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This article “ECG Abnormalities” is part of the almostadoctor ECG series. It provides
information about the interpretation of ECGs. For a quick view of common ECG
abnormalities see Summary of ECG Abnormalities. To learn about the basic principle of an
ECG, see Understanding ECGs
Conduction Abnormalities
Always remember the pattern of conduction:
SA node ≫ AV node ≫ His Bundle ≫ bundle branches
When looking at conduction abnormalities, you are best to look at whichever leadshows p
waves most clearly. This is usually lead II or V1.
The PR interval the time taken for the depolarisation to spread from the SA node to the
ventricular muscle. This should not be greater than 0.2s – i.e. 1 big square.
Mobitz type 2 phenomenon – this is where there is a regular rhythm, and a fairly
constant PR interval, but every now and again there is an absent QRS (pictured
above). basically for every QRS, there are 2 or 3 p waves.
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Mobitz Type II
2:1 and 3:1 conduction – there is one normal cycle, then one cycle with an absent
QRS (2:1) or there is one normal cycle, then two cycles without a QRS (3:1) –
pictured below
Causes
Acute – MI
Chronic – heart disease (CHD)
Mobitz type 2 and Weckenbech don’t require and specific treatment
X:1 block may require a pacemaker (temporary or permanent), especially if the
ventricular rate is slow
Causes
Normal PR interval
Lengthened QRS duration (greater than 120ms – >3 little squares)
The QRS complexes in bundle branch block are often distinctive shapes – helping to
differentiate from other causes of widened QRS complexes.
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Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB) – the
basics
Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB) with 1st degree AV block on a full ECG
In many people, this does not cause abnormalities of the ECG. It often indicates right sided
heart disease.
In the normal heart, the depolarisation of the septum occurs from right to left. In RBBB this
still happens, but because the RBB is blocked, then the right ventricle does not depolarise
at the same time as the left. So, left ventricular depolarisation continues as normal, and
produces a normal R and a normal S wave. But after this has happened, the right ventricle
then depolarises, and causes a second R wave (R1). This creates a distinctive pattern
on the ECG:
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You can try to remember this with the word MarroW – because V1 can look like an “M”,
and V6 makes a “W”
Important – the QRS complexes will also be wide – greater than 120ms
The axis of any BBB can be either normal, LAD or RAD. It is most commonly normal.
There is no specific treatment – and it may often be caused by an atrial septal defect
Usually indicates left sided heart disease. Can indicate an acute MI (if it is new onset).
The QRS sign, and physiology behind LBBB is pretty much the exact opposite of that in
RBBB, so the sign is opposite.
You can use the word WillaM to try and remember this one!
But how do you know which side is which?! – well, William has “LL” in the middle for
left, and Marrow has RR in the middle for right! You could also try the sentence – William
left his Marrow
NB – the William and Marrow signs are not always that great;
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RBBB – you may only see the ‘M’ in lead V1
LBBB – you may only see the ‘M’ in lead V6
Causes
Ischaemic disease – if the patient has had recent chest pain, LBBB is likely to
indicated MI, and thus thrombolysis should be considered.
Aortic stenosis
If the patient is asymptomatic, then no treatment is needed
Bifascicular block
This refers to any situation in which two of the three main fascicles of the His/Purkinje
system are blocked.
These three fascicles are; the right fascicle, the left anterior fascicle and the left
posterior fascicle. So there is one on the right and two on the left.
Usually it refers to RBBB with either left anterior fascicular block (LAFB,
sometimes called LAH – left anterior hemiblock) or left posterior fascicular block
(LPFB, sometimes called LPH – left posterior hemiblock).
Some people consider LBBB a bifascicular block because technically LBBB occurs
above the bifurcation of the LAF and the LFP, and thus both are blocked.
Treatment
Note – both LPH and LAH can cause left axis deviation
Rhythm Abnormalities
Rhythms can originate in 3 places in the heart – the SA node, the region around the AV
node (known as nodal, or junctional rhythm), or the ventricular muscle
Sinus Rhythm
This means that the rhythm of the heart is being controlled by the SA node – i.e. this is
the ‘normal’ rhythm of the heart.
It is possible have a sinus tachycardia, sinus bradycardia, and also sinus arrhythmias. The
way to tell if it is ‘sinus’ or not is
Sinus Arrhythmia
Sinus tachycardia
Associated with; exercise, fear, pain, haemorrhage, thyrotoxicosis
Sinus bradycardia
Associated with; athletic training, fainting attacks, hypothermia, myxoedema, seen
immediately after MI
Supraventricular rhythms
This is any rhythm that originates outside of the ventricles, and spreads to the ventricles in
the normal manner; via the bundle of His, and left and right bundle branches. Thus, sinus
rhythm is a supraventricular rhythm, as is junctional rhythm.
Normal QRS complexes – because the part of the heart producing the QRS is
not in the ventricles – so the conduction will still pass through the ventricles as
if it was produced normally, no matter if the producing part of the heart was the
SA node, junctional region, or atrial muscle.
Unless! – there is also a right or left BBB, in which case the QRS may be wide
Atrial escape
This is a supraventricular rhythm. It occurs when the normal depolarisation of the SA node
has not occurred, and some part of the atrium starts the depolarisation instead.
On the ECG you can see atrial escape where there is:
An abnormal p wave – because the excitation has begun somewhere away from the
SA node
Normal QRS
Normal beats after the abnormal one
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Junctional escape
No p waves
Normal QRS
Slightly slower rate (~75bpm max)
Ventricular escape
Most commonly seen in complete heart block, although you may see it without complete
heart block, and it may occur as a one off instance.
Note there is no wave before the escape in this instance – because in this case the escape
is a result of the SA node failing to fire (and the junctional escape also failing to kick in), and
not a result of a bundle block. Note that in this type of escape, normal rhythm is restored
afterwards, whereas in branch block, normal rhythm is not restored.
Extrasystoles
These basically have the same appearance as their corresponding escape beats, except
that where an escape beat occurs later than expected, an extrasystole occurs earlier than
expected.
The Tachycardias
These are the result of foci either in the atria or in the junctional (AV node) region
depolarising quickly. To identify the origin of the tachycardia you have to look at the p
wave.
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When tachycardias occur intermittently they are called ‘paroxysmal’.
Supraventricular Tachycardia
Atrial tachycardia
Atrial flutter
Rate >250bpm
No flat lines between P waves (‘saw tooth p waves’)
Often associated block – remember the AV node cannot pass on rhythms of
greater than about 125bpm. thus if there is an atrial rate of 250, the ventricular rate
will be 125, and 2:1 block will be present. If the rate ventricular rate is 100, and the
atrial rate is 300, then it is 3:1 block.
P waves may be difficult to discern from T waves – however you can tell if they
are p waves because they occur regularly, even if they look like T waves. In the
example below you can’t see t waves – they are all p waves.
Due to an area around the AV node causing depolarisation – results in p waves very
close to the QRS, or no p waves visible.
QRS is normal – because like all supraventricular arrhythmias the ventricles are
still activated in the normal way.
Basically – there are probably no p waves, but a normal, regular QRS
These are usually due to small re-entry circuits around the AV node- and are
sometimes called atrioventricular nodal re-entry tachycardias (AVNRE).
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Carotid sinus pressure
By applying pressure to the carotid sinus you can stimulate the AV and SA nodes via
vagal stimulation. This will reduce the frequency of discharge of the SA node, and
increase the time of conduction across the AV node.
Thus, by applying pressure to the carotid sinus you can:
Applying the pressure reduces the frequency of QRS complexes, and allows the
underlying atrial arrhythmia to become more visible.
Ventricular Tachycardia
These are caused by a foci in the ventricles discharging at a high frequency. This causes
an abnormal spread of charge through the ventricles, resulting in wide and abnormal
QRS complexes.
QRS is broad
T waves difficult to identify
No p waves
Regular QRS (~200bpm)
REMEMBER – you also see wide and abnormal QRS complexes in bundle
branch block
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the QRS is the same shape in both then it is BBB with supra-v tachycardia
If the QRS is >160ms (4 small squares) then it is most likely ventricular.
Left axis deviation normally means ventricular in origin
If the QRS’s are irregular, it is most likely AF with BBB
Fibrillation
This occurs when individual muscle fibres contract of their own accord. So far all the
rhythms we have looked at have involved synchronous muscle contraction.
Atrial fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation is a particularly common arrhythmia, and is discussed in more detail in the
Atrial Fibrillation article
Ventricular fibrillation
No discernable pattern – no QRS, no P, no T
Patient is very likely to lose consciousness – thus the diagnosis is easy!
Not compatible with life for any sustainable period of time – patient needs urgent
defibrillation!
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The accessory pathway is known as the
bundle of kent.
The incidence of WPW syndrome is
between 1-3% of the general
population (i.e. very high!)
The vast majority of patients will be
asymptomatic, but there is a risk of
sudden death. This occurs in about 0.6%
of those with WPW.
This sudden death can occur when there
isparoxysmal tachycardia. When this
occurs, the signal from the atria, travels Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome (WPW)
down through the accessory pathway,
and then back up the bundle of His,
and back into the atria. This sets of a loop of depolarisation, sometimes called a
re-entry circuit.
Sinus rhythm
Right axis deviation
Short PR interval
Short QRS complex
Delta wave – this is a short upstroke that occurs just before the QRS. It basically
looks like the upstroke of the R wave is a bit bent – it starts off with a low gradient,
and then increases to its normal gradient.
No p waves
tachycardia
Often indistinguishable from other forms of SVT on the acute ECG
Pacemakers
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Example of ventricular pacing
Q waves – these show the spread of depolarisation of the ventricles travelling in the
horizontal plane, thus they are often not present, because the charge travels equally in both
directions and cancels itself out overall. Lead III is a good one to look at Q waves, and they
are often normally present here.
When pathological Q waves are present (basically big Q waves – see MI notes for
definition), then this is basically a sign that part of the heart tissue is dead – because it is no
longer ‘cancelling out’ the opposite side of the heart.
Ectopic Beats
An ‘ectopic’ is an unexpected event that occurs out of sequence. Atrial and ventricular
ectopics occur when p waves (atrial) or QRS complexes (ventricular) occur out of sync with
the rest of the ECG. They are typically single events and can occur anywhere from once
every few seconds (or less), to only very occasionally.
Atrial Ectopics
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Arial Ectopic (Premature Atrial Complex – PAC)
Ventricular Ectopics
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Sometimes called VEBs (ventricular ectopics beats)
The abnormal QRS complex is normally widened because the conduction does not
follow the normal pathways
Pulse may be irregularly irregular (mimicking AF)
Common with age
Usually benign
Can predispose to VT (more than 4 consecutive VEBS is considered a ‘run’ of VT
Usually asymptomatic
Do not usually require any treatment
Related Articles
Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)
Cardiac Tamponade
Echocardiogram
Summary of ECG Abnormalities
Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT)
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