The Key Concepts 61

their social and historical contexts while resisting traditional narrative -based historical
methodologies. The origins of this so-called ‘new historicism’ are present in the work of
French theorist and cultural anthropologist Michel Foucault and cultural theorist
Raymond Williams (see cultural studies ), emerging more fully formed in the work of
literary historian Stephen Greenblatt (see Greenblatt 1980, 1982). An example of the
influence of this thinking on musicology is Gary Tomlinson’s study of magic and
Renaissance music (Tomlinson 1993b). Tomlinson aims:

to suggest a hermeneutics more observant of difference [see alterity ] and less

dependent on shared perceptions and understanding than most historical
hermeneutic approaches have been…[an emphasis on dialogue in interpretation]
helps us to underscore the situatedness of anthropological and historical
knowledge, to keep in full view the negotiation of divergent viewpoints—the
intersection of differing interpreters, texts, and contexts—from which such
knowledge emerges.
(ibid., 6)

Tomlinson’s aim to set up a truly reciprocal dialogue with the ‘interpreters, texts, and
contexts’ of Renaissance music clearly reflects the relativist views of post-structuralism
and the shift of methodological emphasis encouraged by the new musicology , an
approach that can be seen reflected in a number of other recent studies (see Born and
Hesmondhalgh 2000; Abbate 2001).
Further reading: Frigyesi 1998; Hamilton 1996; Veeser 1994

HISTORIOGRAPHY

Historiography is the discipline of writing history, so the historiography of music (music

historiography) is the writing of music history The development of a music
historiography, like other forms of history is influenced by changing historical and
cultural conditions, and it therefore has its own history, which reflects different attitudes
and approaches to music during different historical moments (see reception ).
Although the act of writing music history can be identified through the importance of a
mythologized past in the medieval and Renaissance periods, evident through documents
such as theoretical treatises, a historiography of music has its origins in the eighteenth
century and reflected the wider context of the Enlightenment . The Enlightenment
concern with progress provided a model for the writing of music’s history, with several
histories published in the late eighteenth century, including Burney’s A General History
of Music (Burney 1957), reflecting recurrent issues of historiography such as continuity
between past and present, periodization and the classification of style . National
identity , and the role of music in its formation, also became a significant factor in music
historiography, particularly during the nineteenth century (see nationalism ).
The periodization of history the division and subdivision of the past into manageable
categories such as Baroque, Classical and Romantic (see Romanticism ), or distinct
periods usually formed through the use of centuries as models, was intensified throughout
the twentieth century which witnessed the expansion of attempts to construct
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comprehensive and systematic histories of music. Many generations of past students, as

well as the current generation, will have had contact with such historical accounts of
music. Many of the issues, and problems, of music historiography are evident in the New
Oxford History of Music. First published in 1957 and reprinted in 1960 and 1966, this
project, which replaced an earlier Oxford History of Music published between 1901 and
1905, is now a historical document that reflects its own time. Consisting of several
volumes and contributions for a wide range of writers, it is presented ‘as an entirely new
survey of music from the earliest times down to comparatively recent years’ (Westrup et
al. 1957, vi). This survey approach was by then a wellestablished historiographical
genre . Shorter, but still comprehensive, surveys also became prevalent. One of the best
known and widely used has been Grout’s A History of Western Music (Grout and Palisca
2001). Since it first appeared in 1960, this book has been a central reference for
generations of students and was clearly intended as a pedagogical work. It constructs a
history from ancient Greece and Rome to contemporary music of the post-Second World
War period within a linear chronology which implies connection and progression. But
there are problems with this approach. To continue to privilege historical continuity
removes the possibility of rupture, elevating similarity over difference. From our
contemporary perspective, the exclusive focus on the Western tradition seems exclusive,
and inevitably the compact yet comprehensive structure implies a history of great
composers and great works, but one that excludes music that may suggest other, perhaps
alternative, historical perspectives (see canon ).
The survey of a complete period, or century, is a well-established strategy and has
remained a popular and useful part of the historiography of music. For example, German
musicologist Carl Dahlhaus’s Nineteenth Century Music (Dahlhaus 1989c) gives an
overview of the century, providing commentary on many different types of music and
related issues. However, any such history is selective, and that process of selection may
reflect wider issues of ideology . Although Dahlhaus makes reference to Italian opera and
Russian music, there is a feeling that this is primarily a history of German music and that
these other musical examples are exceptions to what, from a German perspective, may be
perceived as the mainstream of music history. American musicologist and theorist James
Hepokoski writes of ‘the vexing reality of his [Dahlhaus] apparent unwillingness to
consider non-Germanic music on its own terms’ (Hepokoski 1991, 221).
The presentation of music history through century-long surveys continues with the
current series of Cambridge Histories. However, they reflect a late twentieth-century
perspective on their respective periods. This is evident in the history of the twentieth-
century volume (Cook and Pople 2004), which reflects the problems of writing the
history of more recent times. Its inclusion of popular music , alongside that of the art
music contexts of the century, suggests a contemporary, and perhaps comparative,
understanding of that more recent history This late twentieth-century concern with
diversity and inclusion is reflected in the current edition of the New Grove Dictionary of
Music (Sadie 2001), which, through the structure and genre of the dictionary the history
of which stretches back to the Enlightenment, constitutes the most ambitious attempt to
construct a comprehensive body of knowledge about music and its history. Each version
of this dictionary has reflected its own time, and the current edition is no exception, with
its inclusion of jazz , popular and non-Western music reflecting the concerns and
 The Key Concepts 63

ideologies of the present.

See also: historicism
Further reading: Dahlhaus 1983a

HISTORY

see historical musicology , historicism , historiography

HYBRIDITY

A concept that has been much developed by cultural criticism and post-colonial studies,
hybridity is concerned with degrees of cultural exchange between race , ethnicity ,
gender and class . Although often considered to have contemporary origins, the term was
first used in seventeenth-century botany and zoology, where it referred to the crossing of
two separate species of animal or plant; it was expanded to include humans during the
eighteenth century Imperialism and Western colonialism in the nineteenth century saw
both segregation and assimilation policies; the latter were seen as a way of ridding a race
of the characteristics that marked it as degenerate.
Theories of hybridity may also be developed to account for new cultural forms that
have arisen as a result of borrowings, intersections and exchanges across ethnic
boundaries, some of which are controversial or contradictory An example of this is the
appropriation of Aboriginal art by white Australians as a means of promoting Australian
culture in a manner that glosses over the poor state of Aboriginal civil rights and the
country’s history of persecution (see Brah and Coombes 2000). However, colonial
subjects seeking emancipation have themselves sought to appropriate the colonizer’s
language in order to develop an effective anti-colonial critique (see post-colonial/post-
colonialism ). This has led to the creative hybridization of languages. In Africa, English
is reappropriated as a common language, while in Britain, musicians and writers have
developed localized ethnic variations of English, as expressed in the poetry of Lynton
Kwesi Johnson (commonly cited as the first major dub poet) or the rap of Roots Manuva.
Hybridity, as the cultural theorist Homi Bhabha has pointed out, is contained in the act
of mimicry that occurs when a colonized subject copies the occupying culture, since
‘each replication…necessarily involves a slippage or gap wherein the colonial subject
produces a hybridized version of the “original”’ (ibid., 11). The result, in Bhabha’s terms,
is a third space that contains ‘something different, something new and unrecognisable, a
new area of negotiation of meaning and representation’ (Rutherford 1990, 211; see also
Bhabha 1994). However, a contrasting view was presented by the Russian theorist
Mikhail Bakhtin. In his work on literature, he noted a form of intentional hybridity.
Intentional hybrids, in Bakhtin’s formulation, consist of an ironic double-voicedness, a
collision between differing points of view on the world that ‘push to the limit the mutual
non-understanding represented by people who speak in different languages’ (Bakhtin
2000, 356).
A number of types of cross-cultural exchange have been noted since Bakhtin, leading