedo
fubes.
expansion steam engines deliverinqt
1305 kW (1,750 rhp) andtwo electric
motors deiiverinq 61 I kW (820 hp) to
two shafts
Speed: 17 kts surfaced and B kts dived
Ranse:4250 km (2,640 miles) at 10 kts
surfaced (after re-engineerlng) and
200 km ( 124 miles) at 5 kts dived
Armament:one 75-mm (2.95-in) Wn,
one 47-mm (1 B5-in) grun and 10450-
mm (17 7-rn) torpedoes
Complement: 43
Serving with the Morocco flotilla of
the French navy in 1917-18, based at
Gibraltar,Dupuy de L6me was an
enlarged version of the successful
'Archimdde' design. S he reached
I 9 kts on her reciprocating engines
on trials. These engines were
replaced after thewarby a 1200-bhp
Krupp diesel taken from an ex-
German submarine.
 'C' class Submarines of World War I
-t - r3ngthened and improved 'B' A remarkable series of photos taken
-i-s -:.ie 'C' class submarines ran to
'r=
from one of Oberleutnant Friederich
::-iderable number of 38 boats C hristiansen's H ansa- Brandenburg
- -.- -.l:::.
rn the four years of therr con- atpl anes, which attacked C-
W. 2 9 flo
-'
- :-'cn programme various im- 25 off Harwich on I J uly I 9 I B. The
-r:;3ments were rncorporated. In pressure hullwas pierced and the
.
=--::e ihere we'e rwo main groups. CO, Lieutenant B e11, was killed along
-' : CIB (completed 1906-8) and C19 withfiveof hiscrew.
J-38 (completed 1909'10), Costing
. -::rhing like f47,000 to S50,O0O each, Specification
=-- :xcept srx were built by Vickers, 'C' class (second series)
':-:h firm had the monopoly of con- Displacement: 290 tons surfaced and
-..:::tinq, in concert with the Royai 320 tons dived
-::kyards, any submarine for which Dimensions: length 43.36 m (142 ft
:-: company had provrded the major 3 in); beam 4 14 m (13 ft 7 in); drauqrht
::siqm input, The hull design was of 3,51m(ilft6in)
. :-role Iorm wrlh poor characle.r-slrcs Propulsion: one petrol engine
-: the surface (where the boats of the delivering 447 kW (600 bhp) and one
r-y spent the qreater part of their electric motor delivering 224 kW
.-:ne) It is interesting that the concept (300 hp) to one shaft
,, these early forms which were Speed: 13.5 ktssurfacedandB kts
-'rned at the best submergred perform- drved
:ilce, was gradually abandoned over Range:2414 km (1 500 miles) at B kts
:ie years to be readoptedand reflned surfaced, and 101 lcn (63 miles) at 5 kts
:nly in the high speed submarine de- dived
. elopments post-1950. Improvements Armament: two 457-mm ( I B-tn)
.c both casrnq and tower resulted not torpedo tubes (both bow) with two or
,-nly in better seakindliness but also in four torpedoes
ncreasing periscope lenqth from Complement:16
3 76m (12 it 4 in) to 6.40 m (21 ft 0 rn),
an important consideration with re Right: The figure by the periscope is
spect to depth-keeping in a sea. In the believed to be Leading Seaman
:arlier boats, two periscopes were Barge, who was mortally wounded
itted for the flrst time while firing a Lewis gun back at the
Reserve of buoyancy was greater aircraft. He shouted for the
:han in earlier boats but was still li- submarine to dive, unaware that she
mrted, decreasing further over the had already sustained prohibitive
years to the extent that eventually, the hulldamage.
choice often had to be nade between
:pare lorpedoes or fuel capaclly
Compared wrth that of the 'B' class
boats, battery power was increased by
50 per cent butthe submerged endur-
ance of 93 km (58 miles) at 4,5 kts still
needs to be compared with 37 km (23
mrles) at 5 kts for the earliest 'A'boats
A drawback to all these early cias-
ses was their total lack of marn internal
-.vatertrght bulkheads; to reduce the
Canger of raprd flooding a collisron
bulkhead was later fltted to some.
-{abitability was of a very low standard
and the adherence to the petrol en-
lme perpetuated the explosion risk
rom vapoul,
Despite thelr obvrous hmitations, the
l' boats were active in the war. Be
:ause of their small size four were ship
:ed to North Russia, broken into sec-
.-cns, transported overland and reas-
:=mbled for use in the Gulf of Frnland.
-:-. a time when smailer U boats were
;estering the Bntish North Sea flshing
--eet, 'C' boats rnrere occasionally
:'ved submerged by decoy trawlers
: ruse thal resulteo rn Lhe destructron
-: two of the enemy before detectron
ralsed rts abandonment. War iosses
::alled four, and the four boats rn the
l:lf of Frnland were all eventully
:-:wn up,

The'C'class of submarinewas the first type to Above: Bullets impact into thewater asC25
b producedinsubstantial numbers for the vainly tries tomanoeuvre. Shewas rescuedby
Royal Navy, 38 examples being built. Small the appearance of the minelaying submarine
coastal craftwith limited endurance and with ESI, which towed her back to Harwich despite
ptrol engines, theywere perhaps intended for the continued attentions of Christiansen's
)-defined harbour defence tasks butsaw aircraft. Christiansen added C25 to his kill total
;r':despread action, four sewing in the Baltic. nevertheless.
>K L'clars
-:e erght-boat 'D' class completed in
-:-3-i2, rectrfied many of the short-
::mlngs of the'C'class, Though 5,79 m
: ft) longer, they were better sea-
::ats and they were also equipped
-,';-rh saddle tanks, which accommo-
rated most ballast capaclty outside the
.ressure hull and rncreased the re-
serve of buoyancy. They also had
diesel propulsron on twrn shafts (so im-
provinq manoeuvrabrlity), could carry
a 12-pdr g,un and shipped a third tor-
pedo tube aft. It was felt that whrle the
Cesrgn was successful, the 'D' class
boats would experience difficulty in
grettrng clear following an end-on tor-
ing the forward tubes.
The diesels frtted were of Vickers
own design, usually built under li-
cence. They were srnqle-acting four-
stroke unrts with blast inlectron started
by erther compressed air or electrrc
motor. In the 'D' class the enqnnes had
six cylinders and in the 'E class -^ight.
With their heavy operationai in
volvements, the 'E class boats had an
impofiant yet extraordinanly varied
surface armament. Early boats had no-
ihing or one z-pdr, whiie later exam-
ples had both a 12- and 2-pdr One,
E20, was fitted with a 152-mm (6 in)
howitzer. Improvements necessary for t

pedo attack at close ranqe even
ihough fitted with an upper separate
rudder, TWo transverse tubes were
therefore added to a new design to
permrt beam attacks, and it was the
length of these tubes, located
amidships, that decided the main
dimensions of what was to become the
'E'ciass,
Completed from 1913 through to
1916 the 'E'class ran to 55 hulls whose
construction once war was declared
was shared between 13 private yards
They fell into flve major groups differ-
ences beinq prrmarily rn torpedo lay-
out and the adaption of six boats to
carcy 20 mines in place of therr
amrdships tubes. The stowage of the
mmes 1n external vertical chutes antr-
cipated later French practice T\ruo,
sometrmes three, intemal bulkheads
were added, increasrng the safety
margrn but griving problems in reload-
longer range radro commurrrcauor re'
qurred some 'E' class boats to surren
der an amidships tube to make room
for a wireless telegraphy cabinet.
The class was active in the North
Sea, Baltic and eastern Medlterra
nean, Just before Jutland, E22 became
one ofthe earhest submarines to carry
arrcrall. ir 1ne coulse oiexpenmenting
wrth Sopwrth seaplanes'or operatrons
aqainst Zeppelins. Some 22 ofthe boats
were lost rn World War L 457-mm (18-in) torpedo tubes (two
Specification
'E'class ('E2i'type)
Displacement: 667 tons surfaced and
807 tons drved
Dimenslons: lenqfih 55 17 m (18l ft
0 in); beam6.9] m(22fIB in); draught
3.Bim(12ft6rn)
Propulsion: rwo d.esels dehverrng
I 193 kW ( I 600 bhp) and two eiectric
motors deliverinq 626 kW (840 hp) to
two shafts
Speed: 14 kts surfaced and 9 kts drved
Range: 6035 km (3 750 mrles) at 10 kts
surfaced, and 121 km (75 miles) at 5 kts
dived
Armament: one 12-pdr gnrn, and five
bow, two amidshlps and one stern)
wrth L0torpedoes
Complement: 30
In 191 1 the Admitalty ordercd six
I
enlarged 'D' class submannes. Tftjs
modified design became known as
the R- l group; eightwere builtfor the
Navyand twoforAusfralta. E1, seen
here,was shipped toMurmansk and
taken overland to operate in the Gulf
of Bothnia and the Baltic. She was
eventually scuttled at Helsingfors in
April 19 I 8 to avoid capture by the
advancing Germans.
E I I as slre appeared during her
operations in the Dardanelles; Iike
the British boats in the
Mediterranean in World W ar I I she
adopted a blue camouflage to
conceal her self in the shallow, clear
waters. The lack of a deck gun on the

'K' class
Wlth HMSSr,vordfsi building but antl-
crpated to reach nothing like her de
srgned surface speed, there came a
requrrement direct from the Grand
Fleet for a class ol24-kt submarines to
,"riork tactically with surface forces.
Such a speed was qutckly demons-
trated to need 7457 kW (10,000 shp) on
a surface drsplacement of I 700 tons.
No contemporary diesels could deliv
er such power from anything less than
eight units and there was thus no
alternative to steam. With two botiers
and a turbine room the hull of the 'K'
class needed to be of a grood stze but,
,mth the poor economy of steam plant
and the need 10 provide power when
steam was shut down, a 597-kW (800-
bhp) diesel was also rnstalled to drive
a generator. This could erther charge
ihe batteries or power the marn drive
motors for a surface speed of about 9 5
knots. Over one{hird of the huli was
thus devoted to machrnery, The two
funnels exhaustrng the borlers hinged
downward rnto the casing before a
drve was commenced their orifices
being simultaneously shut off by sea-
ling plates. Diving took up to five mt-
nutes.
While 533-mm (21-in) torpedo tubes
were specrfied for the class, they could
not be made available rn time and 457-
mm (18-rn) tubes were fltted except in
the srngrle improved boat K26, com-
pleted in 1923. Four fixed athwartships
tubes were sited rn a torpedo room
rmmediately forward of the boiler
space and two further trainable tubes
(later removed) were set behind
screens in the large superstructure, for
use in surface actLon. TVro 102-mm (4-
in) guns were mounted at (usually)
lower casinq level with a 76-mm (3-in)
hiqh-angle gun srted on the super
structure, but indrvrdual armament flts
varied. Some 17 boats were com-
pleted in 19l7 and 1918.
The K' class boats met the fleet re-
qurrements for surface speed but
needed the addrtion of a flared and
bulbous bow casing (known euphe
misncally as a swan bow; 'o md.nlarn
speed in any sea. Such hard driving
damageo bow shutters more crLtl
"nd, The boats
cally, funnel mechanrsms.
complexrty made them extremely
troublesome, and they acquired an
evil name, not fully justified. In partlcu Above.'K6 is seen before the addition
lar, the so-called Battle of May lsland in of the ungainly bow casing, politely
January 1918, when two were lost in termed the'swan bow'. Sealing the
collisions, demonstrated the under- boat befo r e diving prcv e d diffi cu lt,
lying fallacy of operatinq large sub- asventilators could be jammed open
marines on the surface in higrh-speed by only a small obstruction. The
fleet manoeuwes at niqht, not shofi- planned 21 -in torpedoes were
comings rn the boats themselves, abandoned in favour of I 8-in ones.

2514
ffi i'"lass
-:: i912 requrrements were framed for
-<ely future types of submarine, and
.:ese included an 'overseas craft, of an
:ppropriate srze and habitabllity for
-:rtended operations. It was hoped to
:chreve a speed of 2l kts on the sur-
=ce which in conjunction with a dou-
:le-hulled design (the outer of which
:ould be given a suitable conflguration
:lrestncted by the pressure{ight re-
Iiirements of the inner hull) would en-
:ble rt to operate wiih the main body of
:e fleet. A prototype, HMS ly'autulus
-,';as
built by Vrckers and completed in
317 rn slow time The company pro-
irced two new l3BO-kW (1,850-bhp)
:-escls ror rhe ourpose, but rt was
ipparent from model testing that the
.cat would never be able to exceed
-l kts For this reason, Scotts were
jr,'en the task of building a steam-pro-
pelled alternative in HMS Swordfish
3oth were very large boats compared
-,'rth the 'E type but experrence wrth
.:em was still lacking and, as longer-
:ange submarines were needed lt
'.',-as decrded to iollow
German prac-
.-ce and build a smaller double hulled
lesign without the requirement for a
:,gh surface speed. Thrs was the 14,
srrong 'G' class,
The two, experimental boats were
Submarines of World War I
sttll incomplete when it became
known (rncorrectly) that the Germans
were burldrng a 22-kt class, and there
was suddenly a pressing need to
match them. Existing machinery had to
be used and, with the largest available
dtesel beinq the 12 cylinder 895-kW
(1,200-bhp) Vickers unit, three ofthese
were rncorporated tn what became
the I class. These were the longest
boats yet and could manage over
i9 kts on the surface To attaln the
necessary flneness of line the seven
boats (six compieted in 1916 and one in
1917) were double-hulled over only
some 56 per cent of their length, This
length was determined largely by the
demands of the machrnery, though Specification The handful of 'J' class boats wx ot::e
only the wingr shafts were driven when J'class of several attempts to produce a
submerged Their beam needed to Displacement: 1,204 tons surfaced and 'fleet submarine': that is. a
accommodate the two transverse 1,820 tons dived submarine capable of over 20 ks
amtdshrps tubes and the pressure hull Dimensions: ienqth 83.97 m (275 ft able to operate in conjunctjon :lrik
itself needed to be locally bulged to 6 in); beam 7.0 t m (23 ft 0 in); draught the battlefleet.Jl was later Ettec. :c
suit They were the flrst British sub- 4.27m(14ft0in) drop depth charges from her afte:
mannes wrth four tubes forward and a Propulsion: three dieseis deltvering casng.
unlque arrangement aft allowed the/J 2685 kW (3,600 bhp) and two electric
(only) to release depth charqes. Only
motors deliverinq 1007 kW (1,350 hp)
one was lost and that by accrdent to the to three shafts
'Q ship HMS Cymric just before the Speed: 19 5 ktssurfacedand9.S }cts
Armistice The remarnder were trans- dived
ferred to the Royal Austrahan Nar,ry. Range: 9254 km (5,750 miles) at
10 (?) kts surfaced, and l0 I km (63

The steam turbine-powered 'K' class gained a reputation for bad luck and
bad design culminating in the so-called'battleof Maylsland'whenK! andK77
both sank in collisions while on manoeuvres. In fact they were tremendous
technical achievements, the problems stemming from the concept of afleet
su bm arine. not the actual des ign.

Specification
'vt ^1^^^
Modified 'K'class submarine cutaway drawing key
Displacement: 1,980 tons surfaced and Rudder T4 Superstructure 26 Conn ng tower 40 Douo e ^-
: 366 tons dived Tw n screws
Hydroplanes
T 5 Hlgh-pressure/ ow-pressur-6 27 Forced draft fan 41 Cren,res: :-:: :-:::-:
Dismentions: lenqth i03 32 m (339 ft steam turb ne
'16 Hngedfunnel
28 Search perlscope 42 Dertc<
Steerage compafiment 29 Attack periscope 43 Ballasi:.-<:
, rn); beam B. 10 m (26 ft 7 in); draught Trim tanks 17 Oi -fired boi er 30 Bridge wlth stream ined 44 10-to.:c-,..:-:.::,r: :-:
: 18m117fl0rn) Crew compaftment
tngine room
18 Hatches(cosedwhen screen 45 Auxilian c: :::::-! :
Propulsion: two sets ofgeared steam submerged) 31 Wheelhouse 46 Alr bofties
-
B Eight-cy inder dleset 19 Three-inchAAgun 32 Dome 47 Raiseds$:-::.1
*:bi res deliverr nq 7830 kW eng nes
r 20 Fourinch gun 33 Hatch 48 Buoyanc!:^:-::-
, ! 500 shp) or one dresel dehvenng Nlain motor 2l Hingedalrlntakes 34 Compasstube 49 Torpedo'c:-
TO N4otorcontrol room 22 Dinghy 35 Wire ess aerlal 50 18 lnch1c.c3::::
437 kW (800 bhp) vra a generator, and 11 lO-ton af t I ee werght lto 23 Detrickforboathandllng or 36 Retractab e wireless masl 51 Torpedo:u..:
.;'o electric motors deiiverrng bedropped nemergencV) stowing torpedoes 37 Periscopewel s
-174 kW (1,440 bhp) to two shafts 12 Gearbo\ 24 Batterycompartment 38 Batteries
Speed: 24 or 9.5 kts surfaced (steam or
13 Escape hatch 25 Control room 39 lnner pressure hull
r-esel) and B 5 kts dived
Range: 23175 km (14,400miIes) at
: i kts surfaced, and 56 km (35 miles)
i.4 kts dlved
Armament: two srngle 102-mm (4-in)
;::ns one 76-mm (3-in) qun, and l0
-..er erght (four bow, four amrdshrps /
:d two superstructure) 457-mm ( 18,
J.d
,:,) torpedo tubeswith 16 torpedoe
lorpedoes
Complement: 59
*-+
i'*
:r,,:in tremendous style, making the firstdeep-water
Victorg intheStraits
The Turkish fleet had good reason to feel safe in I9 l4; although it was committed to
war with the world's most powerful navy, jfs vesse/s sft eltered at the end of the Sea of
Marmora, ahundred milei of shallowwaterswith treacherous currents, sownwith
mines and protected by forts. Yet Allied submariners took up the challenge and
sajied their frail craft into the straits, one British boat entering Constantinople itself.
-.-,hen
on 30 October 1914 Turkey declared lor
re Central Powers, business began in earnest
-:r a small Anglo-French submartne force
iased on ihe Greek island ofTenedos Handi-
--.--olaced close to the entrance to the Dar-
jaielles, the boats had been familiarizing
remselves with the approaches ever since the
3erman battle-cruiser Goeben and light cruis-
Breslau had dtsappeared up the strait in the
=r
;:evious August, Together with the makeshift
repot ship Hindu Kush were, initially, three
:rench boats and the British 89, BIA andBll
fhe Dardanelles is a narrow strait about
:: l<rn (36 mrles) in length and leads to the
-a::i-gart Sea of Marmora, about 160km (lO0
:-es) from end to end, At the far end of this
r, 1.er was the magnet of the Turkish capital,
J.:rs:antinople, but to reach it a submarine had
.: :egotiate the stralt, whrch was heavily de-
its
-::,ced by forts, batteries and searchlights,
,';a:ers possessing
^^;-^ unpredictable
"-^v^/liafrl-rla arrrronf<
currents n{of
-:-r -^ lls at the
:c 5 ks ihe Narrows and also strewn with
:-:= and mine barriers,
l: .ceen
:he Allied submarines, Holbrook's BiJ
:-=l recently equipped with new batter-
-:s ard was elected to make the first deep
:::=:ation of the siralt, Thus on 13 December
.--- eq,-upped with improvised mine gnrards,
g*.
ffi
@.
a
.s
:t: *
i.il::-
.;:*
':i"1!. a!
;i.!:
'rl:t:1
Holbrook's BII opened the D ardanelles campaign
penetration of the strait on I3 December 1914 and
divingbeneath the Turkishmines. Finding the
Turkish battleshrp Messoudieh lying at anchor, he
hit her with a single torpedo at 800 m; she went
downquite rapidly butopened a heavy fire onBII,
which had trouble submerging in the very shallow
water.Bl! escaped down the straits in an epic
nine-hour submerged journey.When she finaL[y
surfaced in the open sea the air aboardwas so foul
that the petrol engine refused to run. Holbrook
received a well-earned VC.
the little boat drved inside Cape Helles just
before dayhght, Holbrook kept to the Euro-
pean side to cheat the trde and (except when
taking frequent periscope checks) ran as far as
possible at 18 to 24 m (60 to B0 ft) to keep below
the mines, Four hours after going down and
after various alarms and excursions, B1l had
negotiated the first mine barriers off Kephez
and was approaching the second, below the
Chanak narrows, To his deltght, her comman-
der sighted the aged armoured cruiser Mes-
soudieh lying unconcernedly at anchor. Con-
siderrng the date and conditions, his hitting her
wrth a sinqle torpedo at the range of 800 m (880
yards) was a fine feat. She settled rapidly but
opened a brisk flre on the submarine, which
was experienclng difficulty in remaining hid-
den in very shallow water, Wtth no compass,
Holbrook bumped and bored his way back
down the iron q-r1let of the strait, Successful, he
surfaced in the open sea after nine hours sub-
merged, the air in the boat so foul that his petrol
engine refused to run, The obsolete ltttle boat
had opened unlimited prospects, and her com-
mander received a well-merited Victoria
Cross,
With the opening of the main Dardanelles
campaign eariy in 1915, there was a rapid
burld-up in the jornt fleets, the Brrttsh sub-
marine force being boosted by the arrival of
modern 'E' class boats, As the Turkish land
communication system was vrrtually nonexis-
tent, supply and reinforcement of their front
would clepend greatly on sea transport down
the Sea of Marmora and it was vital to disrupt
the route, The first attempt to force the strait, by
E/5, was disastrous: the submarine stranded
near Kephez and was finally destroyed only
after a heroic foray by boats from the bat-
tleshrps HMS MaTesfic and Tnumph.
It fell to the Australian boatAE2Io be the first
through the strait, on 25 April I 9 15, followed the
very next day by El4 whtch bored through
mainly on the surface, takrng advantage of
darkness, Strong nerves were required as the
boat was held by the cold fingers of the sear-
chhghts and subjected to a continuous bom-
bardment, Boyle, the commander, submerged
when things became too hot but, finding the
scraping of mine cables along the hull even
more unpleasant, kept popping up, Like the
Australian, Stoker before hrm, Boyle found a
gmnboat to torpedo but, in the process, had a
periscope shot through and the other Qrasped
rudely by a Turk in an open boatl
Australianvessel sunk
Actrvity was intense, it being the thlrd day
before Boyle could fully charge his batteries,
He was rewarded by being able to force
aground one of two transports under destroyer
escort. The same eveninq he met up wtth AE2,
which was down to one torpedo, having had
the cruel experience of firing six duds, On the
very next day the Austrahan was caught on the
surface by a Turkish destroyer and sunk,
The British boat had a lean time, for the Turks
cut their sailings to a mhimum and put re-
fugees on those that did move so that they could
not be sunk, Then, the first legitimate target
was hit by a torpedo that failed to explode, At
last on 10 May Boyle sank a laden troopship
hard by Constantinople and, reduced to one
faulty torpedo (he had no deck gun), he then
harassed local shipprng for a week with threats
and rifle fire until recalled on 17 May, Hunted
persistently whrlst coming down the strait with
the stream, he avoided much trouble by pas-

sing the various barriers close astern of an
enemy patrol. He returned after a 22-day abs-
ence with much intelligence regarding the de-
fences and anti-submarine measures, to be
awarded the second Victoria Cross gained by
the force. During his time away, two French
submarines had attempted the passage; of
these the Bemouilli was unable to stem the
cwrent and was forced to return while the
/ou1e was sunk in a minefield, Two more
French boats, the Saphir and Mariotte, werc
aiso to be lost, similarly or following technical
troubles.
Boyle was immediately relieved by Nasmith
tn the E11 the latter already a veteran of North
Sea operatlons, Proflting by the E,14's experi-
ences, Nasmith negotiated the Dardanelles
successfully and made for the eastern end of
ihe Sea of Marmora. He, too, began by sinking
a Turkish patrol craft which also succeeded in
putting a 6-pdr shot through his perrscope, This
was followed by a couple of transports, the loss
of which caused traffic to cease, Nothing
daunted, Nasmlth took the EJI riqhl into the
Golden Horn, the harbour of Constantinople,
and torpedoed a freighter alongside the arsen-
al.
The lack of a deck gun was keenly felt and
transports were sunk by demolition charge
whenever possible. Nasmith developed the
technique of setting his torpedoes to float at the
end ol their run, so that 'misses' could be later
recovered, disarmed and manoeuvred care-
ful1y back into the bow tubes with the boat
suitably trimmed, a precarious business that
left them very vuinerabie for a time, Even when
torpedoed, however, a large well-found ship
could survive the explosron of a 457-mm (18-in)
Nasmith tookhis submarine EI I
rightinto the Golden Horn, the
har bour of C onstan ti nople, and
torpedoed a freighter. During
this patrolhe sethis torpedoes to
Iloat at the end of their run so that
if he missed, he could surface and
recover the torpedo fior re-use.
After sinking seven large enemy
vessels he lookEll back through
the straifs but sn agged a mine on
the way, towing it for some
distance. After some hairy
moments it floated free andEll
escaped.
r:t:iitii:
:+rrtrnl
2r'''
,-.,tsi.,,.i::
Submarines of World War I
warhead, and several were thus beached. Sa--
rng craft were burned ln numbers. Not uni -
June did the condition of the Ell's machirer
oblige withdrawal, the passage dovrrn the sra::
seeing another ship torpedoed and a rnre
towed for some distance, its cable caughl t a
hydroplane. Nasmith's extended cruise hai
bagged seven large ships and earned a fiu-ier
Victoria Cross.
British sub penetration
Despite the fact that the Twks and Germa:=
continuously lmproved the Dardanelles de-
fences, the Sea of Marmora was inhabited br a:
least one British submarine throughout :g-c
Maritime traffic, though hard hit and often slcc-
ped had, of necessity, always to resume be-
cause of the endless needs of the front a:rd :e
dreadfui land communications. German e:--
gineers laboured on a new rail line but th:s ::,:<
time, Knowing the British boats' small :c=ej,:
resewe it is surprisrng that the enem-,- :-=t::
capilahzed more on therr reguueme:-.: :: s-:.
face to attack commerce by other nea- 31
this time the Q-ship stratagem was r,',.e_ :-:i_-
cized, and German 'UBs' were being :ssa:-
bted at Pola,
The experiences of Bruce's EIZ -were _;c-:-
al, In passing up the strart rn June l9 - r :.=-:,:;:
was enmeshed in a newly-added ne: aij --::-
vived only by flooding everythrng anC cr-.:._:_:
her motors alternately into ahead ani:e;e:=
thrust, All but burned out, they thereaie:;a;:
endless troubie, obliging Bruce :c 3cer::-
largely on the surface. In one encc-;:-::: ;e
tackled two merchantmen towinc i;e s::,-::
_F;
, .
Victory in the Straits
Above: The waterfront in Constantinople is seen
after the British submanne E I I , commanded by
Nasmith, entered the harbour and unleashed a
salvo of torpedoes, sinking a large merchantman
and shattering this section of dock. Nasmith even
took time to take a photograph through his
periscope to record his visit for posterity.
Right: The straits had dangerous currents and
were heavily mined by the Turks; passing through
on the surface meant braving the powerful forts.
Here the tiumphant crew celebrate their retutn'
Note the damage to the periscope.
:raft. Spurning ihe aid of hrs toy 6 pdr he ran
:.cngside one ship, only to have somebody
above heave a bomb at him (rt bounced off the
-:redeck without explodrng) and direct a sus-
::ined fusillade of rifle fire. In a very exposed
:--uation, Bruce had his gun crew put shots
. :ng the length of the ship's hull at a range
-.';:lere half bricks would have been more
=cpropriate, Simultaneously, othersof his crew
rifles to fight off two of the tows, which
-ed
-,',-ere endeavouring to snare his propellers
,'. -.h a cable, After a Henty-type scrap the sub-
::-arine disposed of its tormentors and pursued
::= second ship until it ran under the protection
:, a shore battery.
As the 'E' boats gained l2-pdr guns they
i=-,-eloped also a taste for annoying targets
:.:3re, duelhngwith artillery and shelling such
r='.,rays as existed. During the August, Nas-
.-:--.-:' and Boyle, inE/J andEl4, shared a partr
cularly fruitful patrol. Off Gallipolt town theEll
sank the Turkish battleshtp Heireddin Barbar-
ossa, following which her first lieutenant, d'Oy-
ly Hughes, swam ashore one night and blew up
a railway line. Hotiy pursued by the vengeful
enemy, he was fortunate to survive the esca-
pade,
The Sea of Marmora rematned no sinecure,
In the September ET had to be scuttled after
having become hopelessly fouled by nets ofl
Nagara, Of the French submarines, only the
Turquoise ever succeeded tn negotiating the
strait, operating in the Sea of Marmora for a
short period in October 1915. Returning,
however, she stranded and was captured in
tact, Not only did the Turks recommission her
(as the Mustadteh ambashi) but her papers
compromrsed a planned rendezvous wtth the
Brr]rtsh E20, which was thus stmply ambushed
by the German UB 14, torpedoed and sunk
Above:EIl returns from her mosfsuccessfu/
patrol, having sunk the Turkish battleship
HeireddinBarbarossaon SAugust I I I 5. The
battles hip (ex -G erman' Br andenburg' class,
Kurftust Friedrich Wiihelm)fta d had an active
career in Ottoman service, fighting the Greek fleet
in 1 9 I 2-3, when she was the Turkish flagship.
Left: The commander ofE2poses byhis gun after
returning from a successfulpa trol in the Sea of
Marmora.E2 began life with a l2-pdr weapon but
received a 4-in gun at Malta.
with all but nine of her crew.
Only Nasmith in the Ell was then left in the
Sea of Marmora but, in a cruise of 47 days, he
created such mayhem that he was rewarded
by promotion to captain's rank after only one
year as a commander, In mid-December he
was joined by Stock's E2, which was the ltnal
boat rn the area as the declsion to abandon the
whole Dardanelles campaign had been taken,
When this boat returned down the strait on 2
January 1916 some obstructions had already
been removed and the Allied evacuatton was
almost complete.
For the loss of four Brrtish and four French
boats, the force had proved that submarines
could sustain an effective campaign in dis
puted waters, In addition to drsruption ashore,
they had sunk two armouted ships, six flott11a
ships, 37 merchantmen and nearly 200 assorted
saihng craft,
 'L' class
-,-/it1
11'" benefil of war experrence
-:-e generally satisfactory 'E' class de-
s-gn was updated, the flrst pair of the
::ew type being frrst designated 857
ld ESB before officially becomingl1
=rdtr2 of the new'L'class, There were
:
rentually four major subgTroups: lJ to
,3 each had four 457-mm (18-in) tubes
-: the bows and two more amidshrps,
,-r to 133 each had four 533-mm (2 1-rn)
ices forward and two 457-mm tubes
-'nidships (for which they needed to
:e 2.3rn/7,5 ft longer), six of them
:lnelayers whrch sacrificed beam
::bes for mine chutes, and those from
-52 with a heavier battery of tubes, all
:rrward.
Earlier classes had, almost invari-
ai:ly, disappointed with their poor sur-
:ace speed and the 'L' class boats were
-;renerally
capable ofbetter than l7 kts,
rke the earlier 'E' class units, they
."ere of saddle tank construction but
:ominaliy capable of diving to 76 m
'250 ft) as opposed to 6 1 m (200 ft). This
.-ras exceeded by at least 40 per cent
i] sewlce.
Originally the surface armament
Hrd
-{rx
i.
>K it{' ctas,
Submarines, more than any other type
:. warshrp, spawn oddities from time to
.-me either as a counter to their con-
.-derable limitations or in order to
:apttahze on their strengths. The quar-
.:t of 'M'class boats, known officrally as
:,omtor submartnes' fal] into the for,
:-er cateqory World War I sub-
:-arines had relatively poor sub-
:--rqed performance which coupled
','.--.h the lack ol speed, range and hrt-
-:g power of thetr torpedoes, made
:: chances of a successful attack on a
=.: moving and manoeuvrmg target
*:=ry
slim It was thougrht ihat by
jnting a large gmn on a submarine
.---: could surface unexpectedly and
-:::cbiiize a targret with a stngrie pro-
=:le before despatching the target at
.:i-Je.
rr.rs four hulls (Kl8 to K2l) were
:= ::ed from the 'K class prog[amme
---::eplaced by MJ IoM4, whrchwere
-:-s-lucted to completely different
r-:-::slons. Thetr design was totally
:::--:ated by the 4o-calibre 305-mm
,--,:) gruns removed from pre-
,:==irouqrht battleships, and was
- - :-:-huiled over about two-thirds of
.. ,=:1h Trainrng of the guns was
.,= =: ic +7.5", and the shrp's head
-::r=tr io be used for coarse adjust-
-.=: :levation was +20' and, once
.:=i cn the surface, the weapon
:, --r :: fired from pedscope depth.
I : -:::- (3-in) gun was carried aft for
i:: r-:: CLlpOSeS.
:..-::-class MI was completed in
was mtended to be 76-mm (3-in) q-uns,
but thrs idea was discarded in favour of
a single 76-mm grm forward on a com-
plex 'disappearlng' mount that fitted
into the brrdge front when housed,
Only three boats were so fitted before
a 102-mm (4-in) guri was adopted on an
elevated platform extending forward
foom the bridge. This herght increased
the silhouette but enabled the g,un to
be worked wrth the s.rbmarme in a
low-buoyancy condition.
From L52 the design was refined
fur1her, with six 533-mm bow tubes in-
stead of the earlier mrx and with two
102-mm gmns, both on the superstruc-
h-lre (which needed to be consider-
ably longer) and each served via its
own pressure-tight access trunk. The
more potent forward torpedo battery
April 1918, but although she was in the
eastern Mediterranean by the Armrs-
tice was never used in her designed
role. The M2 and M3 were completed
in 1920 before the Limitations of the
Washington Treaty came into force,
but they had so iittle application that
the former was converted to carry a
small seaplane and the latrer inlo a
minelayer Ln which the mines were
stowed in the casing rather than as
previously in chutes in the saddle
tanks. This method was carried on to
be used in the Porpoise-class mine-
layers. The M4 was never completed.
The MI was sunk rn collision rn 1925
and M2 foundered in 1932.
Specification
'M'ciass
Displacement: l, 594 tons surfaced and
1,945 tons dived
Dimensions: length 90 14 m (295 ft
9 in)t beam 7.52 m (24 ft B in); draught
4,80 m (15 ft 9 in)
Propulsion: two dresels del ve rr rg
r one 76-mm (3-rn) gun, and four 452 mm
1790 kW (2,400 bhp) and two electric
motors deliverinq 1193 kW (1,600 hp)
Speed: 15 ktssurfacedand9.S kts
dived
Submarines of World War I
enabled the submarine to engage a
target at longer range and with a lar-
grer slavo. An extra pair of reload tor-
pedoes was also accommodated. Most
of the 36 'L' class boats were com-
pleted from 1917, too late to have a
significant impact on the 'rar; many
were cancelled and others not
ordered, T\ro were lost: lJO to a Ger-
man destroyer off the Dutch coast and
.L55 to a Soviet anti-submarine ship rn
the Baltic operations of 19i9-20, Three
(L23, L26 and L2l survived to World
War II but were used for irarning.
Specification
'L'class ('L9'type)
Dispiacement: 9l4 tons surfaced and
I,OB9 tons dived
Dimensions: lenglh72.72 m (238 ft
Range: 4627 km (2,875 miles) at tS kts
and i6.7 m(10 4miles)atB ktsdived
Armament: one 305-mm ( 12-in) gmn,
(18-in) or (M3 only) 533-mm (2t-in)
torpedo tubes (bow) with eight
torpedoes
Complement:64
7 in); beam7, i6 m (23 ft 6 rn) ::a*:::
4.11m(13ft6in)
Propulsion: two diesels de1_r,ie:-:-:
l790 kW (2,400 bh. .rd r,..:
:
motorsdelivering 1193 kW(r =.=:-:
.__ :;
to two shafts
Speed: 17 kts surfaced and li : -<.
dived
Range:6679 km (4,150 mrles) a- :.''--_
power'surfaced, and 12 t !rr-r ilj ::_=":
at 5 kls dived
Armament: one 102-mm (4-rnl t::- -.',-:
457-mm (18-1n) torpedo tubes
(amrdshrps) and fow 533-mm l2,-:_
lorpedo tubes (oow) wrlh I O ic:r::: ::
Complement:38
The' L' clas s was a subslar tal
funprovement over the stalwart 'E'
9!91s, the first pair being originalts
E57 andE58. From L9 tfteymountea a
powerful bow salvo of four 533-mr,
(2 1 -in) torpedoes. The bu Ik ot the
second batch was ordered in
December I 9 I 6. There was no L I 3.
forsuperstitiousreasor?s. I
MI was the only one of the four-
sfrongr c/ass to.see ryar serrice.
although never firing her gan in
anger. After the war the concept -rr-as
abandoned;M2 became a seiplatLe
carrier, M3 a minelayer. aad M4',rras
not completed. Sad/y Mt was sun*:r
collision with SS Vidarrn I 9ZS and yJ
foundered offPorUand.
The 'M' class of submarine morurc:s
werc a bold attempt to solve the
problems of early submarines. I t iras
thought that the mounting of a 3A5-
mm ()2-in) gunwould overcome the
twin disadvantages of /owspeed a.ni
ligh t arm a m en t wh ich p \agru ed the
sabmarines of the Great War.
 'R' class
they not arrived so late in the war,
---aci
:: 10 'R' class boats may well have
:ivarced the overall concept and use
:: submarines considerably. They
-,';:re desrgned from the outset as hun-
.:rs of U boats which, in these early
:ays of electronics, needed to be
:::acked on the surface It was, of
:r.rse, difflcult
to approach suriaced
--boats unseen and, once these had
:bserved an enemy and had sub-
::-erqted, it was virtually imposstble to
jerect them again The 'L' class boats
-:en (1918) entennq service, carried a
,i-mm (4-in) gnrn in the tower for the
p'xpose but what was needed was to
:ave the speed to approach U-boats
s::bmerged and it was with this in
:rrLnd that the 'R' class was designed.
Not larqe boats, they carried
reasonable but not excessive battery
:apacrty. This was allied to a verY
clean huil which itsell was largely re-
sponsible for their then-phenomenal
rnderwater speed of 15 kts. The de-
srgnr was slngtle-hulled with casinq only
ai ihe bows and as a fairing to the small
:cwer. They were the flrst sinqle shaft
boats since the 'C' class, the propeller
berng driven by either a single diesel
lr lwo electric motors in tandem. The
,:rque from the propeller was such as
:: require horizontal stabilizers aft
-:ese serving also to support the out-
::ard ends ofthe hydroplanes, An in-
:erestrnq feature was the provision of a
Far ahead of their time, the 'R' class
compnsed specialist hunter- killer
submarines intended to overtake
and torpedo enemy submarines.
Thek streamlined hulland large
ru d der g ave them good underw ate r
performance and the bow
c om p ar tm ent con tained fiv e
hydrophones.
'S' class
:- --s 'D' and 'E' classes, completed
,::::: 1910, the British Admiraity
::-a::ged from the earlier sprndle form
, :e saddle-tanked submarine, Fore
-;- _'ards had, in the meantime, bequn
:: ploduce another type with a double
:-j r.e. with the pressue hull entrrely
--:::culded by external tank spaces
.:: -his outer hull could be given a
:::pe sympathetrc with sutface sea-
<.:prnq, the type was known at this
-.ir-e as a'submersible', to differentiate
-: lcm the earlier 'submarine' rn which
-:-: cuter form was more in harmony
-.';r submerged operation. There was
:,-cir to be said for the idea: ballast
.--<s and frame could be sited exter-
-:. '.l rhe pressure hull jncreasrng
:-.::-r1 space within; with deeper fram-
-:-; strenqth was increased; and the
:=: :op of the casing allowed the crew
-: :xercise away from the fetid condi-
::- within the hull, The rnherently
;r:arer buoyancy reserve of the type
-..;.: CesLrable from the safety aspect
:.^: :ad the drawback of sluggish di-
-.-:_j
in !rance and Laurentt in
-:,:oeuJ
-':--;',riere
foremost rn this type of craft
a visit in 19I I to Fiat-San
--r :bllowlng British ordered a stnqle
3-::9no. the
-a: -
a
further lB 6-kW (25-hp) electric motor
riqht aft for 'creeping at low speed,
repeated rn the 'L' class boats.
In some, the amidships superstruc-
ture was extended forward for the pur-
poses of mounting a 102-mm gun, but
as this weapon would have done no-
thing for the streamllning, it is doubtful
tf it was ever fltted The boats rehed on
their powerful forward battery of six
457-mm (18-in) tubes, the first in the
Royal Navy. An advanced feature was
an array of five externaliy-mounted
hydrophones for oblarnrng the posttjon
of a submerged enemy. It was the
tragedy of the 'R class boats that they
began to commissron only weeks be-
fore the Armistice, so that their adv-
,-e:1. -...._
Laurenti from Scotts followed bY a
further two in 19i3. They were known
as the 'S' class boats 51 to 53, the letter
rndicatrnq the builder and with the
added imphcation of their being
viewed as prototypes, They were only
marginally larger than the earlier Brlt
ish 'C class and were classed as coas
tal submarines.
Both tubes were sited forward and,
to presewe the upper lines of the hull,
they were set very low, almost at keel
levei, the pressure hull adopting an
odd cross-section to suit. Indeed one
great failing of the desiqn was the num-
ber of discontinuities (and, therefore,
weaknesses) in the pressure hull.
There were no less than l0 internal
watertrqht bulkheads and the reserve
of buoyancy, at 47 per cent, was effec-
tively double that of any previous Brit-
ish boat The machinery was of Fiat
desrgn and, being two-stroke, the en-
gines were capable of dtrect reversal.
An interesting feature was that both
forward and after Planes could be
housed. The boats proved unpopular
and unsuitable for the Royal Navy and
were transferred to ltaly on the latter's
entry into the war in 1915 TheY were
discarded in
1919
anced features were never fully The uncluttered appearance ofRT is
appreciated and post-war construc- in sharp contrast to that of her
tion reverted to the cluttered exterior contemporaries and gave her an
that characterized the 'O ciass ou tstanding su bmerge d s pe e d.
Sadly. the 'R' class was only
Specification completed at the end of the war and
'R'class their revolutionary desigm passed
Displacement: 4 10 tons surfaced and unnoticed.
503 tons dived
Dimensions: lenqth 49.91 m ( 163 ft 3.50m(11ft6in)
9 in); beam4 BO m(15 ft9 rn)l draught Propulsion: one dtesei del.vertng
179 kW (240 bhp) and lwo elect-rc
motors delivering 895 kW (1,200 hp) to
one shaft
Speed: 9.5 kts surfaced and 15 kts
dived
Range: 3701 km (2,300 mrles) at 9 kts
surfaced and27 75 km ( 17,25 miles) at
l5 kts dived
Armament: sx 457-mm ( 1B-in) torpedo
tubes (all bow) with 12 torpedoes
- .Complement: 12
Specification SI enlersBrindrsr in I 9 I 6. Built in
'S'class England to an ltalian design, she had
Displacement: surfaced and s ewed for a year with the Royal N avy
265 tons
before being transferred. Similar in
324 tons dived
Dimensions:iength 45. 16 m (148 ft size to the British'C' class, the
2 in); beam 4 39 m (14 ft 5 rn)t drauqht 'S'boats were slightly slower but had
3,17 m (10 ft 5 rn) a high reserve of buoyancy.
Propulsion: t wo d iesels del-vertng
485 kW (650 bhp; and two electrrc surfaced, and i6 km ( 10 miles) at
motors delivennq 298 kW (400 hp) to 8,5 kts drved
two shafts Armament: two 457-mm ( I B-in)
Speed: 13 kts surfaced and B5 kts torpedo tubes (bow) with four
dived torpedoes
Ranse: 2960 km ( 1,839 miles) at 8,5 kts Complement: lB
 Armed Forces of the World

Cclncrdcr
-^e most significant event in the developn-er-: c'
-e Canadian military forces slnce World War i ras
-:en their integration and unification in the n' C- :c
960s. ln the place of the indlvidual seryces
':e-'1
l:nada opted for a single Canadian Armed Forces,
.. l ch have since undergone a senes of reorgan za-
lrs, restructurings and changes of prlortv. To
"-:st outsiders this restructuring has apparenty
', ed since its impact (coupled with ln; at cn, ine
--. ng absolute costs of weapon systen's and
'n-
, -3ases in operating costs) has deg raded tne overa
reg:rrrents, one infantry battalion and a support
'in t)
Of these the airborne regiment provides an airmo-
bile battaLion for use by the United Nations if re-
quired. ln war the Special Services Forces would
form the basis of the Canadian Combined Air/Sea
Transportable (CAST) brigade group which is tasked
with relnforcing NATO's northern flank in Norway
along with a US Marine Corps amphibious force and
the Britlsh/Netherlands Amphibious Force.
I

':'ce levels to about 65 per cent of the;r'orn"er

:,st-war high of 120,000 in the early T960s, and nas
:c stretched its demands on them bevond \ ",nai is
',:ssible
The equivalent of the army is what is now known
,s the Mobile Command. With a total strength of
3,000 (plus an unknown number of the 48,000
-:nadran Armed Forces personnel that are not iden-
'ed by service) the Mobile Command has the ma-
' responsibility of dealrng with any small-scale in-
--'sion or raid into Canada by hostile forces; of
. ntaining the internal security of the state as re,
- red by the civil authorities; of providing the Cana-
:r
and forces commitment to the NATO forces in
-'ope; and of providing both in Canada itself and
:-oad such forces as are required by the United
-: ons for the peacekeeping role.
-o undertake these various tasks the
Mobile
-ard has Lhe tollowing units:
. ^.
Canada
'. . : combat brigade groups (each with one
.-'noured, one artillery, and one engineer
-=grments, three infantry battalions and support
_^ ts)
: - = Special Service Force (with one armoured, one
'ro'ne, one artillery and one eng'neer
Europe
one mechanized brigade group (with one armoured,
one self-propeiled medium artllleryand one
."lechanized eng neer regiments, rwo
mechanized infantry battalions, a support unit and
a light aviation squadron with 1 1 CH-1 36
observation hel icopters)
As part of Canada's Un ted Nations commitment
the Canadian-based infantry battalions rotate
through the UN force in Cyprus, while smaller spe-
cialist units are deployed with UN detachments in
the various Middle East trouble spots.
To support the Mobile Command units in Canada,
the 1Oth Tactical Air Group of the Air Command
(1 5,300 men) is subordinated to it with six helicopter
squadronsrharflya toral of 31 cH-135 (Bell UH-1 N),
36 CH-l 36 (Bell OH-58 Kiowa) and seven CH-147
(CH-47D Chinook) helicopters.
The remaining continental Air Command ele-
ments comprise two ground-attack squadrons and a
training squadron equipped wilh 24 CF-1 16 (North-
rop F-5A) and 25 CF-l '1 6D (Northrop F-58) fighter-
bombers, three air-defence squadrons and a training
squadron which are being re-equipped with the CF-
1BB (McDonnell Douglas F-18 Hornet) multi-role
fighters to replace CF-104 (Lockheed F-104G
Both regular and militia units of the Canadiar a:::.','
use a modified version of the Swiss MOWAG
Piranha6x6 APC. Three models are now in
service; 261 basic APCs, I89 vehicles fitted w'i:. :.e
same turret as the British Scorpion light tank. a:.a
2 6 armour e d recove ry ve h icle s.
Starfighted aircraft, and a training squ.c-:- :r- :
ped forthe ECM role. ln warthetwo gr:--: . ._
squadrons would revert to NATO con::: ':- -.=
Eu rope.
Underthe actual control of NATO's -1.- ---: -
and based in West Germany is r ^e - . - ,' .: , -
Group with three squadrons of 42 C?: l*- "- '. .
being replaced by 54 CF-l BBs A tol: :' : l=
1 BBA single-seat and 25 CF-1 88D t\'\,. s=: , ' :- .= -
are being procured in the Air Con-:-:^: : :-_:::
replacen'ent programre fo' a n-mo=- .' . =, .
This Canadian Leopard tank has just 'capturea'
the American M 1 I 3 APC in the for eErou n d d u ru..g
an exercise in West Germany. C anada or cierel I l
Leopard 1A3s fitted with the Belgnan fire control
system, part-exchanging them for their a]d
C enturion tanks with Kr auss- M aff e i.

*t
Jt ,"lh

" **"
,.,, &,:'
. d., -31-- -e,@
-I : * X ; :9
-
,;11,:tl,rd1ttir,rit'!ryrrt%AC jlfii!{l#

Canada's three air-defence squadrons are
currently re-equippingwith the CF-I II
(MDonnellDouglas F-18 Hornet), as are theCF'
1 04 S tarfighter units of the I s t C anad ian Air G r oup
based in Germany. The false cockpit canopy
painted on the belly is to confuse enemy tighter
pilots.
For transport support and SAR duties for all the
service commands there exists the Air Transport
Group of five fixed-wing transport squadrons, four
mixed fixed-wing/rotary-wing transport and SAR.
squadrons, four helicopter base flights and an inde-
pendent SAR helicopter fllght. These f ly a total of 88
aircraft, the most important of whlch are the 23
CC-130E/H (Lockheed Hercules) and 'l 1 CC-1 15 (de
Havilland Canada DHC-SA) transports, and '10 CH-
'1
13 (Boeing Vertol CH-46) helicopters.
All the training for these aircraft and the other
commands is undertaken by the Tralning Group,
which has three air schools and an aerobatic display
team which mostly f ly some 1 11 examples of the
locally-built Canadair CT-1 14 light jet trainer.
For the specialist naval support role there is the
Maritime Air Group which is under control of the
Maritime Command (N/ARCOM). This operates
three maritime patrol squadrons with 1B examples
of the Lockheed CP-l40 Aurora version of the P-3
Orion. and a maritime survey/pollution control
squadron equipped with 15 elderly CP-121 (Grum-
man Tracked aircraft. A reserve squadron also flies
the CP-1 21 . For duty afloat and ashore training there
are three squadrons of 32 CH-124 (Sikorsky SH-3
Sea King) ASW helicopters, while for miscellaneous
duties there are two utility squadrons flying a mix of
helicopters, CP-121s and CT-133 (Lockheed T-33)
jets. The Sea Kings are deployed aboard the des-
troyers and the fast replenishment ships of MAR-
COM.
The Maritime Command is split into two fleets
based in the Atlantic and Pacific. The former, home-
ported at Hallfax, has three 'Oberon' class sub-
marines. '12 active and one reserve destroyers plus
two replenishment ships. The Pacific component,
based at Esquimault, has the remaining eight active
and two reserve destroyers and one replenishment
ship. Total manpower is about 5,500, and other
assets are 12 smaller patrol vessels.
A civilian coast guard of about 6,500 men with 25
icebreakers, 37 helicopters, 16 SAR vessels and
three hovercraft provides valuable back-up. The old-
est destroyers are due to be replaced by a new
series of six ASW f rigates which have been planned
for a number of years. The other major naval-
orientated procurement programme is the mid-life
refit and updating of the 'Oberon' class submarines
wlth new sonars, and new weapons in the form of
the Sub-Harpoon underwater-launched anti-ship
missile and the long-range dual-role ASWanti-ship
Mk 48 torpedo,
As far as possible Canada has tried to build most
of her weapons and equipment in Canada, usually
under licence and modif ied specif ically to her needs.
Exceptions to this are tanks, some towed and all
self-propelled artillery, which have been procured in
such relatively small numbers that they would be
too expensive if locally built.
The Mobile Command uses the following equip-
ment:
armour: Leopard C-1 MBT, M1'13 C & R Lynx
armoured reconnlssance vehicle, CougarWFSV,
GrizzlyWAPC and M1 1 3 APC;
artillery: (towed) 105-mm (4.13-in) C5 pack howitzer
(ltalian M56), 105-mm C1 howitzer (Canadian
?--Pn=<
copyofUSMl0l)
(self-propelled) 1 55-mm (6.1-in) M1 0941
(mortars) B1-mm (3. 1 9-in) (developed with the
UK);
anti-armou r weapons : B4-m m (3.3-in) Carl G ustav
and 1 06-m m (4.17 -in) M40 recoilless rif les, 66-
mm (2.6-in) LAW rocket-launcher and TOW
ATGW;
air-def ence weapons : 40-mm L/60 Boff in (Canadian
copy of L/60 Bofors) and Blowpipe SAM; and
small arms: 9-mm Brownlng pistol,5.56-mm
M 1 641 and 7.62-mm C1 lC2 assault rif les, 7.62-
mm M19'l 9 Browning medium machlne-gunand
1 2.-l -mm Browning heavy machine-gun.
The major procurement programmes of recent
years have been the purchase of 114 Leopard 1
MBTs, eight Leopard ARVs and srx Leopard bridge-
layer tanks from West Germany; and the licence
production of 491 Cougar wheeled f ire-support vehi-
cles with 76-mm (3-in) Alvis Scorpion turrets, Grizzly
wheeled APCs and Husky wheeled maintenance
and recovery vehicles based on the Swiss MOWAG
Piranha 6x6 armoured vehicle.
C anadian Continental Air C ommand includes two
ground-attack squadrons which use Northrop
F-SAs andF-lBs under the desigrnationsCF-l16
and CF - 1 1 6D. N ote the infl ight-r efuelling pr obe
forward of the cockpit.