CHEE 319

Process Dynamics and Control

Frequency Response of
Linear Control Systems

1
 Frequency Response
 Response of a linear control system

to a sinusoidal input signal as a function of frequency

2
 First Order Process
 Sinusoidal response

 Solving for , and and taking the inverse Laplace transform

 Sinusoidal response is the ultimate response of the 1st

order system

 rearranging

3
 First order Process
Response to a sinusoidal input signal

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Recall: Sinusoidal input yields sinusoidal output

characterized by and
4
 First Order Process
 Sinusoidal response of a 1st order process to a sinusoidal
input signal is:
 Sinusoidal with amplitude

and phase lag

 Important characteristics of the sinusoidal response of the process

are the amplitude ratio

and the phase lag, both functions of frequency .

5
 Second Order Process
 Sinusoidal Response

where

6
 Frequency Response
Q: Do we “have to” take the Laplace inverse to compute the
AR and phase shift of a 1st or 2nd order process?

No

Q: Does this generalize to all transfer function models?

Yes

Study of transfer function model response to sinusoidal inputs

is called “Frequency Domain Response” of linear
processes.

7
 Frequency Response
Some facts for complex number theory:

i) For a complex number:

Im

Re

It follows that where

such that
8
 Frequency Response

Some facts:
ii) Let and then

iii) For a first order process

Let

Then

9
 Frequency Response
Main Result:

The response of any linear process to a sinusoidal

input is a sinusoidal.

The amplitude ratio of the resulting signal is given by the

Modulus of the transfer function model expressed in the
frequency domain, .

The Phase Shift is given by the argument of the transfer

function model in the frequency domain.

10
 Frequency Response
For a general transfer function

r ( s) e !" s ( s ! z1)L( s ! zm )
G ( s) = =
q ( s) ( s ! p1)L( s ! pn )

Frequency Response summarized by

G ( j! ) = G ( j! ) e j"

where G ( j! ) is the modulus of G(jω) and ϕ is the argument of G(jω)

Note: Substitute for s=jω in the transfer function.

11
 Frequency Response
The facts:

For any linear process we can calculate the amplitude ratio

and phase shift by:

i) Letting s=jω in the transfer function G(s)

ii) G(jω) is a complex number. Its modulus is the amplitude ratio of

the process and its argument is the phase shift.

iii) As ω, the frequency, is varied that G(jω) gives a trace (or a curve)
in the complex plane.

iv) The effect of the frequency, ω, on the process is the frequency

response of the process.

12
 Frequency Response
Examples:

1. Pure Capacitive Process

2. Dead Time

13
 Frequency Response
Examples:

3. Lead unit

14
 Frequency Response
Examples:

4. n process in series

Frequency response of

therefore

15
 Frequency Response
Examples:

5. n first order processes in series

6. First order plus delay

16
 Frequency Response
 To study frequency response, we use two types of
graphical representations

1. The Bode Plot:

Plot of (in dB)vs. on loglog scale
Plot of (in degrees) vs. on semilog scale

2. The Nyquist Plot:

Plot of the trace of in the complex plane

 Plots lead to effective stability criteria and frequency-

based design methods

17
 Bode Plots
Low frequency asymptote
 First order process

High frequency
asymptote

Bandwidth

High frequency
Phase shift

18
 Bode plots
 Characteristic of the Bode plot
 low frequency asymptote

 High frequency asymptote (if )

Yields a line on loglog scale,

The phase shift at high frequencies

19
 Bode plot
 Characteristics of the Bode plot:
 Cut-off frequency - this is the frequency at which

 For first order systems

 The cut-off frequency is also the bandwidth of the first order

system

20
 Bode Plot
 First order unstable system

 Frequency response

 Amplitude ratio and phase shift:

 Same amplitude ratio but positive phase shift

21
 Bode plot
 First order unstable system

22
 Bode plot
 Lead unit:

23
 Bode plot
 Lead unit (right half plane zero)

24
 Bode Plots
 Filters
 Pass band is the range of frequencies where the signals pass
through the system at the same degree of amplification
 Low pass filter is a dynamical system with a pass band in the low
frequeny range
 High pass filter is a dynamical system with a pass band in the high
frequency range
 Band pass filter is a dynamical system with a pass band over a
certain range of frequencies
 Bandwidth is the width of the frequency interval over the pass
band of the filter

25
 Bode plots
 (Ideal) Low pass filter:
 With pass band gain and bandwidth

26
 Bode Plots
 High-pass filter:
 Pass band gain and cut-off frequency

27
 Bode Plots
 Pass band filter:
 Pass band gain and cut-off frequencies

28
 Bode plots
 For second order processes

 Frequency response is given by

 Overdamped

 Critically damped

29
 Bode Plots
 Second order process

30
 Bode plot
 Characteristics:
 High frequency limit

 High frequency limit has slope -2 in Bode plot

 Underdamped process displays a maximum amplification greater

than the pass band gain

at the resonant frequency,

31
 Bode plot
 Overdamped system:

Slope=-1

Slope=-2

32
 Bode plot
 Characteristics:

 Amplitude and phase shift have two inflection points. One for each
pole of the system

 Overall asymptotic behavior is second order.

33
 Bode Plot
 Overdamped process with stable zeros

34
 Bode plot
 Overdamped process with stable zeros

35
 Bode plot
 Zeros reduce the relative order
 High frequency asymptote is a straight line (on loglog) with slope
equal to the realtive order

 LHP zeros increase the phase of the system

 RHP zeros decrease the phase of the system

 Also called nonminimum phase systems because they exhibit
more phase lag than any other system with the same AR

36
 Bode plot
 Delayed system:

 e.g. First order plus delay

 AR is unchanged but the phase shift has no high frequency

asymptote

37
 Bode plot
 First order plus delay:

38
 Bode plot
 System with pole at zero (integrator)

No finite dc gain

Slope = -2

39
 Bode plot
 Overall characteristics of Bode plots
 dc Gain is the value of AR at

 Slope of high frequency asymptote is the negative of the relative

order of the system

 Inflection points in AR and the phase shift correspond to poles and

zeros of the transfer function

 Each unstable poles and stable zeros lead to positive phase shift of
90 degrees as

 Each stable pole and Unstable zeros reduce phase shift by 90

degrees as

 Delay leads to a phase shift of as

40
 Nyquist Plot
Plot of in the complex plane as is varied on

Nyquist path

Relation to Bode plot

 AR is distance of from the origin

 Phase angle, , is the angle from the Real positive axis

41
 Nyquist Plot
 First order system

42
 Nyquist plot
 Second order process

43
 Nyquist plot
 Third order process:

44
 Nyquist Plot
 Delayed system

45
 Nyquist plot
 System with pole at zero
 Pole at is on the Nyquist path - no finite dc gain

 Strategy is to go around the singularity about in the right

half plane ( a small number)

46
 Nyquist plot
 Pole at zero

47
 Nyquist plot
 System with integral action:

48
 CHEE 319
Process Dynamics and Control

Frequency Domain
Analysis of Control Systems

49
PI Controller

50
PD Controller

51
PID Controller

52
 Bode Stability Criterion
Consider open-loop control system

+ +
- +

1. Introduce sinusoidal input in setpoint ( ) and observe sinusoidal

output
2. Fix gain such and input frequency such that
3. At same time, connect close the loop and set

Q: What happens if ?
53
 Bode Stability Criterion

“A closed-loop system is unstable if the frequency of the

response of the open-loop GOL has an amplitude ratio
greater than one at the critical frequency. Otherwise it is
stable. “

Strategy:

1. Solve for ω in

2. Calculate AR

54
 Bode Stability Criterion
To check for stability:

1. Compute open-loop transfer function

2. Solve for ω in φ=-π
3. Evaluate AR at ω
4. If AR>1 then process is unstable

Find ultimate gain:

1. Compute open-loop transfer function without controller gain

2. Solve for ω in φ=-π
3. Evaluate AR at ω
1
4. Let Kcu =
AR

55
 Bode Criterion
Consider the transfer function and controller
5e !0.1s
G ( s) =
( s + 1)(0.5s + 1)

- Open-loop transfer function

5e '0.1s 1 $
GOL ( s) = 0.4!# 1 + &
( s + 1)(0.5s + 1) " 01 . s%

- Amplitude ratio and phase shift

5 1 1
AR = 0.4 1 +
1 + ( 2 1 + 0.25( 2 0.01( 2
1 %
. ( ! tan !1 (( ) ! tan !1 (0.5( ) ! tan !1"$
) = !01 '
# 01
. (&
- At ω=1.4128, φ=-π, AR=6.746

56
Bode Criterion

57
 Ziegler-Nichols Tuning
Closed-loop tuning relation

 With P-only, vary controller gain until system (initially stable) starts to
oscillate.
 Frequency of oscillation is ωc,

 Ultimate gain, Ku, is 1/M where M is the amplitude of the open-loop

system
 Ultimate Period
2!
Pu =
"c

Ziegler-Nichols Tunings

P Ku/2
PI Ku/2.2 Pu/1.2
PID Ku/1.7 Pu/2 Pu/8
58
 Bode Stability Criterion
 Using Bode plots, easy criterion to verify for closed-loop
stability
 More general than polynomial criterion such as Routh Array,
Direct Substitution, Root locus

 Applies to delay systems without approximation

 Does not require explicit computation of closed-loop poles

 Requires that a unique frequency yield phase shift of -180 degrees

 Requires monotonically decreasing phase shift

59
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 Observation
 Consider the transfer function

 Travel on closed path containing in the domain in the

clockwise direction
 in domain, travel on closed path encircling the origin in the
clockwise direction
 Every encirclement of in s domain leads to one encirclement of
the origin in domain
60
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 Observation
 Consider the transfer function

 Travel on closed path containing in the domain in the

clockwise direction
 in domain, travel on closed path encircling the origin in the
counter clockwise direction
 Every encirclement of in s domain leads to one encirclement or
the origin in domain
61
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 For a general transfer function

 For every zero inside the closed path in the domain, every
clockwise encirclement around the path gives one clockwise
encirclement of the origin in the domain

 For every pole inside the closed path in the domain, every
clockwise encirclement around the path gives one counter
clockwise encirclement of the origin in the domain

 The number of clockwise encirclements of the origin in

domain is equal to number of zeros less the number of
poles inside the closed path in the domain.

62
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 To assess closed-loop stability:
 Need to identify unstable poles of the closed-loop system

 That is, the number of poles in the RHP

 Consider the transfer function

 Poles of the closed-loop system are the zeros of

63

 Path of interest in the
RHP
Nyquist Stability Criterion
domain must encircle the entire
• Travel around a half semi-circle or radius
that encircles the entire RHP
• For a proper transfer function
• Every point on the arc of radius are such that
collapse to a single point in
domain
64
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 Path of interest is the Nyquist path

 Consider the Nyquist plot of

65
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 Compute the poles of

 Assume that it has unstable poles

 Count the number of clockwise encirclements of the origin of the

Nyquist plot of
 Assume that it makes clockwise encirclements

 The number of unstable zeros of (the number of unstable

poles of the closed-loop system)

 Therefore the closed-loop system is unstable if

66
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
 Consider the open-loop transfer function

 has the same poles as

 The origin in domain corresponds to the point (-1,0) in the

domain

67
 Nyquist Stability
 In terms of the open-loop transfer function

 The number of poles of gives

 The number of clockwise encirclements of (-1,0) of

gives the number of clockwise encirclements of the origin of

 The number of unstable poles of the closed-loop system is given

by

68
 Nyquist Stability Criterion

“If N is the number of times that the Nyquist plot encircles the point (-
1,0) in the complex plane in the clockwise direction, and P is the
number of open-loop poles of GOL that lie in the right-half plane, then
Z=N+P is the number of unstable poles of the closed-loop
characteristic equation.”

Strategy

1. Compute the unstables poles of GOL(s)

2. Substitute s=jω in GOL(s)
3. Plot GOL(jω) in the complex plane
4. Count encirclements of (-1,0) in the clockwise direction

69
 Nyquist Criterion
Consider the transfer function

and the PI controller

The open-loop transfer function is

 No unstable poles
 One pole on the Nyquist path (must go around small circle around
the origin in the right half plane)

70
 Nyquist Stability
 Nyquist plot

 There are 2 clockwise encirclements of (-1,0)

71
 Nyquist Stability
 Counting encirclements must account for removal of origin

 the closed-loop system is unstable

72
 Nyquist Criterion
Consider the transfer function

and the PI controller

The open-loop transfer function is

 No unstable poles
 One pole on the Nyquist path (must go around small circle around
the origin in the right half plane)

73
 Nyquist Stability
 Nyquist plot

 There are no clockwise encirclements of (-1,0)

74
 Nyquist Criterion
Consider the transfer function

and the PI controller

The open-loop transfer function is

 No unstable poles
 One pole on the Nyquist path (must go around small circle around
the origin in the right half plane)

75
 Nyquist Stability
 Nyquist plot

 There are many clockwise encirclements of (-1,0)

76
 Bode Stability
 Stability margins for linear systems

77
 Stability Considerations
 Control is about stability

 Considered exponential stability of controlled processes using:

 Routh criterion
Polynomial
 Direct Substitution
(no dead-time)
 Root Locus
 Bode Criterion (Restriction on phase angle)
 Nyquist Criterion

 Nyquist is most general but sometimes difficult to interpret

 Roots, Bode and Nyquist all in MATLAB

78
 Stability Margins
 Stability margins for linear systems

79
 Stability Margins
 Gain margin:
 Let be the amplitude ratio of at the critical
frequency

 Phase margin:
 Let be the phase shift of at the frequency where

80
Stability Margin

81
 Surprise Quiz (20 minutes)
 Consider the nonlinear system

 Using pole-placement, synthesize a control such that

the characteristic polynomial of the closed-loop system has the
form

(choose such that a unique solution exists) 7/10

 Compute the complementary sensitivity function and determine if

the closed-loop system has zero steady-state error 3/10

82