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Objective 1.2: Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer system...........2
Objective 1.3: Outline the functions and uses of primary storage devices..............................................4
Objective 1.5: Compare the types of secondary storage media w.r.t. portability, speed and capacity.....6
Objective 1.7: Explain the uses of various input devices and media......................................................15
Objective 1.9: Describe how data are stored and manipulated within the computer............................25
1
Processing: involves the manipulation of data to produce information. Manipulation
means multiplying, adding, subtracting, dividing, sorting etc.
Output: involves sending information to users.
Storage: involves keeping the data on electronic storage.
Objective 1.2: Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer
system.
Content: CPU, CU, ALU; main memory, secondary storage, input and output devices
The major hardware components of a computer system are shown in the diagram below.
CPU
CU
Input devices Output devices
ALU
Main Memory
2
5. Sending the data to memory after processing
3
Main Memory
Main memory is also called computer memory, immediate access storage (IMAS/IAS) or primary storage. This
unit of memory is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds data and instructions that the computer is processing
at the time.
Secondary Storage
Secondary storage is also called auxiliary storage, backing storage or disk storage. These devices are used to
store data and instructions when they are not being processed. Secondary storage is more permanent than
main memory, since data and instructions are not lost when the power is turned off. It is also much cheaper
than primary storage and is unlimited since you can have as much of it as you can afford. The most commonly
used auxiliary storage devices are magnetic storage (tapes and disks), optical storage (CD ROM, CD-R, DVD-
ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW and solid state memory (flash memory and USB drives).
Peripheral Devices
Peripheral devices are any device controlled or monitored by the CPU. It includes both input and output
devices.
Input Devices
Input devices are any device that is used to put data and instructions into the computer. Some commonly used
input devices are keyboard, mouse, joystick, digital camera, scanners, barcode readers and magnetic strips.
Output Devices
Output devices are any device that is used to get information out of a computer. Some commonly used output
devices are VDU or monitor, printer, plotter, speakers and multimedia projector.
Objective 1.3: Outline the functions and uses of primary storage devices.
RAM
This chip is used to hold data and instructions (programs) temporarily while processing is taking place using
that data and program. It also holds the data that results from processing – data that is waiting to be output or
stored in a secondary storage device. RAM is volatile i.e. it is temporary and changeable. If the power is turned
off or the computer is rebooted (started up again) all the information held in RAM will be lost.
ROM
This chip holds data and instructions necessary for starting up the computer when it is switched on. It is used
to store system-level programs such as the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) program.
Variations of ROM
Programmable ROM (PROM)
This type of ROM can be programmed only once using special equipment. It is useful for companies that want
to make their own ROMs from software they write themselves. If they change their code they can create new
PROMs without requiring a ROM manufacturer.
Content: Bistable devices, bit, byte, kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte, word, word size
Byte
A byte is made up of a combination of 8 bits and has the capacity to represent one character i.e. a letter, a
number, a symbol, a punctuation mark or a blank space.
Word
A word is the amount of bits the computer can process in one operation.
Word size
A word size or word length is the number of bits in a word.
Larger Units of Storage
Objective 1.5: Compare the types of secondary storage media w.r.t. portability, speed and capacity.
Content: Magnetic tape, floppy disk, hard disk (fixed head, moving head, external), optical disks (CD,
DVD), flash drive, flash memory cards, sequential access, direct access, sectors, tracks,
read/write head; device interfaces such as : SCSI, IDE, SATA
Secondary storage devices are chosen for a particular use based on their:
Storage capacity (how much data the device can store)
Access speed ( the time needed to locate the data and transmit it to the CPU)
Portability ( ability to be easily removed and used on another system)
Cost
Size (necessary for storage on shelves or portability)
Magnetic tape
A magnetic tape looks like an audiocassette tape. Tapes may come in different sizes. It is used mainly to backup
hard disks because it can store large amounts of data at a low cost. Accessing data on a tape is very slow since
data is stored sequentially. Sequentially means that data is retrieved in the order which it was stored. As of
2008, the highest capacity tape cartridges can store 1 TB of data. A tape drive is used to read data from and
write data to the tape. The tape drive may be external or built into the system unit.
All magnetic disks provide direct access to stored data. This means that you can go directly to specific piece of
data without having to access any other either before or after the data you want.
Floppy disk
This is also called a diskette. It is a removable, flexible plastic disk, coated with a magnetisable material. The
disk is held in a plastic case, usually 3.5 inches by 3.5 inches in dimension. The plastic case protects the disk
from dust and grease. The floppy disk is used to store and transfer small amounts of data between computers.
A 3.5 inch floppy disk holds up to 1.44 MB of data.
Data and information is written to or read from the disk by a read/write head in the disk drive held in the
system unit. Data is stored on both sides of a diskette on tracks and sectors. Tracks are a set of numbered
concentric rings. The tracks are also divided into wedge shaped pieces known as sectors, which are also
numbered. A sector is the amount of data that can be read from or written to a disk by the computer in one
read/write operation.
Sector
Track
Before data is stored on a floppy disk, it needs to be formatted. Formatting means writing electronic
information on the disk so that the computer can recognize the disk as a valid storage device where data can
be stored. Most floppy disks are already formatted when they are purchased. If a diskette is formatted after
data has been stored to it, the information will be deleted.
Hard disk
A hard disk is a thin but rigid, inflexible disk made of highly polished metal. The surface of each side of the disk
(also called platters) is covered with a substance that can be magnetized. As of April 2009, the highest capacity
HDDs is 2 TB. There are different types of disk: moveable head, fixed head and external. Moveable head hard
disks have one read/write head per disk. Fixed head disks have a read/write head for every track on the disk.
The access time (time to get data) from a spinning disk with one read/write head is a combination of:
Seek time – how long it takes the head to get to the right track;
Rotational delay or latency time – how long it takes for the data to rotate under the head; and
Transmission time – the time taken to read the data and transmit it to the CPU.
Consequently, the access time for a fixed disk is less than that of a moveable disk, since each track has a
read/write head and this eliminates the seek time.
The external and removeable hard disks are portable hard disks that are connected to the system unit. External
hard disks have very large storage capacities, up to 1.5 TB currently. They are used mainly by very large
computers. Hard disks are more reliable than floppy disks since its platters are fixed and seal in a unit. Hard
disks can store much more data than floppy disk and optical disks and access and transmission of data is faster.
Like floppy disks, a hard disk must also be formatted before any data can be stored on it. Formatting sets up
the tracks, sectors and cylinders. A cylinder is made up of all the tracks of the same number from all the disks
that make up the hard disk.
Optical Disks
Optical disks are disks that are read by laser lights. They are made from plastic. The data is stored on layers
inside the plastic. CDs and DVDs are the two main types of optical disks.
Compact Disc
A Compact Disc (CD) is an optical disc used to store digital data. The physical dimension of a CD is 12 cm or
occasionally 8 cm in diameter. CDs can hold up to 750 MB. They are three types of CDs: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-
RW.
CD-R (recordable)
CD-RW (re-writeable)
DVD
"Digital Versatile Disc" commonly called “DVD” is an optical disc storage media that can be used for storing
movies with high video and sound quality. DVDs look like compact discs, their physical dimensions are the
same (12 cm or occasionally 8 cm in diameter). DVDs are encoded in a different format to CDs and they have a
much higher density (more data is stored per unit area). Some DVDs are double sided i.e. they can hold data
on both sides. DVDs can hold between 4.7 GB and 17 GB of data. Three types of DVDs are the DVD-ROM (read
only), DVD-R (recordable) and DVD-RW (rewritable).
USB interface
USB Flash drives are storage devices which consist of a small circuit board encased in a plastic or metal casing
built with a USB interface. They are typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable. As of November
2006 to present, memory capacities for USB Flash drives range from 32 MB up to 64 GB. Flash drives are more
compact, generally faster, hold more data and may be more reliable (due to their lack of moving parts) than
floppy disks.
Common uses
2. Computer repair
Flash drives are used to transfer recovery and antivirus software to infected PCs.
3. System administration
Flash drives are used by system and network administrators, who load them with configuration
information and software used for system maintenance, troubleshooting, and recovery.
4. Application carriers
Flash drives are used to carry applications that run on the server computer without requiring
installation.
These come in the form of a card shaped like a stick of chewing gum, with dimensions 21.5 x 50 x 2.8 mm and
storage capacities up to 64 GB. They are a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and reprogrammed in
blocks instead of one byte at a time. They are used in PDAs (personal digital assistants), laptop computers,
digital audio players, digital cameras, mobile phones and video game consoles.
These are connectors and cables used to transfer data from the CPU to input, output and storage devices.
There are different standards or technologies used to design these devices. Three main standards used are:
1. SCSI
2. IDE
3. SATA
It is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral
devices. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but can connect a wide range of other
devices, including scanners and CD drives.
This interface is used specifically for mass storage devices, in which the controller is integrated into the disk or
CD-ROM drive.
A device controller is a part of a computer system that interprets the signals going to, and coming from the
CPU processor. There are many device controllers in a computer system. Any device connected to the
computer is connected by a plug and socket, and the socket is connected to a device controller. Device
controllers play an important role in order to operate that device. It’s just like a bridge between the device and
operating system.
IDE port connector IDE motherboard connectors
This is a computer bus primarily designed for the transfer of data between a computer and mass storage
devices such as hard disks drives and optical drives.
A computer bus (often simply called Bus) is a part of some computers used to transfer data, signals or power
between some of the components that make up a computer. Computer buses are used to:
Objective 1.7: Explain the uses of various input devices and media
Content: Optical mark reader(OMR), character readers(OCR, MICR), mouse, joystick, barcode reader,
document scanner, light pen, touch terminals, Voice Data Entry/voice recognition, graphics tablets, point of
sale(POS), keyboard, digital camera, biometric systems, sensors, remote control, sound capture, pointing
devices, webcam
MICR is mainly used by the banking industry to read cheques. Cheques have the following information
encoded in them:
The amount is written using special magnetic ink which contains iron oxide. The characters on the cheque are
written in a special font and are recognized electronically as it passes through the device. The MICR can only
recognize a specific font and a limited number of characters.
This is an optical scanner which utilizes special software to read characters from paper. The shapes of different
characters are detected by shining light on them from a photo-electric device and sensing the patterns of
reflected light. The reader software allows each character pattern to be compared with a set of stored patterns
until the closest match is found. The match is then translated into text in the computer so that it can be
manipulated by the user. It is used in the legal service, postal service, utility and financial companies and by
immigration officers at airports.
OCR is suitable for converting large volumes of printed data into electronic text on the computer so
that it can be manipulated. It is great for archiving books, documents etc
Disadvantages of the OCR
OCR has difficulty understanding handwritten text if the letters are not properly formed. OCR has
difficulty recognizing unusual fonts.
Mouse
The mouse has a ball underneath, which rolls and determines the direction of the cursor, and buttons which
allow the user to make selections. Some mice (plural of mouse) have a scroll wheel that allows you to scroll
through long documents. In addition to moving the cursor, the mouse is used to select and open documents or
programs, move icons from one place to another on the screen, select options from a menu, position the
cursor when preparing and editing documents, and for drawing lines and sizing graphic objects such as
pictures.
Joystick
This device is used to control movement of the cursor or other objects on the screen by operating a small lever.
It is used mainly for playing games, but it is also used with scanners at hospitals.
Barcode Readers
Barcodes are read by a scanner in which a laser beam scans the barcode and the light is reflected back into the
scanner. The information received by the scanner is sent for processing. Barcode readers give fast error-free
data entry into the computer. It is a fast method of recording the sales of items. Barcode readers are used in
supermarkets, libraries, research, airports, postal services and warehouses.
Document Scanners
These scan text and pictures into the computer. There are many types of scanners:
1. Flatbed scanner: the picture is placed on a flat surface and the image is captured, similarly to how a
photocopying machine works.
2. Handheld scanner: the picture is read while the user drags the scanner over it. The quality of the image
provided by this scanner is poor, but it is useful for quick data capture.
3. Drum scanner: the document to be scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder. These are used in
publishing industry (magazines, books) to capture images with high detail.
4. Sheet-fed scanner: the sheet that contains the image is fed through rollers and the picture is scanned
as the paper passes through.
Light pen
This is shaped like a pen and is connected to a VDU/monitor. It allows you to point and make selections more
accurately on a screen. The tip of the light pen contains a light-sensitive element which, when placed against
the screen, detects the light from the screen and enables the computer to identify the location of the pen on
the screen. Making selections with a light is far more accurate than using your finger to make selections on a
touch sensitive screen. They also allow you to draw directly on the screen. However they are not as accurate as
a digitizing tablet and drawing can become uncomfortable.
Touch Terminal
A touch terminal, also known as a touch screen is a light-sensitive screen that detect when a person touches it,
as well as the area of the screen that was touched. Various options are displayed on the screen and the user
presses the one they want. Touch screens are used on ATMs, microwave ovens, cash registers, at airports, fast-
food outlets, theatre booking offices, etc.
This type of system requires the use of a microphone. It accepts the spoken word as input data or commands.
The computer is programmed to recognize certain patterns of speech. The microphone is used to code human
speech into a sequence of electronic signals. These signals are compared to a set of stored patterns. If they
match, the command or data being entered is accepted by the computer and processed. Voice commands can
be used to control machines or even enter documents in a word processor. It is very useful for physically
disabled persons.
No typing is required
Recognition of words is still relatively slow since human speech can vary in tone and emphasis of
various parts of words and phrases.
You may need to program (train) the system to understand your particular voice patterns.
Digitizing tablet
This device looks like a small chalkboard. The tablet detects and transfers drawings made on it to the screen.
The drawings are made with either a stylus (pen-like pointing device) or a puck (mouse-like device). Graphics
tablets are used by architects, mapmakers, artists and designers to create sketches and drawings on the
computer.
This is the combination of a barcode reader and computerized cash register. It is usually found in retail outlets.
The barcode reader scans in information from the sale transaction and this is recorded in a centralized
computer which is connected to the cash register. The information collected can also be used for stock control
and sales analysis.
Customers get quicker and more accurate service, which improves efficiency.
Saves on paper
Keyboard
This device is used to enter text data or characters e.g. letters, symbols, numbers and commands specific to a
program.
Digital cameras
This camera captures an image and stores it in memory within the camera. The camera has a sensor that
converts the light into electrical charges. The processor in the camera converts this information into digital
data and stores it on a flash RAM card. The digital images can then be uploaded from the camera to a
computer where they can be displayed, manipulated or printed. The memory can be erased so that more
images can be captured. Unlike normal RAM memory the RAM card is non-volatile. The resolution of the
camera is measured in pixels. The more pixels a camera has the greater the detail captured.
Photos can be shown on a small screen on the camera, and resized and erased so that you can choose
to store only the images that you want.
It is relatively easy to lose or erase the camera’s memory card e.g. accidentally passing it through an
airport x-ray machine.
Biometric Systems
Biometric refers to the science of identifying an individual through their body characteristics such as face
geometry and hand geometry e.g. fingerprints, iris or retinal scans, vein and voice patterns. All these forms of
identifying an individual can be input into a computer system set up for security purposes allowing access to
buildings and bank accounts etc.
Sensors
Chemical or physical changes in humans and their environment can be converted to electrical signals using
sensors that pass data to a computer, where it is analysed, stored and manipulated by specialized software.
These sensors are useful in medicine, environmental planning and preservation, weather reporting etc.
Sensors can be used to measure things such as heat, light, sound, pressure, strain, acidity(pH), oxygen
concentration, humidity, pulse, water level, water flow, speed, tilt or even a door or valve opening or closing.
Remote Control
A remote control emits a beam of infra-red light that carries data signals. They are used to input data to
televisions, stereo systems, VCRs, DVD players and by computers as a wireless means of communication.
Sound Capture
Microphones are used for sound capture. All modern computers contain built-in microphones and sound cards
to allow voice or music to be recorded. The sound card digitizes the data into a form that the computer can
understand.
Pointing devices
These devices are used by graphical operating systems such as Windows to show the movement of the pointer
or the cursor, and enable the control and selection of objects on the display screen. This group of devices
includes the mouse, trackball, pointing stick, touchpad, joystick, light pen, digitizing tablet and touch screen.
Webcam
A webcam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer network, often using a USB port or,
if connected to a network, Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Their most popular use is for video telephony, permitting a
computer to act as a videophone or video conferencing station. This camera is used to record and edit video
images (i.e. moving or still images). The images are stored in a format that can be displayed on a web page.
Web cams are used in video conferencing. It is also useful in security surveillance.
Content: Visual display unit (VDU): resolution, types, sizes; printers: impact and non-impact,
types(character, line, page, laser, inkjet, dot matrix); Characteristics: speed, quality, storage
capacity; plotters; audio output devices(speakers, headphones, earphones); microfilm,
hardcopy, softcopy, human readable, machine readable
Output devices are equipment used to get information or any other response out of the computer. If the
output can be read by human beings it is said to be human readable. If the output cannot be understood by
humans it is said to be machine readable. Examples of output devices are display screens, speakers, printers,
video graphics card, audio card (sound card) and plotters.
1. Softcopy output
2. Hardcopy output
Softcopy output is temporary output e.g. information displayed on a screen or in voice or audio form through
speakers. This kind of output disappears when the computer is switched off since the screen or the speakers
need the computer to work.
Hardcopy output is permanent output e.g. information printed onto paper or film. It is tangible – you can hold
it in your hands.
Display Screens
Display screens (simply screens) are also called monitors or Visual Display Units (VDU). These are used to
output still or moving pictures. There are two types of display screens:
1. Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT): these screens looks like a standard television set.
2. Flat Panel displays: these screens are used mainly with portable computers like laptops, in some
desktop computers and even in the latest television sets. There are two (2) types of flat panel display
screens:
a. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
b. Plasma Display
Screens can come in different sizes e.g. 14 inch or 17 inch. They can be either colour or monochrome.
Monochrome means black and white.
Images and text are formed by many tiny dots of coloured light called pixels. A pixel is short for picture
element. A pixel is the smallest unit on the display screen.
A video graphics card is also called a video display adapter. It determines the resolution, number of colours,
and speed with which images appear on the screen.
Speakers, headphones and earphones are used to output sound. The quality of the sound depends on the type
of system used, the size of the speakers and the computer’s audio card. An audio card is used to process sound
in the computer.
Printers
Character printers: these print one character at a time similar to a typewriter. They are slow.
Line printers: They print a line at a time. Multiple hammer-like keys forming a line of text hit the page
at one time. They are much faster than character printers and are used to print large volumes. They
print a limited number of characters and do not print graphics.
Page printers: these print a whole page at a time. They are therefore even faster and deal with very
large volumes of printed output.
1. Impact printers
2. Non-impact printers
Impact printers use a printing mechanism called a print head. They make their output by pressing the print
head against a ribbon, which then hits the paper. The main types of impact printers are dot matrix, daisy
wheel and drum, chain or band printers.
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
It is very noisy
Printing is slow (less than 90 cps).
The text is generally crisp and clean.
The size and font produced can only be changed by using a different daisy, as the characters on the
wheel are fixed.
Characteristics:
Non-impact printers are faster, quieter and produce better quality print than impact printers. Unlike the
impact printer, the printing mechanism makes no contact with the paper. The main types of non-impact
printers are laser printers, inkjet printers and thermal printers.
Direct Thermal printer: this printer uses heated pins to form the characters. These pins come into
contact with special heat-sensitive paper to form darkened dots when the pins reached a specific
temperature, thus shaping the characters. The pins actually burn the dots into the specially coated
paper. Exposure to sunlight and heat tends to darken the thermal paper. The print quality is poor.
Thermal wax transfer printer: the print head of this printer melts a wax-based ink from a transfer
ribbon onto paper. This printer does not require special paper.
Thermal printers are used in portable calculators, fax machines and some ATMs (automated teller
machines).
These use a process similar to that of a photocopying machine. They are used in large companies or
institutions such as schools. They can also be found in modern offices. A laser beam and dry powdered ink
called toner produces a very fine dot matrix pattern. This pattern is transferred to the page and then fused
onto it by heat and pressure. These printers can print in black and white or colour. These printers can produce
more than 40 pages per minute (ppm). The print quality is very good. Laser printers produce both text and
graphics. They are very expensive.
Plotters
Plotters use different printing processes e.g. some work like an inkjet printer and others use the same method
as laser printers. They are used to produce documents with high quality graphics in a variety of colours e.g.
maps, architectural drawings and charts. They can print on large sheets of paper. There are three main types of
plotters:
Pen plotters: these use a mechanical arm or rail that holds a pen which can be moved across the page.
Inkjet plotters: these work in the same way as inkjet printers by spraying ink onto the paper.
Electrostatic plotters: these work in the same way as laser printers.
COM is a method that is used to store computer documents by reducing them in size to fit on very small
photographic sheets of film. They are used to store large volumes of data. These sheets can be read using a
special magnifying machine. Microfilm is a roll of film and microfiche is a rectangular sheet of film on which
many frames/pages of information can be stored.
Objective 1.9: Describe how data are stored and manipulated within the computer.
Content: Binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems; binary addition and subtraction. Integers
(positive and negative); sign and magnitude, BCD, two’s complement; representation of
characters, ASCII.
Notes: Data Representation and Storage
The binary system is used by computers to represent data. This number system uses two digits, 0 and 1. These
two binary digits are known as bits (short for binary digits). Different ways are used to store data based on its
medium and type.
Representing Numbers
The number of bits used to represent a number determines the range/number of values that can be
represented. For example, a single bit can represent one of two values, 0 or 1. Therefore the number of values
a bit can store is two, 0 and 1. Likewise, a group of two bits can be used to represent one of four values, 00,
01, 10 or 11. Therefore the number of values two bits can store is four. To determine how many values any
number of bits can store, the following formula is used 2n, where n represents the number of bits being used.
Therefore, a group of three bits can represent 23 values, i.e. 8 values, which are 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101,
110 or 111.
Converting decimal to binary
This involves dividing the decimal (base 10) number by 2 and recording the remainders until the result is zero,
then writing out the remainders from left to right but starting from the bottom up.
2 1510
2 7R1
2 1R1
0R1
Representing a number using a bit pattern of a given size
A number can be represented using bit patterns of different sizes. For example, the 4-bit representation of 15
is 1111 and the 8-bit representation of 15 is 00001111. Zeroes are added to the left of the binary conversion of
the number to make up the number of bits required. The zeroes do not change the value of the number. (N.B.
The number must be within the range of values that can be represented, using that number of bits.)
24 23 22 21 20
Place value 16 8 4 2 1
Binary digits 1 0 1 1 0
The value of each digit is the digit multiplied by its place value i.e. 1x16=16, 0x8=0, 1x4=4, 1x2=2, 0x1=0
The sum of the values is 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0 = 2210
(a) 02 (b) 02 (c 12
)
+ 02 + 12 + 02
02 12 12
(d) 12 (e) 12
+ 12 + 12
102 + 12
112
1 1
1 0 1 12
+ 0 0 1 12
1 1 1 02
Signed integers are positive or negative whole numbers. In binary there are many ways of representing signed
number. Four common methods are:
3. Two’s complement
In this method the leftmost bit is used to represent the sign (positive or negative) and the remaining bits
represent the magnitude. A 0 bit indicates that the number is positive (+) and a 1 bit indicates that the
number is negative (-). N.B. The integer zero is neither negative nor positive, but is represented using all
zeroes.
Example, if asked:
One’s Complement
Positive numbers are represented as unsigned binary. The negative numbers are represented by flipping all the
digits in the binary equivalent of the number. This means replacing all the zero bits with one bits and replacing
all the one bits with zero bits. N.B. The number should be expressed in the bit pattern size required before the
bits are interchanged.
Example, if asked:
Two’s Complement
This is the most common method used to represent signed numbers. Positive numbers are represented as
unsigned binary. To represent a negative number using this method, begin by finding the one’s complement of
the number, then add 12 to the result.
Example, if asked:
Sometimes in using two’s complement, results end up with one bit too many. This is dealt with by discarding
the leftmost bit.
To subtract numbers in binary, find the negative of representation of the number being subtracted, using two’s
complement. Then add it to the number that it is being subtracted from.
Example, if asked:
In this method each digit of a number is represented as its four- bit binary code. The sign of a number is
represented using a 4-bit code also. The 4-bit representation of positive(+) is 1010 and negative(-) is 1011. The
sign code is placed to the left of all other bits.
Example, if asked:
Solution: 1. Find the 4-bit representation of each digit => 2 = 0010, 5 = 0101 and 6 = 0110
3. Attach the sign code to the left of the result above => 1011001001010110 2
The Octal and Hexadecimal Number Systems were developed to deal with concerns programmers had when
representing data in binary. There was often the tendency to make transposition errors and calculation errors
because of the many zeroes and ones. In addition, representing data in binary requires a lot of storage.
Octal (Base 8)
This system uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
1. Separating the binary number into groups of three (3) bits starting from the right; then
Example, if asked:
Solution: 1. Separate the binary number into groups of 3 bits, from the right => 001 101 101
The method is the same as converting from binary to decimal. The only difference is the place values are found
using powers of 8.
82 81 80
64 8 1
2 1 3
The value of each digit is the digit multiplied by its place value i.e. 2x64=128, 1x8=8, 3x1=3
The sum of the values is 128 + 8 + 3 = 13910
This is a base 16 numbering system; it uses 16 symbols (the digits 0-9 and the letters A to F).
Hexadecimal Table
Decimal Hexadecimal
Numbers Numbers
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F
Converting From Binary to Hexadecimal
3. Separating the binary number into nibbles (4 bits) starting from the right; then
2. Separate the binary number into nibbles, from the right => 0001 1000
2. Separate the binary number into nibbles, from the right => 1110 0000
Representing Characters
Numbers (0 to 9)
All the characters that a computer can store and process are called the character set of the computer. Different
types of computers may have slightly different character sets, depending on their operating system. Each
character is represented by a code consisting of eight bits, called the character code. The most common code
used is the American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This code uses seven bits to represent
each character plus an extra bit called the parity bit which is added to help ensure data integrity.
The standard ASCII code defines 128 character codes (0 to 127) where the first 32 are control codes. A control
code is a non-printable code that is used to tell the computer to carry out a command. Programmers use these
codes to assign commands they may want to personalize in computer.
ASCII Table
Objective 1.10: Interpret the hardware specifications of a computer system.
Content: CPU type and speed; memory: capacity, type, word size, speed. Hard drive: capacity, speed;
firewire, expansion slots, ports.
Use the following to guide you when required to interpret computer specifications:
CPU:
Types:
o Make / Brand: Intel or AMD
o Models: Pentium, Athlon, Celeron, Duron etc.
Speed: Gigahertz (GHz) ranging from 4 GHz up
word size: How many bits it can input/output and process at a time, 32-bit or 64-bit
Memory:
Expansion slots: Slots on motherboard used to attach additional devices. Examples are
Ports: An interface on a computer to which you can connect a device. There are several types. Some
types are specific to certain devices. Some of them are:
Serial PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory
Parallel Card International Association).
USB (Universal Serial Bus) PCI
FireWire PS/2
Audio Ethernet
Notes: Software
Software is the name given to all programs that computers use to perform different tasks.
Types of software
Application software:
Application software can also be referred to as Application packages. These programs are
developed to perform specific tasks or solve a particular problem. Application software includes
entertainment software such as games, home or personal software such as CD-ROM
encyclopedias, productivity software such as word processing, spreadsheet packages and
graphics. Application packages can also be grouped as follows:
This is software that is not written for any specific business. It can be used to suit specific needs
e.g. a teacher can use a spreadsheet package to prepare students` end of term grades reports
and the same spreadsheet software can be used by a salary clerk to prepare pay sheets and
bills. General purpose software is also called “off the shelf” software. They are well tested and
are usually relatively cheap.
These packages are also called word processors. They allow you to prepare documents such as
letters, reports, memos, books or any type of correspondence on a computer. Some popular
word processors available are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word Pro and Word Perfect.
Spreadsheet packages:
These packages allow you to organize information into rows and columns so that it can be
operated on easily. It enables you to store numerical data. Some common spreadsheet packages
in use today are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 123 and Quarto Pro.
Database software:
These programs allow you to organize and store related data together, so that specific pieces of
information can be retrieved easily and quickly. Some common database packages in use today
are Microsoft Access, Oracle and MySQL.
Integrated Software:
An integrated software package offers many single purpose programs together as one. These
packages allow data to be transferred easily between the programs. A basic integrated package
may contain a word processor, spreadsheet, database, communication and graphics
presentation program. Examples of integrated software are Microsoft office, Microsoft works,
Lotus SmartSuite and ClarisWorks.
Specialized software:
This is software that is written for a specific task. These programs provide features for the
purpose for which they were designed e.g. AutoCAD which was designed specifically to draw
engineering and architectural designs.
Customized software
This is general purpose software which has been modified to meet the needs of its users
(company or individual) better. This is done by writing short programs called macros and adding
them to the general purpose software.
This is software that has been created to meet the unique requirements of a particular
individual or company. It may be created by individuals within the company or given to a
software house to be created. A software house is a company that specializes in writing
software.
System software
These are programs that manage and support the resources and operation of the computer
system. They enable the running of application software and the management of the system
resources. System software includes operating systems, utility programs and language
translators.
Language Translators
A translator is a program that translates one programming language instruction(s) into another
programming language instruction(s) without the loss of original meaning. Examples of
translators are interpreters and compilers.
Utility Programs
These allow a user to perform maintenance-type tasks usually related to managing the
computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systems include several utility programs
for managing disk drives, printer and other devices and media. Examples of utility programs are:
Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in
some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard
drive.
(1) Time –sharing: this mode is used in multi-access systems where a single CPU is
shared by several users using individual terminals. This method of processing makes
the user believe they have continuous access to the CPU when in fact each user is
given a time slice (small amount of processing time) in turn. This mode of processing
is used at universities where students and lecturers are allowed access to a central
CPU on a mainframe via different terminals throughout the campus.
(2) Batch processing: in this mode the programs and data are collected together in a
batch queue before processing starts. The program and data collected is called a job.
Usually jobs are stored during working time and executed when the computer is
least in use (during the night). This is done in this manner since it does not require
human interaction during processing, once the batch starts it continues until it is
done or an error occurs. This mode is suited for payroll processing, processing utility
bills and credit card billing.
(3) Real-time processing: in this mode the system is automatically updated when a
change or transaction is made. It is interactive, allowing the user and the system to
be in constant communication with up-to-date information. This mode is suitable for
stock systems, airline booking systems, electronic funds transfer systems and control
systems.
(4) Online processing: a system in this mode has access to a network. Unlike the real-
time processing system, an online processing system is not updated automatically, so
information is not always current and must be updated frequently.
(5) Providing a user interface: It allows the user to communicate or interact with the
computer.
1. Command driven interface: This type of interface is used in a DOS operating system. To
communicate with the computer, the user has to type a command in codes or words
when prompt on the display screen. E.g. C :\> dir tells the OS to list all the files on the
hard drive.
2. Menu driven interface: to communicate the user can either use the mouse or arrow
keys to make a selection from a menu which contains commands e.g. Print, Save As,
Open. There are two (2) types of menus:
Pull-down menu – usually drops down from the menu bar when it is clicked.
Pop-up menu – pops up from nowhere when the right mouse button is clicked.
3. Graphical user interface (GUI): This interface is also called WIMP (windows, icons,
menus and pointing devices). To communicate with the user, it uses buttons, icons,
menus and keystrokes to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and
other options. Icons are small pictures that represent programs, folders, files, tasks etc.
In a The GUI all objects that are related to each other are shown in a window. More
than one window can be opened on the desktop at the same time. The desktop is
common visual background which appears on the display screen when the computer has
finished booting.
Hardware user interfaces:
Touch screens
To communicate with the computer, the user touches the display of the device by a finger or
stylus. This interface incorporates aspects of GUI and allows the user to make selections and
send commands by touching icons on the screen. The interface is used for both input and
output, since you view information and the options available to you on the screen.
Non-visual interfaces
This type of interface utilizes audio (sound) and gestures (head, hand and device) to send
commands and make selections.
Sensors
This type of interface utilizes changes (chemical or physical) in the environment to communicate
with the computer.
Braille keyboards
This device aids the blind in communicating with the computer. The keys have raised dots which
represent different characters.