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The radiative fluxes, in turn, are given by the specific azimuth angle is zero for the direction of specular
intensities. The specific intensities are often referred to reflection. Fresnel reflection is often adopted for water
as radiances. In terms of the incident and reflected and ice surfaces. To capture the undulation of water
radiances, Il ðy; fÞ, the fluxes are given by and ice surfaces, distributions are used for the orien-
Z Z tation of the surface elements with respect to the
2p p=2
direction of the incident light. The effect of a distri-
Fl ¼ df dy sin y cos y Il ðy; fÞ ½3
0 0 bution of orientation is to produce a distribution of
reflected intensities that peaks near the direction of
The specific intensity is the radiative power per unit specular reflection by a flat surface and falls with the
area per unit wavelength per unit solid angle flowing angle measured with respect to the direction of
through a surface perpendicular to the direction of specular reflection. For oceans, the bright pattern of
propagation (Goody and Young 1989). The solid reflected sunlight near the direction of specular reflec-
angle associated with the radiance is the angle that the tion is referred to as sun glint.
area for which the radiance is defined subtends at the In addition to Fresnel reflection, all surfaces,
source of the light. The solid angle arises because light including water and ice, have internal elements with
propagates in a straight line after leaving its source and sizes comparable to the wavelengths of incident
the source is taken to be at a point. Consequently, the sunlight. These elements scatter light and contribute
intensity falls as the inverse of the square of the to the light reflected by the surface. In oceans,
distance from the source, and this dependence is minuscule variations in density, air bubbles, particles
carried by the solid angle. The increment of solid angle of sand and dust, organic compounds, and micro-
in eqn [3] is given by dO ¼ sin y dy df. The cos y scopic organisms all give rise to scattered light. On
factor in [3] accounts for the projection of the area for land, the scattering is by grains of sand and particles of
which the radiance is defined onto the surface for soil. If these internal elements absorb most of the
which the radiative flux is defined. This projection is incident light, then the reflected light can be approxi-
equivalent to projecting the shade of the area associ- mated as being due to single scattering. The intensity
ated with the radiance onto the area associated with of the reflected light becomes a function only of the
the flux. scattering angle, which for the orientation illustrated
The first approximation to surface reflection is that in Figure 1 is given by
the surface reflects isotropically. That is, the reflected
intensity is independent of view zenith and relative cos Y ¼ sin y sin y0 cos f cos y cos y0 ½4
azimuth angles, and is simply related to the incident
flux. From eqn [3], for isotropic reflection, Flþ ¼ pIlþ ,
The distribution of scattered light is specified in terms
and consequently,
of a probability distribution function, referred to as a
al Fl scattering phase function. PðYÞ sin Y dY=2 is the
Ilþ ¼ fraction of the scattered radiation that has been
p
scattered through scattering angle Y and into an
Such a surface is called Lambertian. No surface is truly incremental ring of solid angle given by
Lambertian. Those that come closest are extensive dO ¼ 2p sin Y dY. The phase function is defined so
fields of snow and ice. Snow and ice absorb little that it is unity for isotropic scattering, and it is
sunlight at visible wavelengths. As a result, multiple normalized so that
scattering is possible. The angular dependence of the
reflected light is reduced as the number of scatterings Z p
1
increases. Even though isotropic reflection is not dY sin YPðYÞ ¼ 1
2 0
common, isotropic reflection is often adopted as an
approximation because it simplifies estimates of the Because the elements which give rise to the largest
reflected intensities, Ilþ . component of scattered light are often larger than the
Fresnel reflection describes the reflection of light at wavelength of the incident sunlight, the scattering is
the boundary of two media with distinct indices of typically anisotropic. The Henyey–Greenstein phase
refraction when the media are uniform at all spatial function provides a convenient prescription for the
scales, including length scales that are small compared distribution of light that is scattered anisotropically
with the wavelength of the light, and the surface and is given by
separating the media can be taken to be a plane. For
Fresnel reflection, the angle of reflection is equal to the
1 g2
angle of the incident light: the view zenith angle is Pðg; YÞ ¼ ½5
equal to the zenith angle of the source, and the relative ð1 þ g2 2g cos YÞ3=2
REFLECTANCE AND ALBEDO, SURFACE 1917
where g is adjusted to give the proper degree of rectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF).
anisotropic scattering. g is referred to as the asymme- The function RðG; DÞ peaks sharply, depending
try parameter. It is the average cosine of the scattering on the value of D, in the direction of backscattered
angle and is given by light, Y ¼ 180 . It is included to treat the ‘hot spot’ or
Z ‘Heiligenschein’ in the reflection pattern for land
1 p surfaces. The peak in reflectances arises as a result of
g ¼ hcos Yi ¼ dY sin Y cos YPðg; YÞ ½6
2 0 the absence of shadows when the surface is viewed
For g ¼ 0, the scattering is isotropic; for go0, most of from the direction of backscattered light. The peak
the radiation is scattered in the direction of backscat- is often observed when looking out of the window of
tering, toward an observer with their back to the an airplane flying over land. With the sun on the
source, and for g > 0, most of the radiation is scattered opposite side of the plane, the peak surrounds the
in the direction of forward scattering, toward an shadow of the plane as it appears on the land surface.
observer facing the source. In eqns [7] and [8], D is adjusted to fit the reflectance
If absorption is not strong, light can be scattered for the hot spot; otherwise, D ¼ 1 serves as a default
more than once before it leaves a surface. Likewise, value.
light reflected from one portion of a spatially varying Figure 2 shows an example of the bidirectional
surface can be reflected by another portion on its reflectance distribution function for a homogeneous
upward path towards the atmosphere. The simplest field of clover. In the diagram, the length of the radius
treatment of the multiply scattered component was represents the view zenith angle; the polar angle
offered by Minnaert, who attempted to fit reflectances represents the relative azimuth angle. The reflectances
observed for Mars. The reflectance was taken to be are for incident light with a zenith angle of 451. The
given by parameters used to obtain these reflectances are taken
from Rahman et al. (1993) and are given in Table 1
rðy0 ; yÞ ¼ r0 cosk1 y0 cosk1 y along with parameters for other surfaces. The para-
meters were derived by fitting [7] to observations of
where k and r0 are adjusted to give the observed bidirectional reflectances. Only in the case of clover is
reflectances. With multiply scattered and reflected the hot spot treated through an adjustment of the value
light, the angular distribution is no longer a function of of D.
the scattering angle only. In the field, surface albedo measurements are made
The effects of single scattering, multiple scattering, using a combination of instruments, positioned either
and an additional refinement for light reflected in the on tripods, of order 3 m in height, or on towers, of
backward direction, scattering angles near 1801, have order 20 m or greater in height. The instruments
been bundled to form an empirical, analytic expres- include various combinations of spectral and broad-
sion for surface reflectance. Following Rahman et al. band narrow-field-of-view radiometers to measure
(1993), reflection by a land surface is taken to be given specific intensities and radiances integrated over all
by wavelengths, and spectral and broadband pyranome-
ters to measure radiative fluxes and the radiative fluxes
cosk1 y 0 cosk1 y
rðy 0 ; y; fÞ ¼ r0 Pðg; OÞ integrated over all wavelengths, or total radiative
ðcos y 0 þ cos yÞ1k fluxes. The narrow-field-of-view radiometers provide
information on the directional dependence of the
ð1 þ RðG; DÞÞ ½7 incident and reflected light, while the pyranometers
where Pðg; OÞ is the Henyey–Greenstein phase func- are used to measure the incident and reflected radiative
tion given by [5] and fluxes. Often, one set of instruments is deployed to
measure reflected radiances and irradiances, another
1 r0 to measure the incident flux. The difficulties that arise
RðG; DÞ ¼ ½8
DþG in measuring surface reflectances and albedos include
the spatial heterogeneity of the surface, the spectral
with and angular responses of the various instruments, the
Gðy0 ; y; fÞ radiometric calibration of the various instruments,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi and effects due to shading of the surface by the
¼ tan2 y0 þ tan2 y 2 tan y0 tan y cos f structure supporting the instruments. Despite the
difficulties, careful measurements of surface albedo
In [7] r0 ; k; g; and D are parameters that are adjusted have been shown to be repeatable to within 70.02.
to achieve the best agreement with observed reflect- For the example shown in Figure 2, the reflectances
ances. The reflectance, rðy0 ; y; fÞ, is called the bidi- were measured at visible wavelengths, 0.45–0.68 mm,
1918 REFLECTANCE AND ALBEDO, SURFACE
90
120 60
150 30
180 0
−90° −60° −30° 0° 30° 60° 90°
View zenith
Figure 2 Bidirectional reflectance distribution function for visible wavelengths calculated for clover using eqn [7] and data from Rahman
et al. (1993) as given in Table 1. The radial axis is the view zenith angle, the polar axis the relative azimuth angle. The solar zenith angle is
451. The ‘hot spot’ is the peak in the reflectance at a view zenith angle of 451, in the direction of backscattered light, relative azimuth angle
of 1801.
and near-infrared wavelengths, 0.73–1.1 mm. The hot flected light from surfaces. Such expressions are being
spot occurs at a view zenith angle of 451, the zenith used to construct global maps of surface albedos from
angle of the incident light. Most of the reflected light is multispectral and multi-angle satellite observations of
distributed in the direction of backscattered radiation, land surfaces under cloud-free conditions. The goal is
go0. The parameters given in Table 1 indicate that to characterize the surface albedo to within 70.05 or
this is common for several land surface types. better in order to reliably estimate the surface energy
Figure 3 shows the effect of multiple scattering on budget. In addition, from the spectral and angular
the surface reflectance for clover. The effect is revealed distribution of the reflected radiances, surface condi-
as different values of the BRDF for the same scattering tions are characterized in terms of, for example, the
angle, but different combinations of zenith angles for extent and type of vegetation, or the extent and depth
the incident light (as indicated by the different sym- of snow cover. Of course, to characterize the surface
bols), view zenith angles, and relative azimuth angles. reflectance, the composition of the atmosphere must
The results suggest that for low sun (large zenith angle be determined for the times of observation. Atmos-
for the incident light), the scattering becomes more pheric composition affects the spectral and angular
like that for single scattering. distribution of the light incident on the surface, as well
Expressions like [7] appear to offer reasonable as the amount of light reflected by the surface that is
representations for the angular distribution of re- attenuated by the atmosphere. Making corrections for
Table 1 Parameters for the bidirectional reflection distribution function given by [7] and [8]
r0 k g D r0 k g D
1þd
ai ðm0 Þ ¼ aiD ½9
1 þ 2dm0
0.04
where m0 ¼ cos y0 is the cosine of the solar zenith
0 = 15° angle, and y0 and d are adjusted to obtain the observed
0.02 45° dependence of the surface albedo on solar zenith angle.
In eqn [9], the direct and diffuse components of the
65°
albedo are made to be equal when the solar zenith
0.00 angle is 601, clearly an approximation. In terms
0° 50° 100° 150° of the direct and diffuse albedos, the reflected flux is
Scattering angle given by
Figure 3 Bidirectional reflectance distribution function and scat- Fiþ ¼ FiDIR
ai ðm0 Þ þ FiDIF aiD ½10
tering angle for clover. Reflectances are calculated using [7].
Values for a particular solar zenith angle are identified by the
Note that both the direct and the diffuse fluxes
symbols.
incident on the surface depend on the solar zenith
angle. Generally, for cloud-free conditions, the diffuse
atmospheric effects is a challenging problem for the flux increases as the solar zenith angle increases. In
remote sensing of surface reflectance. addition, the downward diffuse flux incident on the
surface is also a function of the surface albedo.
Surface Albedo Consistent with the approximations used here, the
flux of diffuse radiation incident on the surface is given
The spectral and angular dependence of the surface by
reflectivity in eqns [1] and [7] are often simplified by
(1) describing the spectral dependence in terms of FiDIR ai ðm0 ÞRiD FiDIF0
FiDIF ¼ þ
wavelength intervals for which the surface reflectance 1 aiD RiD 1 aiD RiD
is reasonably constant, and (2) dividing the angular
distribution of the incident light into two components: where RiD is the spherical albedo of the atmosphere
a direct component composed of sunlight that has not when viewed from the surface and FiDIF0 is the diffuse
been scattered or absorbed, referred to as the direct downward flux for the case in which the surface
beam, and a diffuse component composed of sunlight albedo is zero. For cloud-free conditions at midlati-
that has undergone scattering and is incident with tudes with an average continental aerosol having a
zenith angles that differ significantly from that of the 0.55 mm optical depth of 0.1, RiD ranges from
direct beam. Following eqn [1], the albedo for the approximately 0.3 at 0.3 mm to approximately 0.03
wavelength interval i is given by at 0.9 mm.
The diffuse components of the surface albedos are
Fiþ specified for five wavelength intervals in Table 2 for
ai ¼
Fi various surface types. For land surfaces, each albedo is
described by two components, one for the primary
with the flux of radiation incident on the surface given cover, typically a vegetative cover, and one for the
by Fi ¼ FiDIR þ FiDIF, where FiDIR is the flux of secondary cover, typically bare soil. The albedo is
radiation incident on the surface due to sunlight that obtained by linearly weighing the contributions of the
passes through the atmosphere without being scat- two components. The fraction of the primary cover is
tered or absorbed, i.e., in the direction of the direct given by f ; the fraction of the secondary cover is given
beam as specified by the solar zenith angle, and FiDIF is by 1 f. For arable land and deciduous forests, f is
the flux due to sunlight that is scattered as it passes made to depend on season. Values of f and d for each
through the atmosphere. Following Briegleb and surface type are given in Table 3. For snow and sea ice,
1920 REFLECTANCE AND ALBEDO, SURFACE
Table 2 Spectral dependence of the diffuse component of the albedo for various surfaces
Wavelength interval (mm) 0.2–0.5 0.5–0.7 0.7–0.85 0.85–4.0 0.2–0.5 0.5–0.7 0.7–0.85 0.85–4.0
Mixed farming, tall grass 0.04 0.08 0.24 0.24 0.05 0.1 0.3 0.3
Tall/medium grassland, 0.05 0.10 0.30 0.30 0.08 0.17 0.25 0.35
evergreen shrubland
Short, grassland, meadow and 0.03 0.04 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.22
shrubland
Evergreen forest 0.03 0.06 0.30 0.30 0.03 0.04 0.2 0.2
(needleleaved)
Mixed deciduous, evergreen 0.03 0.06 0.30 0.30 0.03 0.04 0.20 0.20
forest
Deciduous forest 0.03 0.06 0.30 0.30 0.07 0.13 0.19 0.28
Tropical evergreen 0.03 0.04 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.22
broadleaved forest
Medium/tall grassland, 0.03 0.05 0.25 0.25 0.05 0.10 0.30 0.30
woodland
Desert 0.28 0.42 0.50 0.50 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.4
Tundra 0.04 0.10 0.25 0.25 0.07 0.13 0.19 0.28
Snow 0.76 0.76 0.325 0.325 – – – –
Sea ice 0.75 0.70 0.50 0.50 – – – –
Data taken from Briegleb et al. (1986) and Briegleb and Ramanathan (1982).
the albedo depends on the fraction of the area covered ent of wavelength and the albedo for direct radiation is
and the thickness of the snow and ice layers. In the case taken to be given by (Briegleb et al., 1986)
of snow, it also depends on the age of the snow.
Albedos for fresh snow are higher than those for aged 0:026
snow. The values in the table are intermediate between að m 0 Þ ¼ þ 0:15
m1:7
0 þ 0:065
those for fresh and aged snow. For sea ice, the albedo
can be reduced by the effects of melt ponds on the ice. ðm0 0:1Þðm0 0:5Þðm0 1:0Þ ½11
The values in the table are for ice free of melt ponds.
For water, the surface albedo is taken to be independ- The albedo for diffuse radiation is taken to be 0.06.
Table 3 Solar zenith angle correction factor, d in eqn [9], primary surface coverage, f , and broadband surface albedos for a solar zenith
angle 601
Surface d f Albedoa
(A)
Polar night
(B)
Polar night
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 4 Maps of diurnally averaged surface albedos under cloud-free conditions for Northern Hemisphere summer (A) and Northern
Hemisphere winter (B) solstices derived using an inventory of surface types and eqns [2] and [9]–[11], with values of the spectral albedos,
solar zenith angle correction factor, d , and fraction covered by primary surface type, f , from Briegleb et al. (1986) and Briegleb and
Ramanathan (1982) as given in Tables 2 and 3. The maps do not include seasonal sea-ice or snow cover.
1922 REFLECTANCE AND ALBEDO, SURFACE
Values given in Table 2, along with eqns [2] and Il and Downward ( ), upward (1) specific
[9]–[11], have been used in combination with surface Il ðy; fÞ intensity, or radiance, with wavelength l.
types to construct global maps of the diurnally k Adjustable parameter in empirical repre-
averaged surface albedo for winter and summer sentation of BRDF, eqn [7].
solstice conditions under cloud-free skies. Such maps Pðg; YÞ Henyey–Greenstein phase function, eqn
are shown in Figure 4. The albedos in the maps do not [5].
include the effects of seasonal snowfall, or year-round PðYÞ Probability distribution function, or scat-
snow on elevated mountain ranges. For the estimates tering phase function, for scattering at
shown in Figure 4, atmospheric concentrations of angle Y. Fraction of light scattered per
water vapor and ozone were taken from climatologies unit solid angle at scattering angle
for the tropics and for summer and winter conditions Y between Y and Y þ dY into incremen-
at middle and polar latitudes. In addition, an aerosol tal ring of solid angle given by
with a 0.55 mm optical depth of 0.1 and having 2p sin Y dY.
properties typical of a marine aerosol was used over RðG; DÞ Correction factor for ‘hot-spot’, eqn [8].
oceans and a similar aerosol having properties typical RiD Spherical albedo for atmosphere in wave-
of continents was used over land. The aerosols length interval i when viewed from the
increased the diffuse radiation incident on the surface surface. The spherical albedo is the
at the expense of the incident direct sunlight. Broad- albedo for diffuse incident radiation.
band albedos for a solar zenith of 601 based on these a Broadband albedo, or simply albedo.
calculations are also given in Table 3. Fraction of light reflected, all wave-
The albedos shown in Figure 4 reflect the effects of lengths of the incident light included.
seasonal changes in vegetation, solar zenith angle, and ai ðm0 Þ Albedo for direct sunlight in spectral
through changes in the concentration of water vapor interval i, incident on the surface with
and ozone, the composition of the cloud-free atmos- solar zenith angle for which the cosine
phere. It should be recognized that the values of is m0 .
surface albedos given in the figure and those in Tables aiD Albedo for diffuse sunlight in spectral
2 and 3 should be considered as no more than interval i.
reasonable estimates. Accurate values await the accu- al Spectral albedo. Fraction of light reflect-
mulation and analysis of global satellite observations ed at wavelength l.
like those discussed earlier. D Adjustable parameter in correction for
‘hot-spot’, eqn [8].
y View zenith angle. The angle between the
Nomenclature direction to the observer and the normal
to the surface.
List of Symbols and Definitions
y0 Zenith angle of incident sunlight that has
d Adjustable parameter used to derive di- been scattered in the atmosphere.
rect albedo from diffuse albedo, eqn [9]. y0 Solar zenith angle. The angle between the
dO Differential increment of solid angle. direction to the sun and the normal to the
F Downward ( ), upward (1) broadband surface.
radiative flux, all wavelengths included. Y Scattering angle. Angle between incident
FiDIF Downward flux of diffuse sunlight in and scattered or reflected light.
spectral interval i incident on surface. l Wavelength of light.
Diffuse sunlight is light that has been m0 cosine of the solar zenith angle.
scattered into directions markedly differ- p 3.14159.
ent from that of direct sunlight. r0 Adjustable parameter in empirical repre-
FiDIR Downward flux of direct sunlight in sentation of BRDF, eqn [7].
spectral interval i incident on surface. rðy0 ; y; fÞ Bidirectional reflectance distribution
Direct sunlight is light that passes function, eqn [7].
through the atmosphere without suffer- f Relative azimuth angle. The angle be-
ing scattering or absorption. tween the direction of the incident sun-
Fl Downward ( ), upward (1) flux of light light and the direction of the reflected
with wavelength l at the surface. light when projected in the plane con-
g Asymmetry parameter. Average value of taining the reflecting surface.
cosine of the scattering angle for scat- f0 Relative azimuth angle of sunlight that
tered light, eqn [6]. has been scattered in the atmosphere.
ROSSBY WAVES 1923
ROSSBY WAVES
P B Rhines, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, horizontal wind patterns, in many ways unlike the
USA familiar waves on the sea or those of sound or light.
Copyright 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All Rights Reserved. In their most general form, Rossby waves have an
important bearing on what we call ‘weather’ and on
the form of the general circulation of the Earth’s
Introduction atmosphere and its oceans, and on the atmospheres of
Large-scale undulations in the westerly winds are other planets. Indeed, the form of the general circu-
related to an ideal form of motion known as the lation is in part shaped by Rossby waves. In their most
‘Rossby’ or ‘planetary’ wave. These waves owe their general form, Rossby waves occur widely in fluid flows
existence to the rotation and spherical shape of the of many kinds (for example, in hurricanes). To
Earth. Weather patterns and the general circulation understand these waves completely requires a chal-
are mostly much wider than the depth of the atmos- lenging amount of mathematics and physics, but many
phere: viewed from the side, a weather system is 100 to of their properties can nevertheless be appreciated
1000 times thinner (vertically) than its width. This through ideas, observations, and experiments that
extreme thinness, beyond reminding us of the fragile could be found in a high-school physics course.
nature of the atmosphere, causes horizontal winds to Because the language of science can be artificially
be stronger than vertical winds in such weather complex, we provide translations of some unfamiliar
systems. Stable layering of the air, with its great terms inside brackets { }. Some mathematical equa-
variations in density, reinforce this inequality. Waves tions are included, but these can be skipped by those
then become possible, which are dominated by nearly unfamiliar with them.