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1. Introduction
Stone is the one of the major building materials. It is a versatile material and hence it can be used from the
foundation to the parapet in a building and hence the scope comprises the study of use of different stones at
these places.
2. Introduction to Rocks
Rock (mineral), naturally occurring solid material consisting of one or more minerals. Minerals are solid,
naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds that are homogenous, meaning they have a definite
chemical composition and a very regular arrangement of atoms. Rocks are everywhere, in the ground,
forming mountains, and at the bottom of the oceans. Earth’s outer layer, or crust, is made mostly of ro
Natural stone is used in building as a facing, veneer, and decoration. The major factors affecting the s
uitability and use of stone fall under two broad, but overlapping categories: physical and structural prope
rties and aesthetic qualities. The three factors of building stone that most influence their selection by ar
chitects for aesthetic reasons are pattern, texture, and colour. Consideration also should be given to cos
ts, availability, weathering characteristics, physical properties, and size and thickness limitations.
Stone patterns are highly varied, and they provide special features that make building stone a unique m
aterial. Texture is varied, ranging from coarse fragments to fine grains and crystalline structures. Texture
Pattern, texture, and colour all are affected by how the stone is fabricated and finished. Granites tend t
o hold their colour and pattern, while limestone colour and pattern changes with exposure. Textures ma
y range from rough and flamed finishes to honed or polished surfaces. The harder the stone, the better
B.C. has been influenced considerably by the disposition, development and use of stones and other con
struction materials. Dimension stones have also left deep imprints on the architectural heritage of the co
untry. Innumerable temples, forts and palaces of Ancient Indian Civilization have been carved out of loc
ally available stones. The Taj Mahal at Agra stands testimony to the age defying beauty of Indian marb
le. Some of the ancient rocks cut wonders are Khajuraho Temple, Elephanta Caves, Konark Temple, et
c. Besides, all major archaeological excavations have revealed exquisitely carved statuettes and carvings
in Stone. Ancient Buddhist monuments like the Sanchi Stupa of 3rd century BC have also been carve
d out of stone.
This tradition of Stone Architecture has continued to the present era with most of the important modern
buildings in India like the Presidential House, Parliament House and Supreme Court made from high qu
ality sandstone of Rajasthan. The Lotus Temple of New Delhi stands testimony to the relevance of mar
Stones are still the mainstays of civil construction in India, with stones being used extensively in public
buildings, hotels, temples etc. It is increasingly being used in homes, with the use of stones now penet
1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are rocks formed from a molten or partly molten material called magma. Magma forms d
eep underground when rock that was once solid melts. Overlying rock presses down on the magma, an
d the less dense magma rises through cracks in the rock. As magma moves upward, it cools and
solidifies. Magma that solidifies underground usually cools slowly, allowing large crystals to form. Magma
lava. Lava loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean very quickly and therefore solidifies very rapidly, form
ing very small crystals or glass. When lava erupts at the surface again and again, it can form mountai
ns called volcanoes.
Igneous rocks commonly contain the minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine. I
contain. Rocks rich in feldspar and quartz are called felsic; rocks rich in pyroxene, amphibole, and olivi
ne, which all contain magnesium and iron, are called mafic. Common and important igneous rocks are
granite, rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt. Granite and rhyolite are felsic; gabbro and basalt are mafic. Granite has
large crystals of quartz and feldspar. Rhyolite is the small-grained equivalent of granite. Gabbro has large
crystals of pyroxene and olivine. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rock forms when loose sediment, or rock fragments, hardens. Geologists place sedimentary rocks
1) clastic rocks, which form from clasts, or broken fragments, of pre-existing rocks and minerals
2) chemical rocks, which form when minerals precipitate, or solidify, from a solution, usually seawater
3) organic rocks, which form from accumulations of animal and plant remains. It is common for sedi
mentary rocks to contain all three types of sediment. Most fossils are found in sedimentary rocks becau
se the processes that form igneous and metamorphic rocks prevent fossilization or would likely destroy f
ossils.
The most common types of clastic rocks are sandstone and shale (also known as mudrock). Sandstone
is made from sand, and shale is made from mud. Sand particles have diameters in the range 2.0 to
0.06 mm (0.08 to 0.002 in), while mud particles are smaller than 0.06 mm (0.002 in). Sand and mud f
orm when physical or chemical processes break down and destroy existing rocks. The sand and mud a
re carried by wind, rivers, ocean currents, and glaciers, which deposit the sediment when the wind or
water slows down or where the glacier ends. Sand usually forms dunes in deserts, or sandbars, riverbe
shore marine deposits. Mud particles are smaller than sand particles, so they tend to stay in the wind
or water longer and are deposited only in very still environments, such as lake beds and the ocean flo
or.
accumulate. As the sediment accumulates, the weight of the layers of sediment presses down and com
pacts the layers underneath. The sediments become cemented together into a hard rock when minerals
(most commonly quartz or calcite) precipitate, or harden, from water in the spaces between grains of se
diment, binding the grains together. Sediment is usually deposited in layers, and compaction and cemen
tation preserve these layers, called beds, in the resulting sedimentary rock.
The most common types of chemical rocks are called evaporates because they form by evaporation of
seawater or lake water. The elements dissolved in the water crystallize to form minerals such as gypsu
m and halite. Gypsum is used to manufacture plaster and wallboard; halite is used as table salt.
limestone. Many marine animals, such as corals and shellfish, have skeletons or shells made of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). When these animals die, their skeletons sink to the seafloor and accumulate to fo
rm large beds of calcium carbonate. As more and more layers form, their weight compresses and ceme
nts the layers at the bottom, forming limestone. Details of the skeletons and shells are often preserved
rock. Coal comes from the carbon compounds of plants growing in swampy environments. Plant material
falling into the muck at the bottom of the swamp is protected from decay. Burial and compaction of th
e accumulating plant material can produce coal, an important fuel in many parts of the world. Coal
Metamorphic Rocks
existing rock undergoes mineralogical and structural changes resulting from high temperatures and press
ures. These changes occur in the rock while it remains solid (without melting).
The changes can occur while the rock is still solid because each mineral is stable only over a specific
range of temperature and pressure. If a mineral is heated or compressed beyond its stability range, it b
reaks down and forms another mineral. For example, quartz is stable at room temperature and at press
ures up to 2 Gigapascals (corresponding to the pressure found about 65 km [about 40 mi] underground
). At pressures above 2 Gigapascals, quartz breaks down and forms the mineral coesite, in which the s
In the same way, combinations of minerals are stable over specific ranges of temperature and pressure.
At temperatures and pressures outside the specific ranges, the minerals react to form different combina
In a metamorphic rock, one mineral assemblage changes to another when its atoms move about in the
solid state and recombine to form new minerals. This change from one mineral assemblage to another i
s called metamorphism. As temperature and pressure increase, the rock gains energy, which fuels the c
hemical reactions that cause metamorphism. As temperature and pressure decrease, the rock cools; ofte
n, it does not have enough energy to change back to a low-temperature and low-
pressure mineral assemblage. In a sense, the rock is stuck in a state that is characteristic of its earlier
pressure environment. Thus, metamorphic rocks carry with them information about the history of tempera
The size, shape, and distribution of mineral grains in a rock are called the texture of the rock. Many
metamorphic rocks are named for their main texture. Textures give important clues as to how the rock
formed. As the pressure and temperature that form a metamorphic rock increase, the size of the miner
al grains usually increases. When the pressure is equal in all directions, mineral grains form in random
orientations and point in all directions. When the pressure is stronger in one direction than another, min
shaped minerals, such as mica, align perpendicular to the direction of maximum pressure, giving rise to
a layering in the rock that is known as foliation. Compositional layering, or bands of different minerals,
can also occur and cause foliation. At low pressure, foliation forms fine, thin layers, as in the rock slat
e. At medium pressure, foliation becomes coarser, forming schist. At high pressure, foliation is very coarse,
forming gneiss. Commonly, the layering is folded in complex, wavy patterns from the pressure.
Igneous Rocks
2.3.1. Granite -
Granite is an igneous rock, ordinarily composed of feldspar, mica, and silica or quartz. It is formed by t
he cooling and crystallization of matter below the earth's surface under conditions of heat and pressure
which do not obtain in the case of lava ejected on the surface in a molten state. It is found in the ea
stern part of the United States, in Canada, in many sections of the Rocky Mountains and as a rule,
wherever the later rock formations have been worn away by the weather, and the igneous rock has be
en exposed.
The structure of granite is quite uniform, but there are often planes of cleavage caused by stresses pro
duced while the molten material was cooling. The plane along which the rock can be split most easily i
s known as rift; it is often nearly horizontal. Rock can also be split along a plane, known as the grain,
which is perpendicular to the rift, but this cleavage is not so easy as that along the rift. Sometimes, t
he stresses are sufficient to cause fractures, called joints, running parallel to the surface.
Granite is one of the most valuable stones for construction purposes. Although the quality of granite var
ies according to the proportions of the constituents and to their method of aggregation, this kind of ston
e is generally durable, strong, and hard. The hardest and most durable granites contain a greater propo
rtion of quartz and a smaller proportion of feldspar and mica. Feldspar makes granite more susceptible
to decomposition by the solution potash contained in it, potash feldspar being less durable than lime or
soda feldspar. Mica, being easily decomposed, is an element of weakness in granite. An excess of lime
or soda in the mica or feldspar hastens disintegration, as does also an excess of iron. Therefore, ston
es showing large and dark iron stains should be rejected for outside work. Fine-grained granite weathers
lustre. The colour of common granite varies from white through yellow to deep red, and the stone is g
enerally classified as gray and red. Feldspar renders the stone lighter in colour.
Because of its uniform structure, granite can be quarried in large blocks. The rift, the grain, and the joi
nt planes are advantageous in quarrying, as it is very difficult to cut granite in other places. The uses f
or which granite is suitable depend on the texture of the stone. Medium-grained stone is best fitted for
grained stone can be carved and polished, but, on account of its extreme hardness, it cannot be worke
d readily. Such stone is, therefore, costly when it has to be cut, Coarse-
coloured, igneous, unstratified rock~ that occur in large tabular masses rising one above another in suc
cessive steps like stairs. These rocks consist chiefly of hornblende, lime, feldspar, and augite, with som
e magnetic and titanic iron. The predominance of one or the other of these minerals gives rise to man
y distinctive names, as greenstone, olivine, etc. The colour varies, being dark gray, dark green, or nearl
y black, according to the proportions of the different constituents. The texture is usually so fine and clo
se-grained that the character of the structure cannot be determined by the naked eye.
durable. However, they are not much used for structural purposes because of their sombre and unattrac
tive appearance, the great cost of working, and the difficulty of securing large blocks on account of the
numerous joint planes. As they split and break easily, trap rocks are extensively used for paving blocks,
for the aggregate in making concrete, and for the construction of macadamized roads, for which purpo
se their fine texture especially fits them. They are also used for railroad ballast.
Sedimentary Rocks
2.3.4 Sandstone -
together. It is a stratified rock and belongs to the later geological periods. Most of the grains are quart
z, but often feldspar is also present in sandstone. The cementing material may be silica, oxide of iron,
If the cementing material is silica, the rock is very durable, but difficult to work. Iron oxide is a good c
ementing material and gives the stone a reddish or brownish colour. Clay is a satisfactory binder, but it
readily absorbs water, which may cause destruction of the stone by freezing. Lime renders the stone
particularly liable to disintegration when exposed to an atmosphere containing gases, or when used for f
2.3.5 Sandstones -
Are variable in character, some being nearly as valuable as granite and others being practically useless
for permanent construction. The best stone is characterized by small grains with a small proportion of c
fracture. It is usually found in thick beds and shows slight evidences of stratification.
When quarried, sandstones are usually saturated with quarry water and are very soft; but on exposure t
o the air, they dry out and become hard. Water can readily penetrate between the layers of this stone;
therefore, in foundations it should be laid on its natural bed, that is, in the same position that it occup
ied in the quarry, so that the penetration of moisture and possible disintegration by freezing may be pr
The colours of sandstone are white, cream, yellow, dark brown, blue, and red. Fine-grained blue
sandstone is known as
bluestone. This variety is widely used for trimmings and for stone sidewalks, as it readily splits into sla
bs.
2.3.6 Limestone -
All limestones are of sedimentary origin and have for their principal ingredient carbonate of lime. The pr
esence of other minerals gives rise to the division of the limestones into five classes, each of which is
designated by the name of the predominating mineral. When clay is present, the stone is called argillac
eous limestone; when silica predominates, siliceous limestone; when iron is prevalent, ferruginous limesto
ne; when magnesia is present to the extent of 15 per cent, magnesium limestone; and when the carbo
nate of lime and the carbonate of magnesia are combined in equal proportions, dolomite limestone. Lim
Consists of grains of carbonate of lime, cemented together by some compound of lime, silica, and alum
ina. The grains are generally sea shells or fragments of shells and are often mixed with sand. This kind
of stone is always
porous. It is found in various colours, especially white and yellowish brown. In many cases, it is so soft
when first quarried that it can be cut with a knife; it hardens, however, on exposure to the air.
shaped grains cemented together. It is one of the most important of the limestone group and is extensi
vely quarried and widely used for building purposes. Each grain is usually of concentric structure, the c
arbonate of lime enclosing a particle of sand or of some substance of either animal or vegetable origin.
Consists of carbonate of lime, either pure or mixed with sand or clay. This kind of limestone is generall
y devoid of crystalline structure, and has a dull, earthy appearance and a dark-
blue, gray, black, or mottled colour. In some cases, however, it is crystalline and full of organic remains
The compact limestones are easily worked with the saw and hammer. They resemble light granite in ap
pearance, and are extensively used for building purposes. The variety called shelly limestone, which con
sists of fossil shells that are cemented together, is sufficiently hard to take a polish; it is much used fo
r interior ornamentation. The condition of the minerals combined with the lime also furnishes a basis for
distinguishing names. Thus, the stone is called hornstone when very fine grained silica is present; cher
ty limestone, when the silica is in the form of rounded masses or nodules; ironstone, when the amount
of iron and clay is greater than the amount of lime; rottenstone, when the ironstone is decomposed; an
d hydraulic limestone, when the rock contains silica and clay in nearly equal proportions.
2.3.9 Shale -
Shale is a typical clay rock that splits readily in lines parallel to the bedding. Sand and lime carbonate
are always present in this stone and, with increase of either, the rock grades into shaly sandstone or s
haly limestone. Shale is used for light traffic roads and in the manufacture of brick, tile, and other burn
2.3.10 Conglomerate -
Stratified rock composed of rounded pebbles of any material, such as limestone, quartz, shale, granite g
rains, feldspar, etc., cemented together is known as conglomerate. When the pebbles are quartz with sil
iceous binding the rock is strong and hard to quarry or dress. When the interstices between the pebble
s are not filled by the binder, the rock is very porous, and may hold great amounts of ground water. T
2.3.11 Marble -
marble. It is easily dressed to a smooth surface and polished, and is considered one of the most valua
ble building materials. It resists frost and moisture well, but like all limestones it does not withstand fire.
Marble can be obtained in many colours, some of which are white, gray, red, blue, green, and black.
One of the most important characteristics of marble is that it is easy to carve; the finer the grains of t
he stone, the more suitable it is for this purpose. The fine white-
grained varieties that are especially prized for sculpture are called saccharoid marbles.
Some of the finest varieties of white American marble are found at Lee, Massachusetts, and in the vici
blue marble from the Vermont quarries is very durable and has a close grain. A fine black marble is q
uarried at Glens Falls, New York. Coloured marbles, including gray, light and dark pink, buff, chocolate,
2.3.12 Slate -
Slate is a laminated rock of great hardness and density. It splits readily along planes called planes of slaty
cleavage. This facility of cleavage is one of the most valuable characteristics of slate, as masses can b
e split into slabs and plates of small thickness and great area.
The most common colours of slat are dark blue, bluish black, purplish gray, bluish gray, and green; oc
colored slates are also found. Some slates are marked with bands or patches whose colour is different
from that of the rest of the stone. These marks do not affect the durability of the slate, but they spoil
its appearance.
Although slate is not strictly a building stone, it is used extensively for covering steps and the roofs of
buildings, for wall linings, and for sanitary purposes. Slate is sometimes used to make light traffic maca
dam, but, although it packs well, it ultimately yields much mud and dust, which are objectionable.
2.3.13 Schist -
Schist has a more crystalline structure than slate, and the crystals are easily seen. It is composed chie
fly of minerals that cleave readily, such as hornblende, mica, etc., mixed with a variable amount of gra
nular quartz and feldspar. The presence of the cleavage minerals produces a fine cleavage or foliation,
called schistosity.
Schist is sometimes used in building construction but it disintegrates very rapidly and is not durable. It
2.3.14 Gneiss -
Gneiss is a coarse-
grained, laminated rock, formed by metamorphism of either sedimentary or igneous rock. It is often use
The physical characteristics of a particular stone must be suitable for its intended use. It is important to
determine the physical properties of the actual stone being used rather than using values from a gene
ric table, which can be very misleading. Considerations of the physical properties of the stone being sel
ected include modulus of rupture, shear strength, coefficient of expansion, permanent irreversible growth
and change in shape, creep deflection, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, moisture resistance,
and weatherability. Epoxy adhesives, often used with stone, are affected by cleanliness of surfaces to b
e bonded and ambient temperature. Curing time increases with cold temperatures and decreases with w
armer temperatures.
With the introduction of new systems of fabrication and installation and recent developments in the desi
gn and detailing of stone cutting, support, and anchorage, costs are better controlled. Correct design of
joints, selection of mortars, and use of sealants affect the quality and durability of installation. Adequate
design and detailing of the anchorage of each piece of stone are required. The size and thickness of t
he stone should be established based on physical properties of the stone, its method of anchorage, an
d the loads it must resist. Appropriate safety factors should be developed based on the variability of th
e stone properties as well as other considerations such as imperfect workmanship, method of support a
nd anchorage, and degree of exposure of the cladding installation. Relieving angles for stone support a
nd anchorage may be necessary to preclude unacceptable loading of the stone. The stone should be p
rotected from staining and breakage during shipment, delivery, and installation.
Since stone cladding design and detailing vary with type of stone and installation, the designer should c
setting specialty contractors, industry standards (such as ASTM), and other publications to help select a
We can find out the properties and use of different types of stones depending upon the texture, specia
l features, parting and hardness for use in building. This can be seen as under the table 5.1
Stone Bedding
Sandstones
The Lower Blander sandstone is usually medium to fine grained, purple, reddish-
brown in colour with pale white bands and is compact, massive and having quadrangular joints. The Up
per Blander sandstone is reddish-brown in colour with cream spots. Jhalarapatan sandstone is fine-
grey, red, cream and is acid proof. Jodhpur sandstone is coarse to medium grained, red and buff white
white in colour and is specially famous for carving and used for making fine, perforated windows and ja
llies. The physical & chemical properties of Rajasthan sandstone are given in table 5.5 and table 5.6
(Kg/cm 3)
( Kg/cm 3)
Properties Area
Marble
Technical Details Water Absorption, % by weight Density, bulk specific gravity Modulus of rupture, N/mm2 Compressive
ASTM/Indian Standard C-97 C-97 C-99
Andhi
0.08 2.68 14 17 94
Modern art
Marble has been classified into 10 groups by Bureau of Indian Standards (Indian Standard Institute i.e.
1969) on the basis of colour, shade and pattern. Rajasthan is the most fortunate state where all the 10
Granites
Technical D
Water Absorptio Density, bulk Modulus of ru Compressive st Abrasion resista Flexural stre
etails
n, % by weight specific gravity pture, N/mm2 rength N/mm2 nce to wear ngth, N/mm2
Bala Flower
0.44 2.61 23 22 203 184 0.6 0.7 20
, Jalore
Chima Pink,
0.73 2.62 11 13 140 119 0.6 0.7 13
Jalore
Copper Silk
0.04 2.63 17 20 148 119 0.7 0.9 19
Jalore
Golden Pea
0.07 2.64 13 14 186 152 0.7 0.8 14
rl, Jalore
Imperial Pin
0.15 2.65 11 15 117 100 0.6 0.7 14
k, Jalore
Rosy Pink,
0.09 2.62 14 18 125 118 0.6 0.7 16
Jalore
Royal Touc
0.12 2.63 17 19 123 123 0.5 0.6 18
h, Jalore
Sunrise Yell
0.12 2.62 13 14 142 102 0.8 0.9 12
ow, Jalore
Merry Gold,
0.7 2.61 15 14 125 109 0.8 1.0 14
Barmer
Rakhee Gre
0.10 2.71 11 13 134 132 0.7 0.8 13
en, Barmer
Royal Crea
0.22 2.59 17 18 141 171 0.6 0.7 15
m, Barmer
P.White, Pa
0.20 2.65 11 11 142 133 0.9 1.00 11
li
Classification
Granites are classified under four grades depending upon the compressive strength and abrasive resista
A 2,200 32
B 1,800 36
C 1,400 40
D 1,000 45
DISINTEGRATION OF STONE
Disintegrating Agents
5.8.1 Classification of Agents
The disintegration or decay of stone is commonly referred to as weathering, and is caused by agents o
f three kinds; namely, physical or mechanical, chemical and organic. The mechanical agents are heat a
nd cold, air in the form of wind, and water in the form of rain and ice. The chemical agents are the v
arious acids present in the atmosphere. The organic agents are vegetable growths that thrive in damp
and shady places, and marine insects or boring molluscs, which perforate the stone between the high a
An increase in temperature causes expansion in a stone, and a decrease in temperature causes contra
ction; hence, as a result of ordinary changes in temperature, there is a continual slight movement amon
g the particles of the stone, which may destroy their cohesion, and thus produce a slow and gradual di
sintegration.
5.8.3 Fire
All building stones are injured by high temperatures. Sandstones, if somewhat porous, uncrystallised, an
d free from feldspar, are the most refractory of the common building stones. Gneiss is quite fire resistiv
e when it contains a large proportion of quartz in which the particles are of the nature of sand. Limest
ones and granitic rocks usually crack when subjected to a high temperature.
Stone is subjected to a very severe test when it is heated during a fire and then cooled suddenly by
a stream of water from a hose The exterior layer of the stone is cooled much more rapidly than the in
terior, and in some cases the uneven rate of contraction causes large pieces to break off.
Air acts mechanically in the form of wind, especially when it carries dust; it erodes the surface and re
moves small particles, much in the Same way as a sandblast apparatus, thus, exposing new surfaces t
o be acted on. Rain alone has a slight mechanical effect when simply falling on the stone and washing
loose particles away. Rain and wind together, however, act very energetically.
Water penetrates into all rocks, no matter how dense or compact they may be, and, when it freezes, it
expands and tends to split them. A volume of water occupying 100 cubic inches before freezing would
occupy 109 cubic inches after freezing. When this expansion is resisted, the pressure exerted is equal
to 150 tons per square foot, which is sufficient to split the strongest rocks.
Also act together to produce the following changes in the composition of stones: (1) rusting or oxidation
of the iron particles present in the stone; (2) reduction or de oxidation of the oxygen in iron oxide, wh
ich is caused by the presence of an organic acid or of continual moisture; (3) absorption of water by a
n oxide; (4) solution of the constituents that are soluble in water. Absorption occurs only when there is
5.8.5 Acids
Pure water has but little effect in dissolving the ingredients of stone, but the air contains many acids w
hich, in combination with rain, form powerful solvents of mineral matter. The stones that are most susce
ptible to this dissolving action are limestone, sandstone, and granite containing feldspar.
It is contained in the atmosphere to the amount of about 400 parts of acid to 1,000,000 parts of air, h
as, when combined with water, a corroding action on the carbonates, whether they form the principal c
onstituents of the stone or are only present as cementing materials. This acid transforms the insoluble
earthy carbonates of lime and magnesia into bicarbonates, which are soluble in water and can, therefor
e, be washed away. On granite, carbonic acid acts by eliminating the alkaline constituents in the form
of carbonates; a friable or crumbly residue of hydrated silicate of alumina is left, which contains the un
altered particles of quartz and mica. In the case of greenstones the acid acts on the iron present, and
also dissolves out the lime, leaving a loose, friable, and bulky stone of a red or brown colour. Sandsto
nes containing iron are disintegrated by the solution and washing away of the iron.
It
is frequently present as a constituent of the atmosphere; its destructive action is exerted on the limesto
nes.
It results from the combustion of coal, is present in the atmosphere of cities to an extent as great as
250 parts in 1,000,000. It has a marked destructive influence on all stones, and especially on granite.
The feldspar is attacked, and the potash, soda, or lime is dissolved out, and in time the stone become
The disintegration and decay of stone by the inanimate agents are frequently hastened by many forms
of life, such as bacteria, mosses, worms, etc., all of which are in a sense destructive agents. Their pre
sence gives rise to small amounts of organic acids which exercise a corrosive influence.
5.9.1 Quarrying
Disintegration of stone is hastened or retarded by the methods employed in quarrying, seasoning, finishi
The excessive use of explosives in quarrying shatters the cohesion of the particles composing the stone
and causes cracks and flaws that make the stone more permeable to moisture. Small charges of pow
der, uniformly distributed over the area to be blasted, have a lesser weakening effect on the stone. Sto
ne cut out by quarrying machinery is preferable to that blasted or wedged out, because the stone is no
t jarred and cracked by this method and because denser faces are produced which render the stone le
ss permeable to moisture.
The position of the stone in the quarry also affects its durability. Stone taken from the exposed faces a
nd the top ledges of the quarry is likely to be less durable than unexposed stone.
5.9.2 Seasoning
Before a stone is placed in a structure, the interstitial moisture, called quarry water or sap, must be re
moved by evaporation. This process is termed seasoning, and should be effected by exposing the stone
to the drying action of the atmosphere for some months; the stone should be stored under cover for
protection against rain. If the stone is not seasoned, the quarry water will be alternately frozen and tha
wed during a series of years, and the stone will be broken up.
5.9.3 Finishing
The life of a stone is dependent on the style of finish given to its exposed faces. A smooth or polishe
d surface aids in prolonging the life by facilitating the rapid discharge of rainwater. The methods employ
ed in dressing the stone also affect its life. Minute fissures that render the stone more susceptible to at
mospheric influences are produced by impact; hence, stones sawed to the required dimensions are mor
5.9.4 Setting
The position in which the stone is set in the structure affects its ability to resist disintegration. When str
atified stones are placed on edge, and the mortar joints are not properly filled, water enters between th
e layers and in freezing causes the stone to scale off; therefore, laminated stones should be set with t
The portions of a structure most liable to early decay are those under cornices, belt courses, window si
lls, etc., on which the rainwater slowly falls or drips. As a protection from this source of decay, the un
der surface of a projecting stone should have a narrow groove, called a drip, extending its whole lengt
h. The water that collects on the upper surface of the projection flows over the upper edge and down
the face to the under side, where its further progress is interrupted by the drip; it then falls to the grou
nd.
6.1 CONCLUSION
material. In order to be able to decide what kind of stone to used under given conditions, knowledge o
f the different kinds employed in the various types of construction is essential. It is not necessary to de
termine the exact composition of a stone to be used in a structure, but knowledge should be sufficient
to help in selecting or specifying the stone best adapted to the type of structure.
The properties of a stone that determine its fitness for construction purposes are durability, strength, har
dness, density, and appearance. The quality of a stone is ascertained approximately from a study of its
origin and chemical composition and from the results of tests and experiments.
6.2 Inferences
Stones are used as versatile material irrespective of the properties of it, still its use remain as same, v
When an important masonry structure is to be built, it is essential to select a stone that is strong and
durable. Probably nothing in engineering construction is so neglected as the preliminary inspection of bui
lding stone.
If it is necessary to employ great quantities of building stone at points where, the stability of the structu
re depends on the strength of the stone, an inspection of the quarry from which the stone is to be obt
ained should be made. The engineer should also inspect some building or structure which contains the
same material and has been standing for a long time. It is well, however, not to depend wholly on ins
pection either at the quarry or at a building, but to subject the stone also to laboratory investigation.
Careful inspection at the quarry will frequently reveal much information regarding the durability and unifo
rmity of the stone. Exposed quarry faces will sometimes indicate the weathering properties of the stone,
as well as its liability to disintegration caused by moisture and running water containing injurious acids
and alkalis.
The various grades of stone to be had, and the amount of each grade, can be determined. In first-
class work it is imperative that only the best grade of the quarry should be employed, and it is importa
nt to find out whether a sufficient quantity of stone of satisfactory texture and colour is available to sup
By inspecting stone that has been in place in a building or structure for a considerable length of time,
an excellent idea may be had of its weathering properties. If, after years of exposure in the atmospher
e of an industrial city situated in the temperate zone, the building stone shows no disintegration and ha
s retained its original lustre and colour, except for the soil of dust and smoke stains, it certainly can b
e considered of the best structural value for building purposes. If a stone from a certain quarry shows
poor weathering qualities in a structure, an investigation should be made to determine whether the best
grade from the quarry has been used, before the product of the quarry is condemned.
Although the quarry and building inspections are of the utmost practical importance, they should, as pre
viously stated, be augmented by laboratory investigation. When the stone to be used is from a new qu
arry, the characteristics of the product are little known, and this investigation is then necessary. The lab
oratory investigation of stone usually consists of chemical analysis, microscopic examination, and mecha
nical tests.
The chemical analysis determines both qualitatively and quantitatively the chemical constituents of the st
one. In a qualitative analysis, the mineral elements and chemical combinations comprising the stone, tog
ether with the impurities and organic matter, are determined. The quantitative analysis shows the proport
ions of the different elements and chemical combinations. When the chemical composition of a stone is
determined in this way, conclusions can usually, though not always, be drawn as to the durability and t
The microscopic examination of building stone is not only less expensive but also more important than t
he chemical analysis, for by it is revealed the structure of the stone. By the microscope may be observ
ed the size and shape of the particles or crystals composing the stone, their relative closeness, and th
e character and compactness of the cementing material holding them together. Usually, the mineral con
stituents of the stone may be determined by microscopic examination, and frequently their proportions a
nd the percentage of impurities contained in the stone may be estimated. In addition, the microscope re
veals flaws in the structure, such as cracks, cavities, incipient fractures, and gas bubbles.
The mechanical tests of a stone furnish data from which a fair estimate of the durability may be made.
The purpose of these tests is to impose on the stone, as nearly as possible, conditions that in the co
urse of a few hours or a few weeks will approximate the effect produced by actual use during a period
of years.
Sandstone
9 Beam yes No No No No No
Granite
Bala Chima Copper Golden Imperial Rosy Royal Sunrise Merry Rakhee Royal
S. Building Flower, Pink, Silk Pearl, Pink, Pink, Touch, Yellow, Gold, Green, Cream, P.White,
No. Elements Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Jalore Barmer Barmer Barmer Pali
1 Foundation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
2 Plinth No No No No No No No No No No No No
3 Frames No No No No No No No No No No No No
4 Lintel No No No No No No No No No No No No
5 Chajja No No No No No No No No No No No No
6 Wall No No No No No No No No No No No No
Column/
7 pillar No No No No No No No No No No No No
8 Arches No No No No No No No No No No No No
9 Beam No No No No No No No No No No No No
10 Bracket No No No No No No No No No No No No
11 Slab No No No No No No No No No No No No
12 Parapet No No No No No No No No No No No No
13 Cladding Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
14 Aesthetics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Marble
Andhi
Building Andhi Jhiri Agaria, Morwad, Keshariyaji
S. No. Makrana Modern Bidasar Phalodi
Elements Indo Onyx Rajnagar Rajnagar Green
art
1 Foundation No No No No No No No No No
2 Plinth No No No No No No No No No
3 Frames No No No No No No No No No
4 Lintel No No No No No No No No No
5 Chajja No No No No No No No No No
6 Wall No No No No No No No No No
7 Column/pillar No
8 Arches No
9 Beam No
10 Bracket No
11 Slab No
12 Parapet No
13 Cladding Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
14 Aesthetics Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes