P-4 Training Methodology

CHAPTER – I
Overview of Types of Learning
Learning Objectives
After reading the chapter the student should be able to understand:
• The logic of learning
• Different types of learning.
• Understand different factors that assist learning
Learning as defined by Stephen Robins is s a process that result in relatively
permanent change in behaviour. Rene Descartes define learning as a process
that leads to changed or altered response to a same stimuli. Traditionally,
through Indian scriptures it is understood through our experiences that learning
as an outcome of mind control exercise which results in the increase of one’s
knowledge.
1.1 LOGIC OF LEARNING

“Logic” means the basic reasons for anything to happen. Like hunger and thirst
“learning” is also a need that have both unconscious as well as conscious reasons.
Unconscious Reasons for Learning

• Survival Demands – Such as hunger, thirst. Learning is necessary for
successful adaptation.
• Imitative Forces – A child unconsciously learns by imitating the elders.
• Fear Based – Helplessness and Avoidance are learnt due to unconscious set of
fears.
Conscious Reasons for Learning

• Curiosity – It may be by birth or created by external stimulus. The main
focus of any successful training is its ability to kindle the curiosity among
participants. The stimulation can be done by exposing the probability of
hidden patterns.
• Necessity Imposed – Such as learning computers, need to learn work aspects,
etc which are necessary in the performance of one’s work.
2 Training Methodology—I
• Experiences – Each experience is a big source and if analyzed from various

angles, can lead to positive changes in one’s personality.
• Reinforcement – Repeated experiences of the same kind will result in learning.
The reinforcement can come from situations or one’s own perceptions.
1.2 TYPES OF LEARNING

The following is the broad classification about the types of learning
• Classification based on learning processes - Pedagogy (Child Learning) or
Andragogy (Adult Learning) – Child learning is based on imitations and
repetitions, whereas adult learning is based on association with what is
already known.
• In terms of degree of conscious efforts - Conscious or Unconscious – If the
learning is deliberate it is called “conscious learning” and if it is spontaneous
it is termed as “unconscious learning”.
• Based on the presence of pre-determined objectives - Directional or Haphazard
– If the learning is directional or intentional then it is termed as “directional
learning”. Training is one type of directional learning. Haphazard learning
happens without pre-determined objectives.
• With respect to the degree of internal involvement – Adaptive (learning from
others but modifying to suit one’s requirements), Reflective (learning based
on thinking about one’s experiences) and Meditative (learning happens in an
effortless way and is directed by a relaxed state).
• In terms of durability of change – Temporary (here change due to learning
will evaporate after some time). Temporary Learning is usually with respect
to knowledge, which when not used for a long-time will be forgotten.
Permanent (here change due to learning is permanent). Most of practical
learning such as avoiding fire because it burns happens due to one’s own or
others’ experiences.
• Based on distance between the self and concept learnt – High (here the
concepts learnt are perceived as not relevant to one’s life and therefore, the
concepts learnt are “not practical”) Low (here the concepts learnt are perceived
as relevant to one’s life and therefore, the concepts learnt are “practical”).
• With respect to the degree to which learning is a part of one’s work –
Formal, if the learning happens as a part of one’s duty to learn through a
training programme organized by the organization in which a person works.
Training Methodology—I 3
Informal, if the learning happens as a result of interpersonal interactions in

an unstructured social environment within an organization or outside an
organization.
1.3 TYPE OF LEARNING BASED ON THEORY

Classical conditioning is, Stimulus (S) elicits > Response (R) conditioning since
the antecedent stimulus (singular) causes (elicits) the involuntary response to
occur. Classical conditioning starts with a reflex: an innate, involuntary behavior
“elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event. For example, if air is
blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over
whether the blink occurs or not.
In Operand Learning, every response is followed by a consequence and the
consequence determines. whether the response will be repeated or not. In
Skinner’s typical experiments, a pigeon could be trained to press a lever by giving
it a food pellet each time the lever was pressed. Of course, the first time the lever
would usually be pressed by accident. Gradually as each response was followed
by food, the tendency to press the lever increased.
Both Classical Conditioning and Operant Learning involve the learning of simple
stimulus-response sequences. An elementary. response like a motor response
may be learned because it has been followed by a positive consequence. Operant
learning also explains how more complex sequences can be learned. One learned
response can become a stimulus for a subsequent one, generating a new response
(S1, –R1 R2, R3, R., etc.). Kimble (1961) has pointed out that the basic principles
of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalization are
common to both types of Learning.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement theory has been developed by Jhorndike in
1905. Reinforcement or RF is defined as any event that alters the probability
of occurrence of a response. If the consequence following a particular event is
positive, it will be repeated. If the consequence is negative, it is less likely to be
repeated.
Secondary Reinforcement: For adults, most reinforcing behaviours are in
themselves learned. An important example is money. Unlike food, which is
linked to a physical need, money becomes rewarding because other desirable
things can be attained through it. Similarly status. approval, power etc. are all
reinforcing in an indirect manner.
Further, theories classify type of learning in terms of learning through people –
termed social learning and learning due to expectations to performance and then
to rewards link. They are described in detail in the next chapter.
1.4 TWO PRACTICALLY EMPLOYED TYPES OF LEARNING

The two most widely employed types of learning in practical applications
are “Experiential Learning” and “Adult Learning”. Small introductions are
presented in this chapter, whereas they are detailed in the next chapter.
Experiential Learning: The experiential learning takes place when a person
performs an activity, analyzes its dynamics critically, draws inference and
this becomes the foundation for the experience. The learning drawn from the
experience brings about the desired change in behaviour. This is also known as
Inductive Process.
Adult Learning
It is best understood by comparing with the way the children learn. As opposed
to learning by the children:
• Adults learn best when they are free to determine what, how and when they
should learn
• Adults were highly self-directed learners
• Adults learn more from non-formal, unorganised and loosely structured
programme because there is scope to apply gray cells and pick up what is
important by structuring it in the fashion easiest to them
• Adults have a need to know why they should learn something
• Adults have a very sharp sense of understanding what is their benefit in
learning and in loss not learning.
1.5 TYPES OF LEARNING CURVES

All learning curves are to be represented in terms of proficiency as a function
of time (or effort). The proficiency may increase over a period of time or it may
decrease also. As highlighted by Arun in his work on “learning traps”, there is
always a delay period between the commencement of efforts and commencement
of improvements in skills. The following six are the typical forms of learning
curves with first three representing the increasing trends and the next three, the
decreasing trends.
1.6 HOW TO MAKE THE LEARNING HAPPEN AT THE WORKPLACE

The sophistication needed to understand and utilise the implications of learning
theory has much to say about the kinds of qualifications and skills required
for organization renewal. The naive assumption that title and salary make
one an educational expert is tragic. Similarly the managerial assumption that
an employee who has the knack of making cute speeches or who once taught
in elementary school manages best is not necessarily true. There are some
questionable implications in taking an employee who never managed even a
small SUb-unit and entrust him with the development of other managers.
Operational and organizational climate must support learning. In addition,
managers need to be much more realistic and expect that very little can be
changed in a week’s training programme.
We need to re-took at the anxiety about evaluation of training. We are not even
sure how people learn and this creates real problems in trying to evaluate the
effectiveness of our learning process efforts. We know people do learn but we are
not sure why. We also know that people remember and learn best form analysing
failure experiences. When one looks at the tremendous number of complicated
tenuous and conceptual ideas that are discussed within the span of one week
in the average supervisory or management training programme it seems native
to expect that they would imbibe everything and adopt the same in realistic
conditions in too.
There is one other trap. When a specialist in organizational renewal becomes

concerned with learning theory, he must expect to find conflicting theories and
practices within the field. It is necessary to keep focus on the objectives and not
become enchanted with the theories.
In summary, effective learning methods assume that knowledge, skill and

attitudes have to be discovered by the learning if they are to mean anything to
him and make a difference in his behaviour. Man does not just learn from his
experience. The renewal specialist sets up conditions, including dilemmas and
unsolved problem where the learner can experiment, try things out. See what
works, analyze, and generalize for himself. The test of learning is not responses
on a test but whether the discovered learning makes any difference in the
learner’s life; he is constantly learning how to learn from every situation where
his senses encounter opportunities for growth.
This then is the challenge to those of us desiring to meet the critical problem
of developing effective learning and meet the changing needs of today’s
organizations.
1.7 FACTORS ASSISTING LEARNING

• Improving the psychological conditions under which it takes place and,
• Improving the material arrangements and methods of training.
This section deals not so much with learning theories as with some general
principles which are significant factors in various learning situations. Clearly,
if we want to promote learning we must understand those factors which will
contribute most to learning. After all change begins with learning that there may
be a better way of doing things.
Learning has been described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of insight into practice or experience. Learning may be simply
an addition (new information); it may be a subtraction (unlearning a bad habit);
or it may be a modification (adjusting new knowledge to old). Learning as a
change may be for the better or for the worse. We learn bad habits as well as
good ones. Learning may be conscious .or unconscious; we take courses in the
English language but we unconsciously acquire style of speech and gesture from
family and friends.
Learning is such a complicated process that no one can really claim to know
how it occurs. We do know that learning takes place more readily in some
circumstances than in others, and that it can be influenced to a great extent. To
facilitate learning. a Facilitator needs to understand the various factors which
bear upon the learning process.
• Motivation: one of the most important parameters to help learning is the
Motivation to Learn. Experimental evidence indicates that little learning takes
place in the absence of motivation. What motivates one person to learn may
of course be quite different from what motivates another. For some people
it is the interest or challenge of the task (intrinsic motivation), for others it
is the anticipated reward or punishment (extrinsic motivation e.g. money/
certification): for still others, it is the need for recognition or status. Up to a
point. the stronger the motivation the more learning takes place but beyond
a critical level the learner becomes too anxious and tense to learn effectively
(some of the energy that has been aroused is spilling over in tension which
disturbs learning)
• Stimulus, Response and Reinforcement: Motivation alone will not produce
learning. Attention has to be given to the particular stimulus to the checking of
the accuracy of the response in a rewarding situation; rewarded behaviour is
earned and feedback is delayed. It IS more difficult for a learner to determine
which of his actions led to a successful outcome.
Learning situation can be so arranged that the learner is given a series of
intermediate goals and is provided with constant, precise feedback corresponding
to his progress, this helps to maximise the effect of this principle and avoids
boredom. The case study, role-play and discussion methods are good illustrations
of learning by early feedback. So is with business simulations. The best feedback
is seen in programmed learning where immediate reinforcement follows the
participant’s response to each new segment of information.
• Participation and Practice: Experiments prove that the more a trainee
participates in the learning situation, the more effective will be the learning
particularly where one is learning a skill. If the learner is not called upon to
respond actively, there will be fewer opportunities to check the accuracy of the
response and provide feedback for control and reinforcement. Participation
also means practice or repetition of the behaviour to be learned which is
necessary for remembering and for transfer of the classroom learning to the
real life situation.
o Most trainees need to repeat the behaviour several times before they
remember it. Repetition needs to be carried well beyond the first perfect
performance - the principles of over learning - to consolidate learning.
• Perception: Most important of all perhaps, perception is what helps us to use
the knowledge we have in an entirely different situation from that in which
we learned it. For instance we may have learned to use a knife to cut with but
might subsequently use to remove a cork from a bottle, open the lid of a tin,
to turn a screw or to paint a picture. Perception is such an important thing
that many modern toys for children are designed to develop these qualities.
Perception operates from the most concrete to the most abstract levels and very
often perceiving a relationship at one level will help us to perceive new material
at another level. Thus audio-visual aids, simplified models, graphic symbols, the
use of examples and analogies all help to engage our perceptions and transfer or
apply them to new situations.
A facilitator also relies on the perception of the learner and allows him to build
up a coherent structure early. Research shows that to a surprising extent better
results are achieved by tackling task as a whole rather than in a series of small
sections that have little logical relation to each other. If the steps lead logically
from one to another and hang together in meaningful units, learning is facilitated.
Instructional material may also be organised by:
• Moving from the known
• Progressing from the simple to a complex
• Relating the material presented to tasks
To influence the perceptions of other people, a trainer must attempt to understand
their perceptions and relate the material to their understanding. Learning will be
to no avail if the instructor is not realistic in discussing his subject in relation to
the students, backgrounds and experience. Unless the learning is a meaningful
experience in terms of their needs and aspirations, the students will not learn as
effectively and they will not make the effort to apply the knowledge and skill to
their various jobs. Subject matter should be related to their - background (aims,
fears, problems, satisfaction, social and economic needs, health, age, experience),
education (level of education, knowledge of the subject or related subjects),
abilities (capacity to learn), capacity to do certain things e.g. mechanical ability)
etc.
There are also individual differences with respect to trainees’ skills, motivation,
previous experience, intellectual capacity, attitudes and working habit, and no
two persons will perceive information in exactly the same way. Self instructional
methods such as programmed learning where the learner goes at one’s own
pace, the discovery methods or individual assignments and projects are all very
valuable in making individual learning more effective. However, it is generally
more expedient to give training to group and in this situation it is clear that the
learning will be more effective if the level of previous skill intelligence etc. are
not too diverse. Proper selection of students for a course is necessary in this case.
As we grow older our perceptive processes become more and more complicated
as we receive an ever-increasing amount of information. This information is
either stored or forgotten depending on such things as whether it ‘is interesting
or necessary useful or not, understood or not etc. High motivation or interest in
learning, active’ participation in and applicability to trainee’s current: jobs will all
act to offset forgetting. Thus, these factors in the learning process are significant.
Climate setting: A prerequisite for effective learning is developing of a climate
that is conducive to learning. A broader view of climate must be considered.
Among the questions that might be raised regarding institutional climate are:
• Whether the management is serious about training?
• Do the policy statements of the organization convey a commitment to HRD
Training?
• Does the organization provide adequate resources for supporting HRD/
Trainee effort?
• Is the HRD staff involved in the decision-making process?
• Is the reward system aligned towards the achievement of personal growth of
individuals?
As regards setting in a training situation, there are the conditions which
characterise conduciveness to learning, the questions that might be asked in
creating process design to achieve those conditions:
• Participants should feel respected: Participants will learn if they are given
a feeling of being respected. They should not be made to feel small or
being talked down to. If that happens their attention is diverted towards
rationalising these feelings and learning is hindered.
• Feeling to be conveyed that participants are supportive: Participants if
supportive of the activity, will induce a willingness to learn.
• Mutual trust between the Trainer & Learner: If there is mutual trust then
there would be ready acceptance of the trainers’ views
• Training environment should be ‘fun’: The spontaneity existing in an ‘fun-
filled’ environment leads to quick internalization of learning inputs.
• Human touch helps learning: When people are treated as human beings and
not machines, learning accrues readily.
• A serious result-oriented approach is conducive for learning: When trainees
are made to feel that “training means business”, learning is quick and deep.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) Why learning happens in an individual? Why learning happens in an
organization?
(xii) Explain the different types of learning curves.
Chapter – 2
Process of Learning
Learning Objectives
• To understand the process of learning
• To utilize the understanding of learning processes to improve training
The process of learning holds the key in understanding how the mind of the
participants and the trainer works and is and can be directed towards leaning.
2.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF LEARNING PROCESS

• Acceptance that all human beings can learn. The assumption for example,
that you can’t teach an old dog new tricks is wrong. Probably few normal
people, in any setting, are incapable of learning. The tremendous surge in
adult education and second careers after retirement attest to people’s ability
to learn at all ages.
• The individual must be motivated to learn. This motivation should be
related to personal drives. The individual must be aware of the indecency
or unsatisfacto-riness of his present behaviour skill, or knowledge. The
individual must have a clear picture of the behaviour, which he is required to
adopt.
• Learning is an active process, not passive. In most cases it takes action and
involvement by and of the individual with himself, a resource person or a
learning group.
• Normally the learner must have guidance. A trial-and-error method is too
time-consuming. This is the process of feedback. The learner must have
answers to “how am I doing?” if he is to correct improper performance before
it becomes patronised.
• Appropriate materials for sequential learning must be provided: cases,
problem discussion and reading. Training tools and materials should be
available, and it should be recognised that there are imitations in the capacities
of these things. It is in this area that so many training programmes get trapped
by utilising the latest training or gimmicks for inappropriate learning.
• Time must be provided to practice the learning, to internalise, to give
confidence. Too often there is pressure to “pack the programme” to utilise

every available moment to tell them something. “This is inefficient use of
learning time. Part of the learning process should have sizable slots of time
for assimilation, testing and acceptance.
• Learning methods should be varied to avoid boredom. It is assumed that
there will be sufficient sophistication to vary the methods according to their
usefulness to the material being learned. Where several methods are about
equally useful, variety should be introduced to offset factors of fatigue and
boredom.
• The learner must secure satisfaction form the learning. This is the old story of
“you can take a horse to water but not make him drink water against its will”.
Learners are capable of excellent learning under the most trying of conditions
if the learning is satisfying to one or more of their needs. Conversely, the best
appointed of learning facilities and trainee comfort can fail if the programme
is not seen as ‘useful by the learner.’
• The learner must get reinforcement of the correct behaviour. B.F. Skinner
and other behaviourists have much to say on this score. Usually learning can
wait for months for correct behaviour to be rewarded. However, there may
well be long-range rewards and lesser intermediate rewards. Further, job
performance rewards, when the learner returns form the training programme,
must be consistent with the learning programme rewards.
• Standards of performance should be set for the learner. Set some goals
for achievement. While learning is quite individual and it is recognised
that learners will advance at differing paces, most learners liked to have
benchmarks by which to judge their progress.
• It has to be recognised that there are different levels of learning and that
these take different times and methods. Learning to memorise a simple poem
is entirely different from learning long-range planning. There are at least
four identifiable levels of learning, each requiring different timing methods,
involvement, techniques, and learning theory. At the simplest level we have
the skills of motor responses, memorisation, and simple conditioning. Next
we have the adoption level where we are gaining knowledge or adapting to
a simple environment. Learning to operate an electric typewriter after using
a manual typewriter is an example. Third is the complex level, utilised when-
interpersonal understanding and skills are involved. At the fourth level we
deal with the values of individuals and groups. This is a most subtle, time-
consuming, and sophisticated endeavour. Few work organizations have
training proqrammes in which a change of long-standing cultural or ethnic

values is a special goal. Many work organizations, however, do have training
programmes aimed at shaping entrenched values.
• Recognise the importance of interaction between trainees. Those in learning
situations sometimes have better insights into the factors affecting their
learning than do those who are into planning. Participants, for example,
almost always give a high rating to their interactions with each other, partly
because they become aware that their own problems are not peculiar and
that it is helpful to learn from others, and partly because interaction seems
to produce broadened and more perceptive understanding. These things
once thought to be minor in influence, are now viewed as major benefits in
many learning situations. Similarly, participants frequently stress that they
need time to internalise, digest, reflect, and be left alone in a kind of session.
Someone said, two hours of learning should be complemented with six hours
of relative solitude and freedom.
In the same vein the learning situation benefits from recreation that permits the
release of emotional and physical energy. Dyad conversations are useful, even
if somewhat forced, because they provide reaction, clarification and feedback.
Although not many organizations will allow costly training time to be used for
reading pertinent articles and books, it is well to bring all of the participants up
to at least a common level of basic knowledge before placing them in a learning
situation.
2.2 LEARNING STRATEGIES AND STYLES

Another perspective on the learning process and how to maximize learning
examines what people do when they learn.
Kolb theories that an individual’s learning style is based on that person’s
preferred modes of learning. A mode of learning is the individual’s orientation
towards gathering and processing information during learning. Kolb proposed
four basic modes of experiential learning:
• Concrete Experience (CE): An intuitive preference for learning through direct
experience, emphasising interpersonal relations and feeling as opposed to
thinking.
• Abstract conceptualisation (AC): A preference for learning by thinking about
an issue in theoretical terms.
• Reflective Observation (RO): A preference to learn by watching and

examining different points of view to achieve an understanding.
• Active Experimentation (AE): A preference for learning something by
actually doing it and judging its practical value.
Kolb identified four learning styles

a. Convergent: A combination of abstract conceptualisation and active
experimentation (thinking and doing).
b. Divergent: A combination of concrete experience and reflective observation
(feeling and watching), emphasising imagination, an awareness of values,
and the ability to generate alternative courses of action.
c. Assimilation: A combination of abstract conceptualisation and reflective
observation (thinking and watching) that stresses inductive reasoning, the
integration of disparate observations into an explanation. and the creation of
theoretical models,
d. Accommodative: A combination of concrete experience and active
experimentation (feeling and doing), this style is usually demonstrated by
accomplishment, executing plans, and involvement in new experiences.
2.3 LEARNING PROCESSES BASED ON THEORY

Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied,
hence the name ‘classical’. The main person in the development of classical
conditioning was lvan Pavlov, a Russian scientist trained in biology and medicine
(as was his contemporary, Sigmund Freud). While Pavlov was studying the,
digestive system of dogs he observed that dogs deprived of food began to salivate
when one of his assistants walked into the room. On further investigating ‘the
phenomena, he established the laws of classical conditioning. Skinner renamed
this type of learning as “respondent or operant conditioning” since in this type of
learning, one is responding to stimulus.
Classical conditioning is, Stimulus (S) elicits > Response (R) conditioning since
the antecedent stimulus (singular) causes (elicits) the involuntary response to
occur. Classical conditioning starts with a reflex: an innate, involuntary behavior
“elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event. For example, if air is
blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over
whether the blink occurs or not.
(a) Classical Conditioning: Working in Russia, in 1902, Ivan Pavlov discovered

that the dog he was experimenting upon, did not salivate only when it was
given food, but also when it heard the sound of a bell that used to ring
just before the food was offered. It was natural for salivation to occur at
the presence of food but why did this happen when the bell was sounded.
According to Pavlov, the neutral stimulus (bell) got paired with the
unconditioned stimulus (food), resulting in a learned (conditioned) response
of salivation to the new conditioned stimulus (bell). The situation before and
after conditioning is represented below:
Classical Conditioning
Before Conditioning After Conditioning
“UCS” (Food) leads to “UCR” “UCS” (Food) leads to “UCR”
(Salivation) (Salivation)
Natural Stimulus (Bell) leads to “CS” (Bell) leads to “CR” (Salivation)
No Response
Legend
UCS - Unconditioned stimulus
UCR - Unconditioned response
CS - Conditioned stimulus
CR - Conditioned response
The problem with the example discussed above is that the whole process of
learning has to be initiated from outside. Since the bell did ring before the food
came, pairing took place. The dog had no part to play in it. This model can
therefore explain very few aspects of our behaviour.
Operand Learning: Quite another process was described by the Harvard
psychologist, Skinner (Skinner, B.F. 1971, Beyond Freedom & Dignity, New
York, Bantaur Mntage). Here, every response is followed by a consequence and
the consequence determines, whether the response will be repeated or not. In
Skinner’s typical experiments, a pigeon could be trained to press a lever by giving
it a food pellet each time the lever was pressed. Of course, the first time the lever
would usually be pressed by accident. Gradually as each response was followed
by food, the tendency to press the lever increased.
Figure: Oprand Conditioning—Behaviour is conditioned by the Consequences

Both Classical Conditioning and Operant Learning involve the learning of simple
stimulus-response sequences. An elementary. response like a motor response
may be learned because it has been followed by a positive consequence. Operant
learning also explains how more complex sequences can be learned. One learned
response can become a stimulus for a subsequent one, generating a new response
(S1, -R1 R2, R3, R., etc.). Kimble (1961) has pointed out that the basic principles
of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and stimulus generalisation are
common to both types of Learning.
Cognitive Learning and Modelling: Some psychologists believe that neither
of the processes mentioned above can explain all the learning that takes place.
Operant learning takes a lot of time. First of all the right behaviour has to be
developed. Then it needs to be rewarded. Only when the same response has been
rewarded several times does the change become effective. Once again, it seems
unlikely that all learning could be explained in this manner. In fact, most such
situations cannot be explained in this manner. In 1914, Kohler demonstrated that
if a monkey was given two sticks, both of which were too short to reach a banana
lying outside a cage, the monkey would have an experience of ‘insight’. Without
much prior exposure the monkey would suddenly join the sticks together and
pull the banana inside. This kind of learning takes place inside the mind. It is like
fitting two bits of a jigsaw puzzle together. Reinforcement ‘simply plays the part
of strengthening the response, it does not actually cause learning. The principle
involved here is perceptual reorganization, i.e., putting bits of information you
have together in a new way. This kind of learning is probably very important in
changing attitudes towards people.
In modeling, Learning takes place through the process of identification. By
identifying, a person starts displaying behaviour like that of someone else.
In organizations this could show up in small details like adopting a style of
communication like that of one’s superior. Modeling also helps in taking on new
roles.
Reinforcement: Reinforcement theory has been developed by E.L. Jhorndike

in 1905 (Elements of Psychology, New York, Seiler). Reinforcement or RF is
defined as any event that alters the probability of occurrence of a response. If the
consequence following a particular event is positive, it will be repeated. If the
consequence is negative, it is less likely to be repeated.
Secondary Reinforcement: For adults, most reinforcing behaviours are in
themselves learned. An important example is money. Unlike food, which is
linked to a physical need, money becomes rewarding because other desirable
things can be attained through it. Similarly status. approval, power etc. are all
reinforcing in an indirect manner.
Consider a situation that a Manager may face in an organization. He may find
that a new member has joined your team and is working very enthusiastically.
An encouraging remark is likely to act as a reward and his participation will
probably become more enthusiastic, On the other hand, If a penalty is imposed for
some undesirable behaviour such as coming late. This is obviously punishment.
Both of the examples given above are the most direct use of reinforcement. More
indirectly behaviour can be strengthened by removing a negative consequence
that generally follows it. A person may be avoiding his workplace simply
because he does not get along well with his colleagues. A change in the seating
arrangement may help him regain his enthusiasm. Finally, taking away a positive
consequence can be a source of negative reinforcement. A reduction in pay,
a shortening of lunch hour, both sources of reward, would act as a negative
reinforcement. Another interesting effect is seen when ‘good’ behaviour is
continued to avoid punishment. Typically, we come on time to avoid being
reprimanded.
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT STRATEGIES

Table 1.1: Reinforcement through Behaviour Modification
Objective Strategy
To increase the rate of “Desired” Increase/Induce Positive Reinforcement
behaviour Decrease/reduce Negative Reinforcement
To decrease the rate of “Undesired” Extinction (Non-Reinforcement)
behaviour Punishment
Example, We all drive cars, For a sufficiently long period If we stop driving. we
become unsure whether on resumption of driving we would be able to drive
properly? But as soon as we start driving it comes back with a bang.
Estimation: When reinforcement stops for a long period of time, the person
stops performing that behaviour. This phenomenon is known as Estimation.
For all purposes, it appears that the person has stopped behaving in a particular
manner because he might have forgotten to behave in that manner. However, if
the reinforcement for causing the particular behaviour starts all over again, the
response comes back again and gradually he becomes strong and achieves the
same intensity like before in a very short time. This implies that R is not: Absence
of RE → Inhibits R (Not lost completely) Reappearance of RF → R (Response)
bounces back
2.4 LEARNING PROCESSES BASED ON LEARNING THEMES

The following are the different types of learning processes based on learning
themes:
(I) Expectancy Theory. Expectancy theory was proposed by Victor Vroom in
1964 (Vroom. V. Work and Motivation, New York, Wiley) and assumes that
motivation is a process of conscious choice. According to this theory, people
choose to put their effort into activities that they believe they can perform and
that will produce desired outcomes. Expectancy theory argues that decisions
about which activities to engage in are based on the combination of three sets of
beliefs: expectancy. instrumentality, and valence.
People with high expectancy believe that increased effort will lead to better
performance, but people with low expectancy do not believe that their
efforts, no matter how great, will affect their performance.
The second belief, called instrumentality, is a judgement about the connection the
individual perceives (if any) between task performance and possible outcomes.
Making instrumentality judgements is like asking the question, If I perform this
task successfully, is it likely to get me something I want?
The third belief important to expectancy theory is called valence. Valence refers
to the value the person places on a particular outcome.
Graphic representation of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

According to expectancy theory by Vroom, employees will not be motivated to

attend HRD programmes and try to learn from them unless they believe that:
(a) Their efforts will result in learning the new skills or information presented
in the programme,
(b) Attending the programme and learning new skills will increase their job
performance, and
(c) Doing so will help them obtain desired outcomes or prevent unwanted
outcomes.
(II) Goal-Setting Theory: A second cognitive theory of motivation that has
relevance to HRD is goal-setting theory. The presence of performance goals can
mobilize employees’ efforts, direct their attention, increase their persistence,
and affect the strategies they will use to accomplish a task. Goals influence the
individual’s intentions.
Goal setting has become an integral part of many HRD programes, particularly
in helping participants understand the desired result of each programme and to
motivate them to achieve these results. Goals can then be discussed with their
supervisors back on the job to ensure that the employees use what they have
learned during the HRD programme to improve their’ performance.
(III) Social Learning Theory: Albert 8andura has developed a third cognitive
theory of motivation, which is social learning theory (Bandura, A. 1977 B, S ocial
learning Theory Upper Saddle River, N.J., Prentice Hall). Bandura proposes
that outcome and self efficacy expectations affect individual performance. An
outcome expectation is a person s belief that performing a given behaviour will
lead to a given outcome. Self efficacy can be defined as “people’s judgments of
their capabilities to organise and execute courses of action required to attain
designated types of performances.
The major prediction of the social learning theory is that a person’s self-efficacy
expectations will determine:
• Whether a behaviour will be performed,
• How much effort will be spent, and
• How long the person will continue to perform the behaviour? Bandura
argues that people who have high self efficacy for a particular task will focus
their attention on the challenges of the situation and use greater effort in
mastering them, thus increasing the chances of successful task performance.
Conversely, people who have low self efficacy for a particular task will focus
their thoughts on obstacles and shortcomings, and as a result, reduce their

chances of successful task performance.
(IV) Behaviour Modelling (Bandura, 1977a; and Kraut, A.J. 1976): In behaviour
modelling training, the trainee is told the components of the behaviour to be
learned (e.g firing a poor performer) and shown a film or videotape in which an
actor (the model) demonstrates how to perform the behaviour with feedback from
others and finally receives social reinforcement for performing the behaviour.
(V) Equity Theory. (Watlster, Walster and Scott, Equity: Theory and Research,
Boston : Allysl & Bacon, 1978). Equity theory suggests that motivation is strongly
influenced by the desire to be treated fairly and by people’s perceptions about
whether they have been treated fairly.
Equity theory predicts that employees who believe they are being treated fairly
will be motivated to continue their present performance and behaviour patterns,
whereas employees who believe they are victims of inequity will search for ways
to reduce their feelings of unfairness.
Equity theory has clear implications for HRD, particularly in understanding
w employees perceive HRD programmes and their response to them. In some
organizations, participation in HRD programmes is used (or perceived) as a
reward for good performance or punishment for poor performance.
2.5 DYNAMICS OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Table 2.1 : General List of Activities Performed During Training
Seeing Producing Manufacture
Creative activity Negotiation Discussing
Planning Organizing Writing
Talking Communicating Travel
Lifting Holding
The experiential learning takes place when a person performs an activity, analyzes
its dynamics critically, draws inference and this becomes the foundation for the
experience. The learning drawn from the experience brings about the desired
change in behaviour. This is also known as Inductive Process.
(a) Internalising the observations and reactions

After involving in the activity the instantaneous reaction is contemplating on it
and retaining it (internalising) for further reference. Some of the activities could
be:
• Recording the experience
• Reflecting on the incident
• Memorising the factual information
• Feeling good or not so good.
(b) Sharing with others

Sharing means authenticating and evaluating, comparing the experience w i t h
self and others. Some of the activities could be, sharing with:
• Colleagues
• Team members
• Seniors
• Juniors
• Comparing with previous experience
(c) Understanding the dynamics of the process

Recapitulating the complete process step-by-step and drawing meaningful
deductions which amounts to learning. Some of the processes in this phase are:
• Step-by-step recapitulation
• Benchmarking the activity
• Matching with targets
• Content evaluation
• Comparing with similar process
• Assessing the quality
• Understanding the process flow
(d) Evaluating and analysing the outcomes

Evaluate the outcomes with predecided performance standards. Analyze whether
this is the best method of performing each activity or is there a better way of
doing it. The other similar processes in this phase could be:
• Matching each outcome with performance standards
• Analysing the lacunae. if any
• Identifying the performance gaps
• Identifying the method of bridging the gaps.
(e) Data I Information warehousing

Once the entire process analysis has been systematically done. the structured
outcomes may be stored step-by-step. stage by stage for future reference. Some
of the similar processes could be:
• Writing / preparing reports
• Storing the complete information on Desk PCI server
• Noting critical incidents
• Referencing key words / Sentences / Statements
• Knowledge management
• Data mixing & data warehousing
(f) Application of the stored experience

Whenever the person faces a similar situation I problem area, the experience
already stored could be recalled and applied in a sequential manner. Some of

the processes similar to this are:
• Practice
• Application
• Project handling
• Completing other assignment by applying the stored experience
Any learning process is complete when the whole cycle is complete and the
application of what has been learnt can be made on a new experience. In this
above structured method, both the trainer and the trainees can be made observers.
These observers record their observations and pool them.
2.6 ADULT LEARNING

Initially all formal educational institutions were established exclusively for
the education of children and youth. At that time there was only one model
of assumptions about the learner and learning. This was the pedagogy model
(deprived from the Greek words. “ped” meaning “child” and “agog us” meaning
“leader”. So pedagogy literally means “the art and science of teaching children”.
The pedagogical model has a subject-centred orientation to leaning and makes
the following assumptions:
• That people become ready to learn what they are told by some authority
figure (facilitator, trainer, boss),
• That they have to learn because it’s good for them or the authority figure
demands it,
• Full responsibility about what should be learned, how it should be learned,
when it should be learned, etc., lies with the facilitator,
• Students were submissive and dependent personalities with little experience
that could serve as a resource for learning
• Methodology used was transmission techniques
• Students were motivated by extrinsic pressure or rewards.
Empirical research carried out in the 50’s brought out that there are differences
between learning style of young and adults. This was the first inkling that the
pedagogical model may not be appropriate for adult reaming.
Research in the area of clinical anti developmental psychology provided
information about the condition and strategies that promoted behavioural

change, how development takes place throughout the life span of an individual
and what is the main stimuli for readiness to learn
Studies in the area of sociology found a connection between the institutional
polices and learning. It was observed that these polices either have inhibiting or
facilitating effect on self learning. Social psychology brought out the influence of
environmental forces such as social attitudes and customs, [sward systems and
socio-economic and ethnic satisfaction on learning.
Adult educators coined the term andragogy for the growing body of knowledge
about adult learners that would enable them to talk about it in parallel with be
pedagogical model. Andragogy is derived from the Greek word meaning “adult”
(literally man). The term ‘andragogy’ was publicised by Malcolm Knowles,
initially in his book, “The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy
Versus Pedagogy” published in 1970. In this book and later works such as
The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species, he suggested a comprehensive adult
learning theory, building on earlier work by Lindeman (author of The Meaning
of Adult Education, 1926). It was initially used to mean the art and science of
helping adults learn. Later on the term has widely been used as an alternative to
pedagogy. As opposed to pedagogy model, andragogy model proposed that:
• Adults learn best when they are free to determine what, how and when they
should learn
• Adults were highly self-directed learners
• Adults learn more from-non-formal, unorganised and loosely structured
programme because there is scope to apply gray cells & pick up what is
important by structuring it in the fashion easiest to them
• Adults have a need to know why they should learn something
• Adults have a very sharp sense of understanding what is their benefit in
learning and in loss not learning.
Motivating the Adults to Learn

Pedagogy model was based on how facilitators could control learners’ reactions.
It was more controlled methodology of teaching as compared to andragogy,
which advocated a loosely structured approach. Under pedagogy model adults
were taught as if they were children. This fact accounts for many of the troubles
encountered by adult educators, such as high drop out rate (where attendance
was voluntary), low motivation and poor performance. As opposed to this,

andragogy model states that adults learned best through active participation.
Therefore the dictum to be followed in adult education is to develop a need to
know what the learning has to offer. This can be achieved through testimony
of the trainer about his experience or the experience of a successful practitioner.
Another way could be by providing real or simulated experience through which
the learners experience the benefit of knowledge and the costs of not knowing
something. It is seldom convincing for them to be told by someone (like the boss)
that it would be good for them.
You may be familiar with the term pedagogy, which is used to describe the
‘traditional’ methodology of child education. Quite often it is used as a synonym
for ‘teaching’ and certainly represents learning focused on the teacher. In other
words, in the pedagogic model of learning, the teacher decides what is to be
learned, how it is learned and when learning takes place
Whether or not this is the best model for child education, it is clearly inadequate
for adult learning, particularly when it comes to work or career-related learning
within the process of human resource development. HRD requires a more active
approach from the learner which takes account of individual experience.
Adults have a deep need to be self-directing. In fact the psychological definition
of adult is “one who has achieved a self concept of being in charge of his or her
own life, of being responsible for making his or her own decisions and living
with the consequences”. This self-concept develops a deep psychological need in
an adult, to be seen and treated by others as being capable of taking responsibility
for themselves.
Although most adults may be completely self-directing in various aspects of their
lives (as full-time workers, spouses, parents and voting citizens), when it comes
to attending any programme labelled “education” or “training” they revert back
to their school and college days and the related conditioning, they put on their
hats of dependency, fold their arms, sit back, and say “Teach me”.
If the facilitator too goes along with the assumption that the adult trainees are
dependent and start treating them as such, it creates special type of problem.
This approach would result in a conflict between the intellectual learner, the
dependent child and their deeper psychological need to be self-directing. Most
people’s way to deal with psychological conflict is, to withdraw from the situation
which is causing it. To resolve this problem we have to develop strategies for
helping adult to make quick transition from being dependent to self-directed
learners.
Experience has a major role in adult learning process. Since, greater emphasis
should be given to the use of experiential learning techniques, such as discussion
methods, problem solving exercise, experiential sharing, simulation exercise, etc.
This will help to build on the already accumulated knowledge and skill of the
learners.
The experience pooled by the adult learners in the past gets further enriched
when they are exposed to new learning. This may act in three ways (i) enrichment
of the existing experience (ii) the new inputs may modify the existing experience
and may make it more meaningful and diverse (iii) if the new experience
is contradictory to the existing experience, the correct or more appropriate
experience befitting the situation may be’ learnt which is the right thing to
happen in the context of the dynamic changes taking place.
Stage to Stage Transition for Career Development as a Learning Source
Clear Planning and Development as an iterative process

Learning is bound to the more profound if the training requested or desired by
the trainee is not thrust upon by the management. So even if the participants have
been nominated by the management, the trainer should try to induce a feeling in
the group that the training has been organised on the basis of feedback from the
trainees. This feeling will also be promoted if the trainer involves the trainees
in self-diagnosing the need by making the trainees to identify the competencies
which they might be lacking and making them see the possibility of the training
programme to impart/develop the same competencies.

Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.
One of the most significant findings of the research into adult learning is
that adults are motivated to learn. The problem (and our challenge) is that they
may not be motivated to learn what we want to teach them - hence the importance
of extrinsic motivator-pressures from parents, facilitators, competitors, and the
like.
Summary about Andragogy

Knowles used andragogy to define and explain the conditions that adults
required for learning. Initially defined as ‘the art and science of helping adults
learn,’ the term has taken on a wider meaning and now refers to learner-focused
education for people of all ages.
For Knowles, andragogy is process-based rather than content-based (pedagogy)
and he anchored on four (later, five) main assumptions about the characteristics
of adult learners, which, arguably, make them different from child learners. But
even Knowles agrees that (the first four, at least) differ only in degree between
adults and children.
• Self-concept: As people mature, each person’s concept of self moves away
from being a dependent personality towards being a’ self-directed human
being.
• Experience: As people mature they accumulate their own individual,
growing reservoirs of experience that provide an increasing resource for
learning.
• Readiness to learn: As people mature, their readiness to learn
becomes increasingly oriented to the developmental tasks of their social
roles.
• Orientation to learning: As people mature, their time perspective changes from
one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and,
as a result, they shift from a subject-centered to a problem-centred orientation
towards learning.
• Motivation to learn: As people mature the motivation to learn is internal
(added in 1984).
“The brain has a predisposition to search for how things make sense and
automatically looks for meaning in every experience. This quest for personal
meaning translates directly into the search for common patterns and relationships.
The essential function of adult learning is to find out how what is being learned
relates to what the learner already knows and values and how that information
and the learner’s prior experiences connect.”
Jane Vella (2002) sets out 12 principles for adult learning:

(i) Needs assessment - participation of the learners in what is to be
learned.
(ii) Safety in the environment and the process. We create a context for learning.
That context can be made safe.
(iii) Sound relationships between teacher and learner and among learners.
(iv) Sequence of content and reinforcement.
(v) Praxis - action with reflection or learning by doing.
(vi) Respect for learners as decision makers.
(vii) Ideas, feelings, and actions - cognitive, affective, and psychomotor aspects
of learning.
(viii) Immediacy of the learning.
(ix) Clear roles and role development.
(x) Teamwork and use of small groups.
(xi) Engagement of the learners in what they are learning.
(xii) Accountability - how do they know they know?
2.6 SET OF PRACTICAL DECISIONS

Setting the training and climate, retaining what is already learnt and primary
decisions with respect to a training programme depends on the depth of
understanding about the learning processes involved in a particular context.
(i) Climate setting

A prerequisite for effective learning is developing a climate that is conducive to
learning. A broader view of climate must be considered. Among the questions
that might be raised regarding institutional climate are:
• Whether the management is serious about training?
• Do the policy statements of the organization convey a commitment to HRDI

Training?
• Does the organization provide adequate resources for supporting HRD /
Trainee effort?
• Is the HRD staff involved in the decision-making process?
• Is the reward system aligned towards the achievement of personal growth of
individuals?
As regards setting in a training situation, there are the conditions which
characterise conduciveness to learning, the questions that might be asked in
creating process design to achieve those conditions:
• Participants should feel respected: Participants will learn if they are given
a feeling of being respected. They should not be made to feel small or
being talked down to. If that happens their attention is diverted towards
rationalising these feelings and learning is hindered.
• Feeling to be conveyed that participants are supportive: Participants if
supportive of the activity, will induce a willingness to learn.
• Mutual trust between the Trainer & Learner: If there is mutual trust then there
would be ready acceptance of the trainers’ views
• Training environment should be ‘fun’: The spontaneity existing in an
environment which is fun-filled’ leads to quick internalisation of learning
inputs.
• Human touch helps learning: When people are treated as human beings and
not machines, learning accrues readily.
• A serious result-oriented approach is conducive for learning: When
trainees are made to feel that “training means business”, learning is quick and
deep.
(ii) Retention of what is learned

The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainees understand the tasks
or material being presented. It is equally important that newly learned material is
retained. Three additional issues that influence retention are the meaningfulness
of material, the degree of original learning, and interference
The meaningfulness of material is the extent to which it is rich in associations for
the individual learner.
The degree of original learning also influences learning retention. The more
effectively that information is initially learned, the more likely it will be retained.
Interference can also affect the extent to which learning is retained. Interference
is of two types First, material or skills learned before the training session can
inhibit recall of the newly learned material. Second, information learned after a
training session may also interfere with retention.
(iii) Primary Decisions to be Taken for Training

The following factors are important for considering the primary training
decisions.
(a) Learning Site

Whether the learning site should be on-the-job, classroom or organizational.
premises, classroom off organizations, university or other formal site, cultural
islands or home.
(b) Grouping Arrangement

Whether the grouping arrangement should be: related to size-one, dyad, trio,
groups 5-8, groups 9-15, groups 16-30, or audience style (any numbers); or
related to the relationships of participants - all male, all female, mixed sex, little
experience, much experience, mixed experience; related to age - old, young, mixed
age groups; known to each other or horizontal, diagonal; other organization –
homogeneous, mixed, same educational level, mixed educational levels; and
same task or mixed tasks.
(c) Learning Training Methods

Learning methods to be employed-lecture, panel, symposium, debate,
laboratory, programmed instruction, experience, coaching job progression,
job rotation, job enlargement, apprenticeship, situational training, personal
reading, correspondence, liberal arts, formal school, formal outside programme,
workshop, conference, institute, seminar, visitation, or discussion groups.
(d) Training Aids

Training aids to be used - movies, instantaneous reply movies, telephone,
loudspeaker, TV, role play, exercises, “in” basket, gaming, film strips, slides,
transparencies, tape recorder, black board, newsprint easel, flannel board,
magnetic board, self-administered instruments, tests and quizzes; case studies

- no printed discussion, printed discussion or incident process; experiments,
models, mockups, or group-generated data.
(e) Resource Persons

Type of resources persons or instructors-written material, experience, instrumen-
tation, self, organizational technical expert, outside technical expert, organization
renewal consultant, professors, industrial resource people from training depart-
ment supervisor, or peers.
(f) Transfer of Learning

How much attention needs to be paid to transfer of learning; direct transfer; live,
simulated reality; principle to be applied; no direct application, know stimuli-
opposite response; familiar to be used in unfamiliar way; or principle to be
learned and applied.
2.7 ESTABLISHING PERMANENT RESPONSE PATTERNS

Believers in change, through learning, strive hard to establish response patterns
that hopefully will be carried over and continued in the work situation. The
behaviour of participants in the work situation too often seems relatively
unchanged. As one examines this phenomena, it becomes apparent that most
organizational training programmes in the conceptual areas of supervision and
management lean very heavily upon theory “Y” assumptions. Conversely these
same organizations usually have a good amount of theory “X” assumptions
underlying both their supervisory operations and management practices. This
raises two concerns:
• In the current zeal to get away from the mechanistic approach to organizational
dynamics, there has been a tendency to underplay the role of the theory
“X” and theory “Y” factors in the total organizations as they affect training
outcomes. Training is accomplished as if such realities did not exist and as
if the only operable dynamics were the human factors in the training. This
has often created a breach between the training office, operating people, and
management.
• The S-R phenomenon not only operates within the training situation but is
very much operable within the work situation. People react in the direction
of the rewards they receive. The S-R patterns initiated in a training session
have very little chance of survival when they come up against different S-R
patterns of rewards in the work situation. For example: “Research papers get
you promoted - not supervisory ability or a skill” “Promotions depend on
who you know - not what you know”.
“I don’t give a damn how your people feel- we’ve got a job to do”. “OK,
you’ve been to a training programme. Say something new” “Seniority is what
really counts around this place”.
• If an S-R (Stimulus – Response) pattern initiated in a training programme
is to be maintained in the work situation, then it must be rewarded by the
organization. If the pattern is in conflict with organizational reward patterns,
the newly learned patterns are soon discarded. This accounts for a great deal
of supposedly poor results of training. Organization renewal will have a
better chance of success if training is planned according to the organization’s
reward pattern and the goals desired. This would include lessening the stress
on perfection and placing the emphasis on the necessity to learn.
• Operational and organizational climate must support learning. In addition,
managers need to be much more realistic and expect that very little can be
changed in a week’s training programme.
• We need to re-took at the anxiety about evaluation of training. We are not even
sure how people learn and this creates real problems in trying to evaluate the
effectiveness of our learning process efforts. We know people do learn but we
are not sure why. We also know that people remember and learn best form
analysing failure experiences. When one looks at the tremendous number of
complicated tenuous and conceptual ideas that are discussed within the span
ofone week in the average supervisory or management training programme it
seems natve to expect that they would imbibe everything and adopt the same
in realistic conditions in to.
• There is one other trap. When a specialist in organizational renewal becomes
concerned with learning theory, he must expect to find conflicting theories
and practices within the field. It is necessary to keep focus on the objectives
and not become enchanted with the theories.
• In summary, effective learning methods assume that knowledge, skill and
attitudes have to be discovered by the learner if they are to mean anything
to him and make a difference in his behaviour. Man does not just learn from
his experience. Conditions, including dilemmas and unsolved problem where
the learner can experiment, try things out. See what works, analyze, and
generalize for himself are also important. The test of learning is not responses
on a test but whether the discovered learning makes any difference in the
learner’s life; he is constantly learning how to learn from every situation
where his senses encounter opportunities for growth. Ensuring such effective
learning is a real challenge.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) What do you mean by “learning processes”? What are the learning
processes involved in experiential and adult learning?
(ii) How the knowledge of learning processes help in making training
effective?
Chapter – 3
Maximizing Workplace Learning
Learning Objectives
• To understand the principles of Learning
• To understand how the principles of learning are used to maximize the
learning
Learning is a function of various factors among which training inputs-related
factors would comprise of (i) Selection of Method of Training (ii) Programme
Contents and (iii) The Design & Layout of Training Programme etc. Unless
the trainer has clear understanding of these factors, he/she would not be able
to do justice to conduct the programme, ensure delivery of inputs / contents
appropriately thereby ensuring optimum learning to occur.
3.1 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Learning normally has to be supported by the following in order to be meaningful:
• Providing the psychological climate
• Providing appropriate tools I techniques and physical arrangements
• Using the right method of training for encapsulation, reach & impact.
In order to promote learning in the target groups the trainer must understand
those factors, which will contribute most to learning .
Learning can be considered as a relatively permanent change in the behaviour
that occurs due to some new experience. Learning that accrues could be;
• In terms of acquiring new information
• In terms of getting rid of an unwanted habit or subtraction
• Modification - changing over to new information, then again the change may
be for better or for worse.
Learning may be
• Good or bad
• Better or worse
• Conscious unconscious
Any person learning car driving will learn the usage of brakes, clutch, accelerator
etc. but the style of driving is a process of unconscious learning.
A study of the factors influencing the learning process is basic to the selection
and evaluation of training methods and the design of training programmes. The
trainer/instructor / facilitator should have a clear understanding of these factors
in order to be able to provide conditions that would maximize learning.
3.2 METHODS TO MAKE LEARNING INTERESTING

A facilitator also relies on the perception of the learner and allows him to build
up a coherent structure early. Research shows that to a surprising extent better
results are achieved by tackling task as a whole rather than in a series of small
sections that have little logical relation to each other. If the steps lead logically
from one to another and hang together in meaningful units, learning is facilitated.
Instructional material may also be organized by:
• Moving from the known
• Progressing from the simple to a complex
• Relating the material presented to tasks
To influence the perceptions of other people, a trainer must attempt to understand
their perceptions and relate the material to their understanding. Learning will be
to no avail if the instructor is not realistic in discussing his subject in relation to
the students, backgrounds and experience. Unless the learning is a meaningful
experience in terms of their needs and aspirations, the students will not learn as
effectively and they will not make the effort to apply the knowledge and skill to
their various jobs. Subject matter should be related to their - background (aims,
fears, problems, satisfaction, social and economic needs, health, age, experience),
education (level of education, knowledge of the subject or related subjects),
abilities (capacity to learn), capacity to do certain things e.g. mechanical ability)
etc.
There are also individual differences with respect to trainees’ skills, motivation,
previous experience, intellectual capacity, attitudes and working habit, and no
two persons will perceive information in exactly the same way. Self instructional
methods such as programmed learning where the learner goes at one’s own
pace, the discovery methods or individual assignments and projects are all very
valuable in making individual learning more effective. However, it is generally
more expedient to give training to group and in this situation it is clear that the
learning will be more effective if the level of previous skill intelligence etc. are
not too diverse. Proper selection of students for a course is necessary in this case.
As we grow older our perceptive processes become more and more complicated
as we receive an ever-increasing amount of information. What happens to
this information? It is either stored or forgotten depending on such things as
whether it ‘is interesting or necessary useful or not, understood or not etc. High
motivation or interest in learning, active’ participation in and applicability to
trainee’s current: jobs will all act to offset forgetting Thus, these various factors in
the learning process become’ doubly significant.
3.3 FACTORS THAT ASSIST LEARNING

This section deals not so much with learning theories as with some general
principles which are significant factors in various learning situations. Clearly,
if we want to promote learning we must understand those factors which will
contribute most to learning. After all change begins with learning that there may
be a better way of doing things. With respect to learning two things are important
• Psychological conditions under which it takes place
• Improving the material arrangements and methods of training
Learning has been described as a relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of insight into practice or experience. Learning may be simply
an addition (new information); it may be a subtraction (unlearning a bad habit);
or it may be a modification (adjusting new knowledge to old). Learning as a
change may be for the better or for the worse. We learn bad habits as well as
good ones. Learning may be conscious or unconscious; we take courses in the
English language but we unconsciously acquire style of speech and gesture from
family and friends.
Learning is such a complicated process that no one can really claim to know
how it occurs. We do know that learning takes place more readily in some
circumstances than in others, and that it can be influenced to a great extent. To
facilitate learning. a Facilitator needs to understand the various factors which
bear upon the learning process.
(i) Motivation: one of the most important parameters to help learning is the
Motivation to Learn. Experimental evidence indicates that little learning
takes place in the absence of motivation. What motivates one person to
learn may of course be quite different from what motivates another. For
some people it is the interest or challenge of the task (intrinsic motivation),

for others it is the anticipated reward or punishment (extrinsic motivation
e.g. money/certification): for still others, it is the need for recognition or
status. Up to a point. the stronger the motivation the more learning takes
place but beyond a critical level the learner becomes too anxious and tense
to learn effectively (some of the energy that has been aroused is spilling
over in tension which disturbs learning)
(ii) Stimulus, Response and Reinforcement: Motivation alone will not
produce learning. Attention has to be given to the particular stimulus
to the checking of the accuracy of the response in a rewarding situation;
rewarded behaviour is earned and feedback is delayed. It is more difficult
for a learner to determine which of his actions led to a successful outcome.
Learning situation can be so arranged that the learner is given a series
of intermediate goals and is provided with constant, precise feedback
corresponding to his progress, this helps to maximise the effect of this
principle and avoids boredom. The case study, role-play and discussion
methods are good illustrations of learning by early feedback. So is with
business simulations. The best feedback is seen in programmed learning
where immediate reinforcement follows the participant’s response to each
new segment of information.
(iii) Participation and Practice: Experiments prove that the more a trainee
participates in the learning situation, the more effective will be the learning
particularly where one is learning a skill. If the learner is not called upon
to respond actively, there will be fewer opportunities to check the accuracy
of the response and provide feedback for control and reinforcement.
Participation also means practice or repetition of the behaviour to be
learned which is necessary for remembering and for transfer of the
classroom learning to the real life situation.
Most trainees need to repeat the behaviour several times before they
remember it. Repetition needs to be carried well beyond the first perfect
performance - the principles of over learning - to consolidate learning.
(iv) Perception: Most important of all perhaps, perception is what helps us
to use the knowledge we have in an entirely different situation from that
in which we learned it. For instance we may have learned to use a knife
to cut with but might subsequently use to remove a cork from a bottle,
open the lid of a tin, to turn a screw or to paint a picture. Perception is
such an important thing that many modern toys for children are designed
to develop these qualities. Perception operates from the most concrete to

the most abstract levels and very often perceiving a relationship at one
level will help us to perceive new material at another level. Thus audio-
visual aids, simplified models, graphic symbols, the use of examples and
analogies all help to engage our perceptions and transfer/apply them to
new situations.
3.4 SETTING’ TRAINING OBJECTIVES

‘In formal procedure; instructions are organized to accomplish specific learning
(changes) within a restricted period of time. In this situation it is essential that a
facilitator clarify precisely what learning and unlearning he wants to facilitate,
and let these objectives serve as a clear focus for his whole training programme.
A training programme should set forth goals or objectives in term of:
• the job to be performed.
• the condition under which it is to be performed.
• the level of proficiency expected on desired.
3.5 MAXIMISING LEARNING

Our definition of learning makes it clear that people acquire and develop skills
and knowledge and change in behaviour as a result of an interaction between
forces within the learner and in the environment.
The factors which help maximising learning are:
(i) Trainee Characteristics
Trainability
Motivation
Ability
Perception of the work environment
Personality and attitudes
(ii) Training Design
Conditions of practice
Active practice
Massed versus spaced practice sessions
Whole versus part learning

Over learning
Knowledge of results (feedback)
Task sequencing
Retention of what is learned
Meaningfulness of material
Degree of original learning Interference
(iii) Transfer of Training
Identical elements
General principles
Stimulus variability
Support in the work environment
Opportunity to perform
Transfer of training climate
(iv) Training Characteristics
Trainability = f (Motivation × Ability × Perceptions of the Work Environment)
• The way trainees perceive training (e.g., as remedial or advanced, or as an
unpleasant task versus an opportunity) affects levels of learning perceptions
of efficacy, anxiety, and perceptions of fairness.
• The way in which individuals view their own ability (as a fixed entity or an
acquirable skill) affects anxiety level efficacy perceptions, and the learning of
declarative (factual) knowledge.
• Experiencing negative events on the job prior to training can increase trainees’
motivation to learn and also their performance in training.
• Other factors have been found to increase individual’s motivation to
participate in and learn from training. These include involvement in decisions
about training, perceptions that participation in training will lead to benefits
(e.g., increased job performance and career advancement opportunities), and
perceptions of support, or lack of obstacles to use what has been learned in
the work environment.
• Characteristics of the organization (e.g., policies, rules, and guidelines
regarding training participation) have been linked to participation in

developmental activities.
3.6 OTHER FACTORS IN MAXIMIZING LEARNING
(i) Personality and Attitudes

A trainee’s personality and attitudes can also have an effect on learning. An
employee’s attitudes towards career exploration and job involvement affect
learning and its applications to the job.
Personality traits that are related to employee learning include locus of control,
the need for achievement, activity, independence, and sociability. Murray Barrick
and Michael Mount reported the results of a meta-analysis showing that two
personality dimensions - extroversion and openness to experience - are valid
predictors of success in training. The spontaneity, imagination, and exploratory
approach a person brings to task performance and learning affects learning,
mood, and satisfaction with training.

Training design involves adapting the learning environment to maximise
learning. Training design issues include (i) the conditions of practice that
influence learning and (ii) the factors that impact retention of what is learned.
(iii) Conditions of practice

At least six issues have been studied that relate to practice and learning. They
include active practice; massed versus spaced practice sessions; whole versus
part learning: over learning; knowledge of results; and task sequencing.
• Active practice suggests that learners should be given an opportunity to
repeatedly perform the task or use the knowledge being learned.
• Massed versus spaced practice sessions clarify whether to conduct the training
in one session or divide it into segments separated by some period of time.
• Over learning is defined as practice beyond the point at which the material or
task is mastered.
• Knowledge of results or feedback provides objective information regarding
the adequacy of one’s performance, and it can come from observers, the
performer or the task itself.
• Task sequencing suggests that tasks and knowledge can be learned more
effectively if what is to be learned is divided into subtasks that are arranged
and taught m an appropriate sequence.
(iv) Retention of what is learned

• The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainees understand the
tasks or material being presented. It is equally important that newly learned
material is retained. Three additional issues that influence retention are the
meaningfulness of material, the degree of original learning, and interference
• The meaningfulness of material is the extent to which it is rich in associations
for the individual learner.
• The degree of original learning also influences learning retention. The more
effectively that information is initially learned, the more likely it will be
retained.
• Interference can also affect the extent to which learning is retained. Interference
inhibit recall of the newly learned material. Second, information learned after
a training session may also interfere with retention.
(v) Transfer of Training

• The transfer of training to the job situation is a critical component to the
success of HRD efforts.
• Transfer can take different forms. Positive transfer occurs when job
performance is improved as a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when
there is no change in job performance as a result of training. Negative transfer
occurs when job performance is worse as a result of training.
• Another distinction that should be made is between “near transfer” and “far
transfer.” Near transfer is the ability to directly apply back on the job what has
been learned in training, with very little adjustment or modification, whereas
far transfer has to do with expanding upon or using what was learned in
training in new or creative ways.
• Trainee characteristics can playa role in the learning, retention, and transfer
of skills and factual material. Three additional factors that account for
differences in individual learning processes are: different rates of trainee
progress, interactions between attributes and treatment, and the training of
adults and older workers.
(vi) Rate of Progress

• People learn at different rates. Some people progress more quickly than
others, and individual learners may even progress at different rates during
the same training programme.
• Learning curves can provide useful feedback to both trainer and trainee. For
instance, if a trainer notices a plateau, a different approach, encouragement,
or some other intervention may be needed for the trainee to improve
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) List the principles of learning? Why they are termed as “principles”?
(ii) Explain the different factor that help to maximize learning.
Chapter – 4
Application of Learning Methods in Training
Learning Objectives
• To understand the relationship between learning and training methods
• To facilitate the selection of training method
4.1 SETTING’ TRAINING OBJECTIVES

‘In formal procedure; instructions are organized to accomplish specific
learning (changes) within a restricted period of time. In this situation it is
essential that a facilitator clarify precisely what learning and unlearning he wants
to facilitate, and let these objectives serve as a clear focus for his whole training
programme. A training programme should set forth goals or objectives in term
of:
• the job to be performed.
• the condition under which it is to be performed.
• the level of proficiency expected on desired.
4.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEARNING AND TRAINING METHODS

Education and training for management, like any other educational field, fulfils
its role only by creating situations which are favourable to learning. That is why
“all schemes for management education and executive development exploit or
depend on the basic principles• of human learning”.
Of course, principles of learning are not put into effect through the teaching
methods alone. Motivation to learn example depends on a number of other
variables, such as the challenge of the participants present or future job and
training or the stimulation provided by the environment. However, the methods
used in teaching and training can influence motivation to learn, and therefore
should be examined and applied with this fact in mind. Some selected aspects
of the relationship between principles of learning and teaching methods are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
(i) Motivation: The motivation to learn is enhanced if the presentation of
the material is interesting, emphasises applicability and shows benefit for
application. To same extent this can be obtained through any methods which
are directly concerned with applying theoretical knowledge to real life
situation. The drive ways in which they can be combined and sequenced can
add to the enjoyment of learning and minimise participant fatigue.
(ii) Active involvement: The principle of active involvement is perhaps the main
raison d’etre of participative teaching methods. As a rule, the deeper the
involvement, the higher the motivation, the more the participation and the
better they are equipped to apply it. It should not be overlooked, however,
that the method itself although considered as highly participative, does not
assure that each person will be fully involved. Involvement also depends on
organization of case study preparation, leadership style and other factors. The
participants may also be passive if they consider the material to be of poor
quality-or the performance of the teacher to be below his own professional
level.
(iii) Individual approach: On-the-job training is a method of choice which can be
based on the training needs of one individual with full regard to his present
and future job. It has, however, many limitations and that is why group
training programmes should also involve work outside the enterprise. They
must take into account the fact that individuals have different capabilities
and learn at different places, have personal styles of study and application of
these is subject to individual control performance. The overall course design
method of teaching has to provide therefore not only work in group and
teams but also the opportunity for individual reading, thinking exercising
and application of knowledge. This can be done through:
• Compulsory individual assignment (reading, exercises, projects etc.);
• Use of teaching aids for individual learning like audio-tapes, video-tapes,
computer triennials, etc.;
• The breaking down of group assignments and project into assignment .for
each individuals;
• Voluntary additional work by the more capable participants.
(iv) Sequencing and structuring: Some methods are better suited than
others for introducing new topics and ideas for correctly sequencing them
or for explaining the structure of a vast and complex area. That is way in
certain situations the teacher cannot be without lectures and reading
assignments.
(v) Feedback: Different type of feedback are needed and have to be provided
in learning. Feedback on one’s competence and behaviour (as seen by the
other course participants by the trainer and by the trainee himself); feedback
on what was actually learned and one’s ability to effectively apply it. Direct
feedback on the soundness of decisions is an integral part of business game
whereas in case of discussions the only feedback on the individual analytical
abilities is the opinion of other participants and of the discussion leader.
Storing feedback a behaviour rural patterns is provided by participation
in role playing, business game and sensitivity training (group dynamics).
Practical exercises, consultancy, assignments and application projects provide
feedback on the practical usefulness of learning.
(vi) Transfer: This principle requires that education and training help the
individual to transfer what he has learned to level situation. Some teaching
methods, like lecture, study of literature or discussions do not pay much
attention to this transfer. On the other hand, in many participative methods
the element of transfer is storing. For this reason the method of simulation
and practical application projects are considered by some teacher as the most
effective ones.
Examining the methods from the viewpoint of principles of learning shows
the necessity to properly ‘sequence and combine various teaching method
and order to secure the greatest impact on learning. It also explains why there
is a growing interest in certain method with high motivation feedback and
transfer capabilities. This of course does not eliminate other methods which
are needed for different purposes. Neither should it lead to an overestimation
of a single method which, in fact, may fulfill its role only in combination with
other method (business games) or serve only very special purpose (sensitivity
training).
4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE

LEARNING AND SELECTION OF TRAINING METHOD
The relationship between the principles of effective learning and selection
of training method is of great practical importance as this would enable in
preventing unnecessary costs and ensuring effectiveness of training function.
(i) Involvement and Participation

• Training method should be interesting.
• Training method should ensure complete involvement & participation of

trainee.
• Training method should ensure Trainee Motivation.
(ii) Value Addition

• Training method adopted should relate to the meaningful value-added
outcomes.
(iii) Application on the job

• Training method should be adopted keeping in view the applicability of the
learning accrued on the job.
• Training method should suit the requirement of individual learning; one set
of methods can be used whereas for group learning set methods need to be
used. For example simulation method understudy, Group, In-basket or action
learning are individual-oriented training methods whereas case method,
lecture, seminar and role-play are group learning methods.
(iv) Nature of learning to be imparted

Training method adopted should relate to the type of learning to be imparted.
Transfer of KSA
• Training method selected will also depend on the magnitude of knowledge,
skill or attitude to be transferred. If the body of KSA to be transferred is very
vast and/or complex in nature, maybe a number of methods can be adopted
simultaneously. If the KSA to be transferred is a combination of conceptual as
well as experiential, a combination of number of methods may be required to
be used.
(v) Retention of Learning

Some methods -ensure long-term retention of learning. A number of management
games used by facilitators ensure life-long retention of learning.
(vi) Learning through Input Feedback

Many computerized methods like Business Games, Algorithm etc. have in-built
feedback which induces direct learning.
(vii) Learning through Recapitulation

Distance learning methods are mostly self study methods in which learning
accrues through study & recapitulation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) How learning and training methods are related to each other?
(ii) How the relationship between principles of effective learning help in
selecting an appropriate training method?
Chapter – 5
Overview of Training Methodologies
Learning Objective:
• To get an idea about different training methodologies
• To know the applicability of different training methods
Large number of training methodologies are available now. However, an
overview is given below mentioning some training methods which are either
on-the-job, implemented outside the Organization or a combination of both.
The following is a brief overview of rather typical methods of development (in
alphabetical order).
5.1 DIFFERENT CONVENTIONAL TRAINING METHODS

The following are the different conventional training methods
(i) Apprenticeships
For centuries, apprenticeships were the major approach to learning a craft. The
apprentice worked with a recognised master crafts person. Particularly during
times of low unemployment, businesses are eager to get any kind of help they
can find. Seeking an apprenticeship may be a very useful and effective way to
eventually develop a new skill.
(ii) Career Counselling

Hopefully, learners have the opportunity to work with their supervisors to
develop career plans which identify areas for improvement or advancement;
how those areas can be addressed and when.
(iii) Coaching
Coaching is becoming a very popular means of development, and often
includes working one-to-one with the learner to conduct a needs assessment, set
major goals to accomplish, develop an action plan, and support the learner to
accomplish the plan. The learner drives these activities and the coach provides
continuing feedback and support.
(iv) Professional Development

Many professions require verification of ongoing training to retain certification,
e.g., social workers, some fields of law, nurses, etc. Professionals must stay
up-to-date in the views and practices necessary to lead and manage in today’s
Organizations. There seems to be an increasing number of universities, colleges
and training centres associating continuing education units (CEUs) with their
courses and workshops.
(v) Courses
Universities, colleges and training centres often have a large number of courses
in management, professional and personal development. If the learner is looking
to build a skill, then he or she must actually apply new information from these
courses. Otherwise, the learner is collecting information (hopefully, knowledge),
rather than building skills.
(vi) Distance Learning

This typically includes learning by getting information and I or guidance from
people who are not face-to-face with the learner, e.g., learning via satellite
broadcast, broadcast over the Internet. e-mail or postal/mail correspondence. etc.
Some people consider on-line learning (e.g . information. tutorials. etc., available
on diskette. CD-ROM. over the Internet. etc.) to be distance learning. as well.
(vii) Summer Training

Internships are offered usually by Organizations to college students wanting to
find work experience during the summer months. The internships offer precious
real-life job experience and the Organizations often get skilled highly dedicated
service. Many times interns go on to be hired by the Organizations as well.
(viii) Job Assignments

Job assignments are wonderful opportunities from which to learn. We just
aren’t used to thinking of them that way. To cultivate learning, consider having
employees write short reports including an overview of what they did why they
did it what areas of knowledge and skills were used how the job might have
been done better and what areas of knowledge and skills would be needed to
improve the job.
(ix) Job Rotations

This can be one of the most powerful forms of development allowing learners to
experience a broad range of managerial settings, cultures and challenges.
(x) Lectures I Presentations

Lectures, or focused presentations by experts on subject matter are held in a wide
variety of locations not just in classrooms. Professional associations often bring
in speakers. Guest lectures are often sponsored by local universities, colleges and
training centres and announced by Management.
(xi) Programmes
Local universities, colleges and training centres usually offer these programmes.
Carefully review their programme content and design to ensure that training
includes real-life learning activities during which learners can develop skills for
the workplace.
(xii) Mentoring
Hopefully, learners find experienced managers in the workplace who are
willing to take learners “under their wing” and provide ongoing coaching
and mentoring.
(xiii) On-Line Training

There are now numerous sources of on-line training (learning information from
computer diskette, CD-ROM. the Internet. etc, This form of learning is sometimes
called Web-based training. Various forms of distance learning involve learning
over the Internet as well (Digital Think offers a free experience of using Web-
based training).
(xiv) On-the-Job Training

This form helps particularly to develop the occupational skills necessary to
manage an Organization, e.g., to fully understand the Organization’s products
and services and how they are developed and carried out.
(xv) Other Directed Learning

This includes having someone other than the learner identifying the training
goal, methods to achieve the goal, and approaches to evaluating the training and
progress towards achieving the training goal.
(xvi) Orientation to New Jobs or Roles n

A carefully developed procedure for orienting new employees is very helpful for
getting employees “off on the right foot” when starting their jobs.
(xvii) Peer-Based Methods

This includes formats where peers focus on helping each other learn, e.g. by
exchanging ongoing feedback, questions, supportive challenges, materials, etc.
Perhaps the best example is the action learning process
(xviii) Professional Organizations
A wide variety of professional Organizations often offer courses, seminars,
workshops and sessions from conventions.
(xix) Self-Directed Learning

Highly motivated learners can usually gain a great deal of knowledge and skills
by identifying their own learning objectives, how to meet those objectives and
how to verify they’ve met the objectives, as well.
(xx) Television
Various television networks often have a wide variety of very enlightening shows
about basic job skills, such as computer basics, business writing, etc.
(xxi) Tutorials
Tutorials include guidance to proceed through learning some technique or
procedure, e.g. a tutorial on using a computer software package. There are an
increasing number of on-line tutorials (tutorials available on diskette, CD-ROM,
over the Internet, etc.).
(xxii) Training Courses and Workshops

Workshops, seminars, convention sessions, etc. are useful, in particular, for highly
focused overviews of a particular subject or training about particular procedures.
(xxiii) University and College Programmes

It seems there is an exponentia1 number of management development
programmes in universities and colleges.
(xxiv) Workshops
Workshops typically include some hands-on practice by the learner, and can be
very practical means to learn a certain technique or procedure.
5.2 FURTHER LIST OF TRAINING METHODS

By now we have understood that different methods of Training are to be used for
imbibing different terminal behaviours.
A large number of Training Methods are available, to choose from, for meeting
the desirable objectives. Training should lead to enhanced performance; it is the
key word today. In order to achieve desired outcomes, selection of right method
of training is the key task of a trainer.
Some of the most commonly used training methods to impart need-based training
are described below.
• Thinking Stimulation methods such as Lecture Method, Case Method, Role
Play
• Participative methods such as conferences, Seminar, Panel discussion,
Workshop, Syndicate Method
• Team Building Methods such as T-Group or Sensitivity Training, Open
Discussion.
• Problem Solving Methods such as Buzz groups, Brain-storming
• Behavioural Focused Methods such as Structured experiences or Simulation
method, Laboratory method
(i) Thinking Stimulation Methods: Aims at developing positive and harmony
building thoughts
The Lecture Method

The Lecture Method of training is one of the oldest training methods. This
is also the most widely used as well as the most abused technique of training.
Usually defined as an informative discourse delivered to an audience, it clearly
implies a one-way communication to a number of people by someone who is
knowledgeable in his subject. Most of the contents under educational and

training curriculum, in general, are still covered by this method only. Even in
entrepreneurship training programmes, this remains the core method, and at
times in combination with other methods. The supremacy of this method in terms
of its uses has been acknowledged. Once accepted, it requires re-emphasising
upon and re-orienting trainers to recall this method in its true form. This method
has distinct advantages, and disadvantages. Advantages like time saving, control
of topic by the trainer, possibility of repeating the points for emphasis, economy
in terms of coverage, flexible group size, safer approach, easy trainer replacement,
etc. are well known to most of the trainers. The disadvantages commonly
perceived are: one-way communication, repetition, lack of group participation,
passive audience, boredom, attention span, lower retention rate, lack of feedback
etc. In order to make the lecture effective, attempts are made to convert the
disadvantages to advantages or reduce the disadvantages considerably e.g.
lack of feedback is a disadvantage which may be converted to an advantage by
incorporating the scope of discussion with the participants followed by lecture.
Lecture can be made more effective by using the following aids:
• An overhead projector and slides
• 35 mm transparency projector and slides
• Flip chart
• Audio cassette
• Video cassette recordings
• Demonstrations
Making the Lecture Method Effective

Yet another way of making the lecture method effective is the preparation of
the lecture itself by the trainer. The trainer may analyze the learning group,
determine the exact purpose to be accomplished, decide the main points to be
discussed, organise the points and material, develop and support the points etc.
Recent studies have shown that the most sophisticated way of rendering a lecture
session invigorating is involving the audience by:
• allowing time for questions and discussions at the end of the talk
• allowing interruptions for questions during the talk
• allowing interruptions for questions and for discussion during the talk
The effective approach in the lecture method is undoubtedly progression from

the question and inviting questions thus giving an opportunity for discussion.
There are several other factors pertaining to the trainer and preparation of lecture
which, if combined together, can result in an effective programme.
Television Films and Slide Presentations

TV films and other tools like slide presentations are used as add-on to the main
training activity to accentuate the underlying message and grounding of the
concept by showing the visuals of an incident which highlights a similar objective
to the one discussed during the training activity.
Some trainers solely depend on TV films and 35 mm slides to convey what they
should be conveying and thereby treat these aids as a substitute to the main
framing activity. The result is that the Trainers treat these aids as a means of
entertainment and the key message intended for trainees often misses its mark.
As an example, suppose the Trainer shows a TV film, where a delinquent
employee comes late to work and despite several reminders by the boss, does not
change his ways the action taken by the boss is reconstructed and it becomes an
IR issue.
Here the message that the Trainer wants to convey to the participants is, their
involvement in analysing the situation and suggesting solution to avoid the
unpleasant situation that develops. Unless the trainer highlights this aspect after
showing the film, the trainees’ attention is likely to be diverted to the whole
episode ending with the IR issue.
Hence it is necessary for the Trainer to understand the need to treat TV films
135 mm slides etc. as aids to the main training activity which is essentially the
responsibility of the Trainer.
(ii) Participative Methods: Trainer and the trainees actively participate during
the training process and the content gets evolved and refined during the process.
The foundation of participative method incorporates the scope of discussion,
participation, understanding the group process and overall facilitation of
belief, attitudes, knowledge, sharing of experiences etc. between people, which
is imperative for broadening their perspective in general, and in their work in
particular. By inviting trainees to participate, a climate is created wherein they
feel like responsible ‘adults, with their views, knowledge and valued experience.
The following methods, to a major extent, rely on the above criteria for being
successful media for imparting teaching.
Let us consider what methods are available to us as training managers. We

can conveniently divide these methods into two major categories, didactic and
participative. The former may be defined as direct teaching (with authoritarian
overtones) whilst the latter implies two-way communication between two or
more persons, with or without a leader.
One-to-one Instruction
The direct teaching approach to the training of apprentices, operators and other
individual learners is still used extensively. It is now widely recognised that
successful instruction depends upon an active rather than a passive learner.
Directive instruction tends to create dependency, and this is in conflict with the
aim to bring a learner up to experienced worker standard at the earliest possible
time. This objective requires the use of a systematic method, backed up by a
comprehensive two-way information flow, adequate reinforcement of learning
and a practical demonstration of that learning under skilled supervision.
Approach for One-to-One Interaction

• The question should be asked initially as to whether one-to-one formal
instruction is the best way of imparting the required knowledge or skill. There
may be a more suitable method depending on the objective.
• The job must be analyzed in detail and the learner’s present knowledge
ascertained. The gap constitutes the learner’s training need.
• An instruction plan must be made and appropriate targets identified.
• The instructor who organises himself in such a way as to reduce problems to
a minimum clearly stands a better chance of success than one who takes no
precautions at all and is content to play everything by ear,
• When carrying out the instruction it is advisable to give the trainer a preview
of the task to be performed. He needs to know the purpose, the approximate
time and the scope of the instruction. An indication of how the job, which he
is required to perform, fits into the general scheme for things is usually useful
in creating interest. .
• Generally the sooner the trainee can get involved in the instruction process
the better. For example if he is learning how to use a micrometer gauge, his
progress will be improved if he is able to handle the instrument at an early
stage.
• Operator jobs in a production plant usually demand high speed working to

acceptable standards of quality in order to meet output targets.
• The record of progress should be freely available to the trainee throughout the
instructional process. It is helpful for him to know just how much additional
effort is needed to achieve target performance.
• Finally, the trainee’s progress is monitored at suitable intervals until it is
confirmed that target performance is being maintained.
Conference
The literal meaning of conference is consultation. It is a highly structured entity
attended by a large group called delegates maybe an audience of several hundred
people. The basic purpose is to hear the views and comments of authorities in
the area being covered or the topic being presented, with interest in the subject.
In essence, a large number of delegates from wide cross-section of Industry,
business and academics come together to hear the views, opinions and findings
on the topic of deliberation.
The conference Chairman plays a key role in the entire proceedings. He has a
number of important tasks to perform including:
• He should be fully knowledgeable, should have done his home work about
topics being covered and the papers presented by the speakers.
• He should have planned the questions that he is going to put to the speakers
at the end of this presentation.
• He should be able to control the speakers and the audience alike lest the
presentation gets unduly prolonged or is disrupted time and again by the
audience. For this he should be able to wield power over them.
• He should wind up the session well in time and stick to the schedule.
• Summing up comprises of highlighting the contributions of the speaker to the
related field and the major contribution of other speakers to the conference.
• It is often appropriate to start the summing up proceedings by re-stating the
objectives of the conference and expressing the hope that they have been
achieved.
Action Maze
An action maze is just a case study, which has been programmed. Participants
receive a short description of the case with enough details to take them to the
first decision point. The description gives them options from which to select.
After the group discusses and decides on an alternative, they request the leader
to supply them with the next frame! That frame explains the consequences of
their decision; not by a theoretical background, but in terms of the case itself.
Sample Action Mazre

Dilip Ahuja has been on your shift for nearly seven years. You regard him as a
marginal worker at best. At times, he comes close to insubordination; once was
be suspended without pay for three days for fighting in the canteen. He has been
late seven times in the last two weeks. Today he arrives for work 45 minutes late.
You feel you should:
a) Give him one more chance, so you do nothing,
b) Discuss it with him, so you ask him to see you at the next break.
c) Discuss it with him, you thus stop at his Work Station as soon as he reports
for duty.
d) Suspend him for one day without pay.
The group would discuss this phase. Let us assume the group opted for ‘0’. The
prepared consequence might be:
“When you tell Ahuja of his suspension, he merely shrugs and gives you a
sneeze as he packs up his tools and walks out.” You wonder how anyone can
be that cool, clearly feeling superior to the situation. Three days later you get a
notice from the union Ahuja belongs to, indicating Ahuja’s formal grievance. The
basis of the grievance is that as a member of management you have interfered
with Ahuja’s personal life and prevented him from discharging his duties as the
parent of a minor, handicapped daughter.
And thus the case goes’ on. The maze comprises of good and bad choice. When
participants make wise choices, they should face a new set of increasingly
desirable options and vice versa. When they choose badly they may be allowed
another chance at a previously rejected option, giving them a chance to retrace
their action and work their way out of the maze.
Discussion
The discussion is a common training technique, which is useful for the presentation
of ideas and plans, particularly when issues have to be clarified or expanded
and the views of groups of people have to be ascertained. The discussion leader
requires skill in planning, careful preparation, encouraging the involvement of
individuals, controlling the debate, summarising the results of the meeting and
ensuring that suitable action is taken. The objectives of the meeting need to be
clearly established and the necessary information gathered in advance. Part of
the planning process is to decide who should be present, since a good deal of
expensive time can be wasted by people being required to be present all the time
when they only have a limited interest in the topics being discussed. It is vitally
important that detailed agenda is sent out some time before the event Lack of
precise information about the subjects to be discussed can give rise to members
misinterpreting them and arriving at the meeting having briefed themselves for
the wrong topics. When all members know in advance the precise purpose of
the discussion and the rules which apply they start on a common ground. If they
know the discussion is purposeful, they will be motivated to contribute towards
a successful outcome, thus improving the prospects of practical solution to the
problem. For the discussion leader to be successful, he must be able to handle the
debate In such a way that useful contributions are optimised and inappropriate
offerings limited. Members should not be allowed to digress from the matter
in hand and should be encouraged to be brief. There is a tendency for some
groups to go on debating an issue long after everyone has agreed on a course of
action. Another time-waster is the practice of some members to carryon private
discussions during the debate and this should again be curbed diplomatically.
Following the discussion, the leader needs to record the outcome of the meeting
and ensure that everyone is clear about what future action has to be taken and
who has to take it.
Symposium
A symposium is a form discussion meeting. Commonly used by professional
bodies, it usually consists of a collection of papers given by a number of speakers.
It is not unusual, however for a panel discussion to take place at the very end
under the leadership of a trainer or chairman, who determines the way in which
questions may be put to the speakers.
(iii) Team Building Methods: Team building, ‘as the term indicates, refers to the
situation when all members of a team undergo training together with a common
objective of achieving a task together in such a way, that a synergy results due to
the concerted efforts of all team members.
Managers handling diverse jobs have tried different methods out of which two
methods stand out: (i) MBO (Management by objectives) and (ii) Sensitivity
Training. It has been experienced that though both the methods are effective upto
certain extent, better results can be obtained by combining by two - which means
that when members of a team are exposed to MBO i.e. objective setting is done by
them together as a Team and subsequently as they are also exposed to sensitivity
training, they will develop enhanced Insight and awareness individually and
together as a team towards achievement of the Organizational objectives.
Team training can’t work as a magic word and the benefits can be derived only
on a long-term basis.
Certain Do’s & Don’t’s have to be followed while implementing team training
in an Organization: (i) The trainer, while implementing Team Training in the
Organization has a difficult task up his sleeves as he has to garner support from
the HOD and the team members. Once this support has been achieved, the trainer
is well on his way to achieving the desirable outcomes.
a) The effort towards organising Team Training should clearly indicate to all
concerned that important Organizational issues are being attacked or are
being sorted out through Team Training with due seriousness and backing of
the Management.
b) Once the objective of the Team Training has been formulated, at the tune of
deciding the Team composition, care should be taken to include members
who possess the requisite subject expertise and also have the authority to
proceed with the implementation of the ideas/learning generated. The
implementation should not suffer unduly for seeking approval from higher
ups.
c) The time frame of implementation should be clearly defined. Target dates
should be settled once for all without any dilly dally afterwards.
d) Since this is a team effort, the contribution of each member needs to be
acknowledged as per clear guidelines and if the same is not forthcoming
for whatever reasons, the person needs to be informed and reprimanded or
discouraged.
e) There should be a clearly defined system of process monitoring arid feedback
to individual members in the team.
f) The objective of feedback to the team members is two-fold: (a) Mid-course
correction by the team member(s) wherever required (b) focus on overall
Organizational effectiveness should be kept in mind by the Team members.
(iv) Problem-Solving Methods : They aim at identification, deeper understanding

and solutions to different problems in an organizational context. All types of
“technical training” falls under this category..
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a practical exercise to stimulate creativity in a group, and is
a very useful training technique. Brainstorming is based on the premise that
it is possible to generate more ideas collectively than the sum of the ideas,
which would be produced individually. This arises from the interaction among
members, which enables one member to trigger off new ideas in another. The
process of brainstorming demands discipline by the group and not to succumb
to the temptation to pass judgement on ideas as soon as they are read out. The
subject of the session having been decided, the members are required to write
down as many ideas as possible for dealing with the problem without attempting
to evaluate them. They should let the ideas flow freely and write them down even
if they at first seem impractical. After a suitable period of time, each member reads
out his list and the other members are asked not to criticise, however impractical
a suggestion might appear be. A combined list is produced and the group is then
encouraged to evaluate each item. The cross-fertilisation that takes place at this
stage leads to the development of new ideas, which mayor may not be directly
related to the original ones. How the process develops from this point depends
on the purpose of the exercise. The final list of ideas is prepared by taking cues
from all members which are totally practical suggestions and acceptable to all
concerned in the group.
A variation of this technique involves the use of large boards, at least 4’ × 4'
which are hung on either a wall or a movable stand and on which papers may be
fixed by means of drawing pins. A large number of pieces of paper, of different
colours and approximately 8 × 4 inches is supplied to the participants. Each idea
is committed to one piece of paper and at the end of a specified period of time the
papers from all the team members are pinned to the board. The team discusses
the contributions, eliminates duplication, re-words ambiguous or inaccurate
statements and removes irrelevant or unacceptable ideas. At this point, cross-
fertilisation between members may generate further contributions, which are
added and agreed. In the next step the ideas are grouped in order to be able to
produce a suitable structure with headings. A team member generally leads a
discussion, rearranging all the papers on the board in new groups, and headings
are provided for each group on paper of a different colour. A logical sequence
for the various subjects is then established and the total project reviewed. This
technique is extremely useful for generating ideas. For Brainstorming to be

effective, discipline is a must. Training in the brainstorming technique can be
extremely rewarding, not for individuals alone but for the Organization which is
constantly seeking new ideas and approaches.
Fishbowl
Fishbowl is an exercise used for enabling teams to study group processes. It
is usually carried out by forming two teams (Team A and Team B). Team A is
assigned a topic which it is required to discuss for, say, 30 minutes. The task is
unstructured and the team is free to either elect a chairperson or leader if the
members of the team so decide or alternatively, can cover the topic in a free
discussion. Team B is seated around Team A and observes the discussion process.
Its members are not free to interrupt the discussion but when it is finished they are
given about 15 minutes in which to criticise and comment Team A’s performance
in process terms only. Team A is not allowed to reply or even to comment on any
criticisms at this stage. The roles of two teams are then reversed; Team B now is
seated in the inside circle and Team A is seated around and becomes critical of
the performance of Team B. After Team A has given its judgement, the two teams
come together in a full group session and notes are exchanged on the processes
which were observed in the two parts of the exercise. The areas covered may be,
for example, the two teams leadership styles, decision-making process used and
the interpersonal relationships developed in the group.
It is a very useful exercise to develop a number of skills in the team members viz.
the ability of members to observe the group processes patiently and not jump to
conclusions, work their judgement appropriately on the group processes before
passing on or being unduly critical, the leadership skill, to observe inter-personal
processes happening there. The whole process is so dynamic that learning accrues
to each member.
Group Exercises
Until the 1960s group training methods usually comprised of formal inputs by
experts, followed by discussion either by the full group or in syndicate sessions.
The discussion groups addressed themselves in a structured way to question
posed by the speakers and rigid time limits were set on reporting back for
‘judgement’ of the results by the specialist, who was seen to be the authority on
the topic examined. Even the reporting- back has a formality about it, geared
more towards optimising learning. The group exercise as it has since developed
for training purposes is a written syndicate task, which provides clear instruction
on the objective, the procedure to be adopted and the approximate timing. The
objective can vary considerably. It may involve, for example learning a technique,
skill procedure, system or policy.
The exercise provides for problem solving. The procedure usually involves
studying the information provided and/or answering the questions posed firstly
as individuals and then by syndicate discussion arriving at group responses.
Where there is wide disagreement within the group, members are advised to try
to persuade the other by reasoned argument rather than to settle readily for a
majority answer. They are told to undertake thorough exploration of the issues
underlying the question. Preoccupation with seeking the ‘right’ answer, when
it does’ not exist, is discouraged. The trainer’s role is a relatively passive one.
He should not assume that he is welcome in syndicate unless the members say
so, and it is advisable to establish this at the commencement of a course. He
is a resource on which the groups can draw but he is not an authority in any
autocratic sense. He supplies the background information for their discussions
but they are responsible for their own learning. They are free to manage that
learning in whatever manner they agree will be most effective. They are not
obliged to appoint a chairman or even a spokesman unless they feel that this will
further their objectives. When they report back to the full group they can present
their case as a number of individuals and not through a spokesman if they so
wish.
Flexibility in timing is important. Since what is discussed in syndicate groups
should be what is important to its members and to their development they will
be selective about the areas in which they concentrate. The participants know that
one of the reasons why they are provided with off-the-job training is that they may
have the opportunity to stay away from the pressure of their jobs and examine
problems in depth and without information. Trying to reproduce the real work
time constraints therefore conflicts with the requirements of this type of training.
The full group sessions provide the opportunity for the group to compare their
findings in a wider debate. Group exercises take a variety of forms. In fact there
is probably no limit to the number of variations possible. The important point
to be remembered is that the means chosen must stimulate groups to explore
the topic in depth, using all the resources at their disposal. This demands
a very clear definition of the objective of the exercise and what is required of
the groups. They must be able to relate their knowledge and experience to the
problems and although they need to be stretched they should not feel that the
goal is unattainable. One exercise, which is widely used In education and is of
considerable value in the training field, is the multi-choice questionnaire. As the

name implies, it consists of a number of questions or statements accompanied
by three or more alternative answers from which the participants select the most
appropriate one in their considered judgement. The system is most effective if
each statement or answer is so worded that it produces serious discussion and is
not simply rejected arbitrarily.
One of the problems encountered with this type of exercise is that participants
treat it as an examination paper or test and if everyone comes up with the same
answer without discussion the group is content to move on the next question.
They may, of course, arrive at the same answer for widely different reasons and
failing to examine these may defeat the whole purpose of the exercise which is to
explore issues and to challenge beliefs, attitudes, experience etc. It is important
for the trainer to brief the groups carefully on how they can get optimum benefit
from the exercise and to discourage them from treating it in a purely mechanistic
way. The multi-choice questionnaire is a very suitable device for introducing a
group to the subject to be studied and establishing common ground to achieve
cohesive working groups through right relationships.
Workshops
The purpose of conducting workshop is to find a solution to identified work
problems by designing training programme(s). All affected persons are made
to come together; contributions are solicited from them, and once the solution
is suggested, to form an action plan, “Workshop” is set up to tackle specific
operational problems. For a workshop to succeed the following key features are
a must:
a) Since the participants play key role, they must be aware about the problem
areas and must be very motivated to find a solution to the problem.
b) High level of commitment is required from the participants towards the task
at’ hand and its achievement.
Since the objective of the workshop to identify a solution of the problem(s) and
work out an Action Plan, the workshop is the workshop is held slightly away
from the place where any kind of disturbance can disrupt the flow. Most of the
times the workshops are well planned and the spade work is done beforehand.
The steps involved in an idea) case are likely to be
a. Identifying the problem areas
b. Identifying the experts and consultants who are supposed to participate in

the workshop
c. Planning the date, venue, transport and physical facilities
d. Organising Lunch/Dinner or secretarial facilities etc.
(V) Behavioural Focused Methods: These methods aim at refining and improving
the human behaviour in a social context.
T-Group I Sensitivity Training

As the term suggests, Sensitivity training, T-group (training group), “study
groups”, “group dynamics” and group relations training” are some of the
expressions used to describe laboratory-type training which sets out to develop
enhanced sensitivity or to promote more effective interpersonal relationships
among the trainees. This type of training comprises of trainees sharing their
innermost feeling openly with the group at the behest of a highly trained
psychologst who is the trainer. The goals are:
• To bring about enhanced awareness of one’s own behaviour and how it is
received and interpreted by others.
• To develop sensitivity to the behaviour exhibited by others in a work setting
and be able to diagnose the causes of that behaviour.
• To improve one’s skills in handling problem at work by understanding and
managing the behavioural factors and constraints.
The technique relies for its effectiveness on creating a climate in which
participants are willing to be frank, open and honest with each other and are
prepared to explore in small groups facts about themselves, their backgrounds
and their inner feelings without inhibition. Because the focus is on personal
behaviour and discussion of one’s (normally) private thoughts, sensitivity
training has given rise to considerable controversy among training and non-
training staff alike. Unfavourable criticisms have naturally been levelled at it by
those who are prejudiced. Other critics have been genuinely concerned about
the adverse psychological effects T-group training has been known to have on
some participants. There have been instances when trainees have suffered some
kind of mental disturbance even when the course (not T-group) has been one
in which every conceivable effort was made to create a relaxed atmosphere and
reduce threats and pressures to a minimum. In other words, any kind of training
situation could prove harmful to trainees who have psychological problems.
This fact leads one to sound a warning that where employees have a previous
history of any such problem on personal front, they should not be considered
for participation in the T-group activities. Because of the dangers that may be
inherent in the study of emotional factors as distinct form job knowledge and
expertise, it is imperative that T-group trainers have a high level of skills in the
use of this technique. This is certainly not a job for amateur experimenters, but
one which demands special training.
(VI) Personality Development Methods: These methods aim at refining and
improving the personality of an individual.
Field Trips
One of the important components of any form of Training is learning through
visual impact. Visual impact may be produced in any form, be it factory visit,
production unit visit, office visit or visit to any place where any process-related
activity is performed. The usual impact reinforces any theoretical or conceptual
input given in a class room situation. The theoretical inputs at best make the
trainee visualise certain activities as these are supposed to be happening - the
reality feel about them is missing but when the trainee sees these activities
happening with his worn ‘eyes there is no scope for any doubt. He Can internalise
the whole process with a real image forming in his brain. Field trips are important
for the following reasons:
a) Firm grounding of the concepts resulting in an experiential learning which
tantamounts to acquisition of a body of knowledge which can be recalled at
any time.
b) Such a learning becomes more pronounced if the learning environment is
more real and the trainee’s mindset is geared to learn.
c) Trainer tells the trainee to visit any factory, production unit etc. with a view
to pick up important relevant information and not as a casual visitor nor for
amusement purposes.
d) The trainees are told about the objectives of their visit and what they are
supposed to take away.
The trainer is supposed to make the trainees do their homework before visiting.
He should also ensure that the conditions prevalent in the place of visit are
conducive to learning. He should also keep the group size neither too big nor too
small for learning to occur by maintaining the group’s enthusiasm.
Job Rotation
Employees join Organizations because:
a) They are looking for a career and not a job.
b) With passage of time they are looking for enlargement of their job domain
with the commensurate enlargement of their responsibilities, knowledge
sphere and overall growth in terms of broadening of their mental and
experiential horizon.
c) They are looking for a dynamic mobility which allows them greater awareness
about their own field of activity as well as awareness of related fields of
activity.
When the growth of an employee is limited to only one job without any
enlargement by way of overseeing more than one jobs, the employee stagnates
and the growth becomes stunted. It is important that the employee is given new
roles and new assignments after suitable intervals (the interval should be large
enough for him to master his current role). The period when he is learning all
nuances of his job he is supposed to be undergoing on-the-job training, after
which professional Manager (his boss) would do well to give the employee a
new role whether in his own department or agree to transfer him to another
department in consultation with the training / HR Manager. With time the job
becomes more complex and the new job becomes more stringent and demanding.
Many mangers are unwilling to let go their subordinates to other department for
fear of losing a good experienced man to another department and at the same
time to have to allocate time to the training of a newcomer. The only way to deal
with this is to make it part of company procedure and part of everyone’s job
description.
Coaching
The process of coaching entails boss and subordinate involved in a regular
dialogue for bringing about favourable impact on the work performance and
morale of the subordinate. This happens through the boss sharing his superior
knowledge and experience with the subordinate in guiding him through the
maze of various work related activities. In any work situation the boss who is
more knowledgeable and experienced is supposed to groom his subordinate by
passing on his expertise through on-the-job training. Some managers zealously
guard their knowledge rather than share with subordinates because of false sense
of power they feel they wield over others; they however forget that in doing
so they are not only doing injustice with their subordinates but also with the
Organization they work for.
Ideally the coach should sit face to face with the subordinate, implore him to share
his work-related difficulties / problems in an open non-threatening environment.
He has to motivate the subordinate to share all his owes without holding them
back by using all his charm, charisma and interactive skills. The boss’s leadership
style also should be conducive to building positive rapport between them.
He should create a climate of trust and mutual understanding. He has to be a
good listener.
Coaching Process
For coaching to succeed an explicit contract or understanding should exist
between the coach and trainee. The steps involved are:
a) Discussion between the coach and the trainee on the joint course of action.
b) Prepare a Coaching Plan with alternative solutions.
c) Identify a complete plan of action i.e. the Coaching Plan.
Table : Requirements for a Successful Coaching Process
Requirements of the Coach Requirements of the trainee
Coach should have the practical skills. Trainee should have the required level
of willingness and motivation.
The coach should be knowledgeable The trainee should be willing to learn
and should possess necessary skills and-acquire the body of knowledge,
in handling the job in question as skill and attitudes in handling the job
well as counselling. consulting and well.
persuading skills.
He should be an expert possessing He should show the motivation to pick
substantial experience in ensuring up the in-depth under-standing of all
transfer of knowledge. skills and activities involved.
attitudes (KSA) to trainee.
He should be willing to spend
sufficient time to coach the trainee
and have the determination to see the
project through.
Programmed Learning
The term ‘programmed learning’ or programmed instruction, is used to describe
a number of techniques involving prepared training programes, which are
entirely trainee-centered. This means that the trainee directly controls his own
learning, the time that he embarks on the training process and the pace at which
he progresses through it. He can also decide where the course takes place since
the material and/ or equipment required is easily transportable. In view of the
self-contained nature of the programme. the full-time involvement of a trainer is
not necessary.
This system has a number of advantages:
• Assuming that computer terminals are not involved. It can take place
anywhere where the conditions are conducive to private uninterrupted study.
This makes training schedules more flexible.
• The time of the staff is not taken up. It is only necessary for the trainee to
have arm’s-length access to a trainer in the event of anything going seriously
wrong. Nevertheless there is good management control because all the
ground has to be covered.
• The trainee is able to check his progress continuously and correct errors as
they arise. He has to be totally involved and he obtains immediate feedback.
The degree of reward in reaching the right answers is greater in this type of
training than in many others.
• The trainee can work at his own pace. He does not have to keep up with the
rest of the group.
• The programme can be illustrated to aid understanding.
• Provided the programme is professionally produced, there should normally
be no problems of interpretation. Personal difficulties that may otherwise
occur in the relationship between trainee and instructor do not arise.
• It can be better sequenced than any other training proqrarnrne because it
demands greater care from the programmer in analysing and presenting the
materials.
The disadvantages are:
• It is an impersonal system. The trainee is normally isolated and would
therefore have no dialogue with anyone else. This would make clarification of
points not properly understood and more difficult than usual.
• It requires discipline and motivation to work at a reasonable tempo. If the

subject is not particularly absorbing, progress may be slow.
• It assumes that the trainee has acceptable reading and comprehension skills.
Educational limitations could prove a drawback.
• The programme may be written on a ‘one-track’ basis and does not tend to
be more suitable for the teaching of concrete facts than for the discussion of
ideas and management problems or for behavioural subjects. For this reason
it may not stand on its own but has to be used alongside other methods.
Programmed learning can be achieved in three ways, by means of a book, a
teaching machine or computer. The much greater versatility of the computer has
meant that teaching machines have been largely superseded, although a few are
still in use. In each case the learner is taken through a prepared text or programme
in small easily assailable steps. He is permitted to move on to the next step only
when he has satisfactorily answered the questions relating to the current one. In
the book programme the model answers appear on the back of the page being
studied or on the following page and are therefore not visible until the page is
turned after the trainee has written his responses. If the trainee’s answers are
correct he is instructed to pass on to the next section. If not, he is referred back
in the text to revise the material he has not grasped. Each step in the process,
usually on one page if possible, is termed a frame. The process described above
is known as ‘linear programming’. An added refinement is called ‘branching’
and this provides additional frames or branches, which may develop a theme or
present the material in a different way for the benefit of trainees who fail to get
the right answer. This helps understanding and also has the advantage that the
trainee does not have to keep backtracking over earlier material when he fails to
respond correctly. The branching method usually offers alternative answers from
which the trainee has to select the right one. If he does, he moves on to the next
page; if he chooses one of the other he is directed to another page which explains
where he went wrong. He is then tested again and proceeds as appropriate. The
use of computers and some teaching machines can also be extended by linking
them to subsidiary equipment such as tape-recorders, slide projectors or even
working models.
The Sabbatical
In its literal meaning the ‘sabbatical’ is the observance of a day rest, a time of
peace and quiet.
Some companies allow leave upto 2 years to their employees during which
period, the concerned employee can seek a job or short-term assignment with
another employer and revert to his original employer on the expiry of his leave.
During the currency of this leave his original employer will not recall him as
this happens with the explicit understanding of both parties. Sabbaticals provide
certain benefits to both employer and the employee.
Disadvantages
• Paid sabbaticals can be expensive.
• The nature of the learning experience is not within the control of the
organization. The precise nature of the developmental experience is more or
less left to chance.
Table: Benefits of Sabbaticals
To the Organization To the Employee
There are periods of low workload for Employees often feel that they are
the employees when the Organization overworked and underpaid in their
does not have enough job orders current job. They are free to experiment
since the employee may be idling in with their employ-ability and market
absence of adequate workload and value.
remain underutilised. This dampens
the employee imitative and lowers his
morale. By allowing sabbatical leave,
the Organization does not lose a good
employee and also saves money in
term of salaries etc.
In case the employee who is on In case they find a better job they
Sabbatical leave does not rejoin the may continue in their new job if not,
company, the Organization can either they may revert to their previous job.
close his position or hire a new, better Sabbatical allows this flexibility.
incumbent.
If the employee returns with enhanced At times the employees during
qualifications or experience it is to the sabbatical upgrade their qualifications,
Organization’s advantage. acquire specialised experience which
would prove useful back in their
previous job.
Understudy or Assistant to Position

As a matter of policy, in many Organizations, Managers are given one person
to get trained under them as an ‘Understudy’ who is supposed to learn to do
everything, that is to be done in a managerial position. This is a practical and fairly
quick way of training designated persons for shouldering greater management
responsibility.
The objective of this assignment is to familiarise the trainee with the areas of
responsibility of the superior. It also prepares line to take over full duties and
responsibilities and look after his superior’s job during any long absence or
illness, transfer, promotion or retirement. The understudy moves into this boss’s
position, when the vacancy actually occurs.
Advantages
• Since the method involves learning by doing, it is practical and trainees learn
very quickly.
• Learner’s interest and motivation is very high.
• Relieves the superior off some of his duties.
Disadvantages
• It may lead to demotivation of other people in a department, where one
person is obviously marked out for promotion; leads to perpetuation of old
practices, as a result of which new ideas are not encouraged.
Project
There are 2 types of projects which are used for Training (i) Post-course Project
(ii) Whole course project. Though the outcomes of both the types are similar, the
processes involved in both are totally different.
Post-Course Project
Basically, the project is a type of “homework” at the end of the training
programme. This type of project, may be either individual or group-based.
The project by dint of its being a kind of assignment given to the trainee(s) by the
trainer, puts some pressure in two ways: (i) it needs to be completed as in time it
is a part of the training course (ii) it has a time component specified within which
the project has to be completed.
The purposes which are achieved are:

a) Since project ensures learning through application of the knowledge gained
in the training programme to a real situation, the learning is maximised.
b) The transference of learning from the class room situation to the work
situation is much faster thereby minimising the problems of encapsulation of
training.
In view of the above reasons, the benefits which accrue to the Organization are
considerable, which can be quantified. These benefit may be stated as: a) the
learning is instantaneous (b) the cost involved is low (c) application of learning
through hands-on, has already happened with the initiative of the trainee.
Example: After a training course on ‘Team Building’ the trainee is given a small
project to be completed back home in his department with the involvement of his
team members. When the trainee undergoes all steps involved, he is bound to
make use of the principles and theories he would have learnt during the training
programme.
Whole-Course Project
Whole-course project is a totally different experience from a learning viewpoint.
The idea is to provide a learning experience for the trainees by asking them to
work on a task of Organizational importance, which mayor may not pertain to
area of their present expertise. To complete the project, the trainees have to go
through the following steps:
• Identify what exactly the trainees are going to learn at the end of the project
i.e. the learning outcomes.
• Prepare Action Plan by collating step by step activities leading to the
conclusion of the project
• Plan what learning is going to accrue from various activities or from different
stages of the Action Plan.
• Also prepare a plan - how they are going to apply the learning in their jobs.
During the currency of the project appropriate guidance from the trainer is
absolutely necessary so that the trainees do achieve their objectives within the
stipulated time frame without digressing from the plan of action. Also, support
of top management is compulsory so that the resources necessary for completing
the project are available on time.
The learning accruing form a whole course project is considerably more than the
post- course project.
Post-Course Project Vs Whole-Course-Project

Example: In the post-course project an example of a ‘Team Building’ project
was given. In case of a whole course project a similar example could be given
of a Quality” Circle operating in a production department of an Organization.
Essentially, Quality Circle is a group of employees in a Production Department
who ensure that Quality at every stage of production is taken case of. In this
process, teamwork is involved at every stage.
Table: Post Course Project Vs Whole Course Project
Issue Post course project Whole course project
Objective Study the linkage of Study of the complete
inputs given during the project which mayor may
training with their-on-the not pertain to the area of
job application expertise of trainees
Modus operandi Apply the principles and Study the entire project from
theories learnt during the concept to commissioning
training by making a complete
Action Plan
Learning accured Grounding of the Knowledge of a complete
principles and hands-on process of great deal
experience gained through of important to the
application of concepts Organization
learnt
The whole course project given to trainees comprised of “Identifying the reasons
why the performance of a Quality Circle operating in department ‘X’ was
consistently deteriorating?”
Here the trainees mayor may not be working in department ‘X’. What is required
of them is to make an Action Plan - study the processes, activities and locate the
fault - which could be due to faulty or ineffective team work. The trainees would
also be required to take stock of different types of “Learning” that accrues by
handling this project. Here the trainee will undergo an experience of handling
his or her own learning and will gain experience and confidence of applying this
learning elsewhere later on. This will develop in trainees the skill of acquiring
self-directed learning.
Whole-Course Project Benefits

a) Transfer of learning is difficult in a class room or training situation.
b) Achiever immediate ROlon training investment.
c) Mainly helpful when adult and experienced learners are involved.
d) Develop self-directed learning skills.
e) The experience gained through this exercise can be warehoused for knowledge
management (KM) purpose.
f) It is learning for the Organization also.
Action Learning
The originator of this method is Reg. Reeves. The essence of this method is doing
and then reviewing. Explicit understanding of the process of Action Learning can
only be obtained by understanding the dynamics of the process as given below.
• A group of managers who want to undergo the learning experience assemble.
• All these managers come together with a clear understanding that they have
to go through the experience as comrades in adversity.
• Each manager is given a well defined and real project. At the end of the set
time period each manager is required to report to his / her peers or team
members about the problems encountered and how the problems were
solved.
• The emphasis in this method is on Doing and Learning through questioning
and not merely acquisition of knowledge.
• The emphasis of this method is on the process used to handle the project and
the questions asked to get the requisite information to solve the problem.
• David Broody has developed a matrix which provides a visual presentation
for understanding different types of Action Learning.
Environment
Familiar Unfamiliar
1 3
2 4
The dynamics of action learning can be seen most easily in situation 4 where
a trainee is faced with an unfamiliar problem in an unfamiliar environment.
For example, a Production Manager in the FMCG sector may be given a
Compensation field survey project in the Hospitality sector. The complete absence
of any familiar content knowledge will force the manager to ask the important
question that will eventually lead to the solution of the problem. Throughout,
the marketing manager will have the support of his/her learning set. In a similar
fashion, projects can be set for situations 1, 2 and 3.
In some ways projects and action learning are very similar. However, action
learning emphasises some aspects in a way which makes it qualitatively different
from projects which normally have some knowledge or skill relevant to one or
the other learning resource’s projects. Second, the trainees use the group as the
prime learning resource. Third, the emphasis is not on finding a solution to a
problem, but always on identifying and refining the process used to attack the
problem. The process is primary, the solution is secondary.
WHEN SHOULD YOU US ACTION LEARNING

Use action learning as a training method when:
• Sufficient time is available both with the trainer and the trainees group.
• Trainees have good rapport within the group and possess group interaction
skills.
• Trainees are willing to accept responsibility for their own learning and to
contribute to others’ learning.
• The trainer has good facilitation skills.
• Learning resources are available.
Behaviour Modelling
As the term suggests, this method of training comprises of modelling the desired
behaviour in front of the trainees, who try to copy this behaviour. On repeated
practice, the modelled behaviour becomes ingrained in the trainee’s mind and
he/she can model that specific behaviour in his/her role. As an example, let
us talk of a Director -IR, who can handle the Industrial relations matters very
effectively. How he handles his discussions with Trade Union leaders, how
effectively he negotiates with them, how he can sort out very complex IR issues
with the Employee Unions and Associations - all these behaviours can be video
taped and played in front of trainees who can pick up the speaking style, the tone,
the language and the body gestures used by the Director in making his point
click. When the videotape is played a number of times in front of the trainees,
with new practice they will be able to become more adept in handling a similar
situation more effectively.
The basic premise in this technique is “Do as I do”. Behayiour modelling
combines aspects of Bandar’s Social Learning theory and B.F.Skinner’s operant
conditioning.
Various steps in developing and conducting a behaviour-modelling workshop
are:
• Conduct Training Need Analysis (TNA) for specifying the exact behaviour to
be model/ed. This means what kind of behaviour needs to be taught to the
trainees should be clearly understood through TNA.
• Create the model behaviour to be copied and videotaped so that it can be
played and replayed at will to the benefit of trainee(s) anytime and anywhere.
• Since the model behaviour has been developed in response to TNA of trainees,
it will be closely related to trainee’s needs and the transfer of learning will be
relatively easy and fast.
• The logic behind the exercise can be shared with the trainees so that they
understand the rationale of copying the model behaviour.
• The model behaviour (full or part) is viewed by the trainees.
• Trainees copy and display the model.
• The Trainer gives feedback to trainees on their performance.
• On repeat performance, the model gets ingrained in the trainee’s behaviour.
• Trainees may also be asked to express their understanding of the underlying
principles.
When should you use Behaviour Modelling

a) Whenever there is only one correct and lor efficient way of doing something
(e.g., operating a crane).
b) When the learning objective is to develop a behaviour.
c) When there is a critical requirement for standardised performance (e.g.
preparing input for a computer).
d) When trainees will accept the prescriptive nature of the training.
e) When the trainer has adequate observation, feedback and rewarding skills.
The above process is a formal modelling exercise normally used in a training
programme. However, note that much informal behaviour modelling occurs
in the workplace with workers copying supervisors and new workers copying
skilled workers. Trainers must be continually aware of the possibilities of
modelling, planning their own behaviour accordingly and also keep the line
managers and their subordinates trying to copy their behaviours.
This will enable the line managers and the training managers to present only
such behaviours which are not detrimental and only add value.
Contract Learning
The term contract learning, relates to contract between the trainer and the trainee.
There are number of stages involved. During the first stage there is an agreement
between the parties as under:
• The objectives that the trainees are supposed to achieve are written down
laying down explicitly the expected terminal behaviour the trainees should
exhibit after going through the training, the conditions and standards of
imparting the training.
• After this the parameters relating to the objectives identified are set. The
trainee knows his own training needs, so he decides the training objectives
thereby taking the total responsibility for his own learning experience.
The role of the trainer is to ensure that the objectives set by the trainee are
congruent with the Organizational needs. In ensuring this aspect, the trainer
specifies certain basic minimum learning requirements that the trainee must
accomplish and which can’t be compromised with. These minimum basic
learning requirements are termed as ‘Non-Negotiable Objectives’.
• The content of the learning experience in terms of knowledge and skills that
the trainee needs to pick up will determine the objectives to be set jointly by
the trainee and the trainer.
• The Trainer here has an important role of creating and listing resources which
will help trainee acquire the learning viz. the experts of the subject, peers,
subordinates, customers, clients, the handouts, training literature to be used,
the method to be used, training aids to be used etc.
• Finally, the trainer is required to prepare report or a presentation to prove
that he has achieved the learning objectives set by him. Sometimes the report
may also be in Video format.
Advantages
The advantages of the approach include:
a) It can be flexibly adapted to suit a wide variety of situations.
b) The learning appears to be deeper and more permanent.
c) The trainees begin to learn the basic process that they can use in their own
continued self-development. It allows adults to utilise their past experience in
learning.
d) As trainees are pursuing their own goals, a higher level of energy is often
created.
Disadvantages
Although its proponents appear to claim that contract learning has universal
application, it does have some problems, including:
• Some people prefer a structured approach to learning and often feel insecure
when left to their own devices. Social and Organizational cultures do not
always nurture or reward the abilities required for self-directed learning. A
trainer going against these norms will often meet considerable resistance form
upper management and trainees.
• The trainer is often faced with considerable demands of his or her time,
knowledge, and energy as trainees enthusiastically pursue their individual
goals.
When can you use Contract Learning

One of the major characteristics of adult learning is that it is almost infinitely
adaptable. Consequently, there are really only two conditions required before
contract learning can be implemented. These are:
• The trainee must have adequate skills and sufficient resources (especially
time) available.
• Trainees must have appropriate levels of maturity and self directed learning
skills.
Self - Teaching Action Group

Another technique which is learner-controlled, is the self-teaching action group
(STAG). In contrast to contract learning it is based on small groups. In some
respects a STAG is action learning moved off-the-job and given a bigger structure.
The procedure is to form a set of three groups (STAG) of three trainees, each
trainee in the group has different level of ability. No leader is appointed. Each
STAG is provided with a suitable work area and a statement of its learning
objective. This objective is subdivided into a series of sub-goals that create a goal-
path for the group’s activities. Each STAG is also given a complete set of resource
materials (relevant books, articles, audio-visuals, etc.), which are indexed for ease
of reference.
Next, the trainer must brief trainees on the objective, the learning method. and
the resource. This is crucial. As a final part of the briefing, each trainee accepts a
contract in which he or she takes responsibility for making sure that the others
in the group have attained the learning objective. After this, the STAG proceeds
with its learning experience, calling on the trainer for help, if needed. The STAG
concludes when each member attains the learning objective. The trainer acts as a
guide and resource, and the trainees are fully responsible for their own learning.
When Should you use a STAG?

You can use a STAG when
a) Trainees are mature and willing to accept responsibility.
b) Trainees have adequate communication and interpersonal skills.
c) The objective is information analysis and integration.
d) Sufficient resources and time are available.
Panel Discussion
A panel is a small group discussing a topic in a large group situation. In this
method a group of three to six persons who have special competence in the
subject and the ability to express themselves, hold a purposeful conversation
under the leadership of a moderator in front of an audience. The main purpose
of a panel discussion is to (a) identify, explore and clarify issues and problems,
(b) bring several points of view and wide range of informed opinion to an
audience. and (c) gain an understanding of the component part of a topic and
identify advantages and disadvantages of a course of action. The method has two
important aspects i.e. Organization of the panel discussion and the process of the
panel discussion. The selection of the topic, the panelists and the moderator has
to be done with care. The role of all the three elements is crucial for the success
of the method. The process of panel discussion starts with an introduction of
views by the panelists, discussion on issues among panelists, discussion with
participants and finally summing up by the moderator.
Panel discussions differ from a symposium in terms of emphasis, manner of
handling, the choice of subject etc. The greatest advantage of panel discussion is
that it telescopes within a short time different views and ideas on a given subject,
and broadens the listeners’ perspective by highlighting the different aspects of
the topic (Source: Trainer’s Manual, NIESBUD)
Buzz Group
Buzz Group means sub-divisions of a large group. The interaction is confined to
a limited number of participants ranging from five to ten. The deiiberation takes
place in a small group on a given topic which is presented by the leader of the
sub-group before all the members of the sub-groups.
‘66’ Technique
A variation of the buzz group method is the ‘66’ technique wherein six people
are given six minutes to discuss the topic at hand. The focus of this method is on
providing an opportunity to express his/her opinion on a topic. It also reduces
pressure by limiting the number of persons in a sub-group.
This method may be used in conferences, seminars, workshops or even for
organising group discussions on a variety of topics.
The Syndicate Method

This method is used extensively in management programmes for executives
of proven abilities. It combines the rote of a ‘learner: and ‘teacher’ together to
create an atmosphere of self-imposed discipline. It basically consists of dividing
the trainees into a number of groups to work on different aspects of the topic.
This small group is known as a ‘Syndicate’. Generally each syndicate is given a
brief and carefully prepared background paper by the instructor. The syndicate
discusses the issues involved in the subject areas assigned to it and prepares a
paper. The chairman/ leader of each syndicate presents his report separately,
followed by questions raised by each syndicate on the recommendation of other
syndicates. The trainer acts mainly as a resource person in providing necessary
information and facilitating their thinking on a particular topic. The participants
learn from their own participation and from the experiences the trainers and
other members bring to syndicate discussions.
Structured Experiences - A Simulation Method of Training

Training through structured experiences/exercise is increasingly becoming a
popular method of training and is used widely for a variety of management training
programmes. Learning through one’s own action, behaviour and experiences, is
the core aspect of the method. In this method, the trainees are actively engaged
in performing a goal-oriented task, and learn both from performance and from
evaluating the performance process against an appropriate theory. The trainees’
performance is based on a definite task assigned to them in terms of structured
exercises. These exercises are developed scientifically and are already tested for
validity and reliability. Exercises related to different aspects are available [e.g.
Pleiffer & Jones (1981) have published 316 structured experiences in 8 volumes
of ‘Handbook of Structured ‘Experiences for Human Relation Training’ and in
the 10 volumes of ‘The Annual Handbook for Group Facilitators’ divided into six
major categories related to different aspects of experiences.
The objective of structured exercises could be either internalising certain concepts
of developing skills, or looking within oneself in relation to the affective domain.
Experience-based learning is facilitated through a model that begins with
experiencing by way of involvement in some activities and ends with finding the
relevance of experiences generated.
It follows an inductive process wherein a person engages in some activity, looks
back at the activity critically and analyzes his back home situation. A cycle
approach of this learning model is presented in the following form.

The process begins with the participant experiencing an activity or behaving
in some way he does, performs, observes, sees, says something. This initial
experience forms the basis of entire learning process. In this phase the trainer is
engaged in ‘conducting’ exercises. In any way, if it stops at this point, it becomes
a game, a time spent joyfully, and even something of interest. The next is bringing
out their reactions and observations about the activities performed. This is the
data generating stage that leads to processing.
In the processing stage a systematic attempt is made to examine the commonly
shared experiences of the participants. The participants are helped to understand
the dynamics of the activity. This further adds to their experiences generated in
the first stage of the process.
The stage of ‘generalising’ in the cycle is practically a ‘linking’ stage where
the participants start making an attempt to find out the possibilities of events
and happening of activity and relating them to everyday life. In other words
something which happens here is not ‘just happening ‘here’ but happening ‘there’
as well. The classroom experience on the pretext of any exercise, therefore, brings
back real life experiences, the realisation of which allows a person to search for
its application in a back home situation.
Finally, the participants are helped to apply to generalisation in their real work/
back home situation. The actual application of learning is a new experience
for them. The learning through experiencing may require verification and
experimentation of the learnt behaviour before being accepted and acted on.
The experiential cycle, therefore, acts as a guideline to facilitate learning. It is
important to understand the significance of the learner, the structured exercises
and the facilitator. This method may suffer a great setback, if it is used in a
mechanical way to fulfill the formality of the demand of this method for any
particular content or concept. Restoring to this modern tool of training just for
the sake of using it can distort the process of experiential learning.
Laboratory Method
The Laboratory Method of training is process-oriented learning wherein the
participants learn by sharing their experiences, particularly those generated in
the group. This method is also termed as sensitivity training (T-Group, D-Group,
L-Group etc.) The basic assumption in this method is, efficiency and productivity
of the group depends more often on the manner in which people work together
than in their technological, skill. The best way to understand this is to examine
what is going on in the group, the ‘here’ and ‘now’, which provides rich data
for learning. The participants interact in an unstructured situation, the group is
not defined, leadership is not offered by the trainer, behaviour is not prescribed
and the group evolves through a natural process. The laboratory offers a climate
conducive to open discussion, learning and encourages trusting behaviour. A
major goal of such a method is to contribute towards personal growth through
increased self-awareness and interpersonal competence. Exploration of own
behaviour and experimenting With new behaviour in the process, and acceptance
or rejection of a set behaviour are a continuous phenomena in the laboratory
method. This is specially useful in creating an impact of the affective domain of
a person.
A number of agencies are organising such Laboratories like ‘Landmark Forums’.
People who go through such training are made to go through a self discovery
journey when they uninhibitedly share their most intrinsic thoughts openly and
certain doubts and inhibitions get cleared.
CASE STUDY
Objective:
• To acquaint the participants with a range of actual professional or management
situations that require decisions and actions.
• Professionals would relate the situation in the case to relevant theory, models
and body of knowledge. Learning from a case must be realistic and useful.
The case study is not a means to provide information on a specific body of
knowledge, but an opportunity for using the information or knowledge in
making critical distinctions in a variety of situations.
• To develop the participants’ ability to think, decide and choose appropriate
courses of action.
• Case study provides the participants an insight and experience in evaluating
a situation correctly and allows them to develop skill in working with data,
relating facts to action, deciding what to do and committing them to course of
action.
• Developing problem solving and decision making skills to help participants
deal with multitude of problems in their professional lives.
• Case study method develops the ability in the participants to look at the
facts of case analytically, study the process by getting totally involved in the
process and assume responsibility for the decision taken by them thereby also
assuming responsibility for their learning.
Steps in Developing Case Study

a) The Trainer/Facilitator should first identify the objectives of the training
programme and keeping the skill levels of the participants in mind develop
the case by adding the theoretical and experiential inputs.
b) The Case study should relate to the learning goals.
c) It is important to relate the case study to the type of jobs, knowledge and
experience of participants. Case study should be used for participants in such
positions where they can make decisions.
d) The facilitator must have a thorough knowledge of the subject of the case.
While preparing the case study he must ask questions like:
• What are learning objectives the case is supposed to address
• What are the issues/ problems involved for which solution is sought
• Whether the information! data provided to identify the real problem is
sufficient and clear
• What more inputs the participants are likely to look for
• The time frame of the case analysis.
The facilitator should also plan how he is going to analyze the case.
• He distributes the Case study to participants.
• He asks the participants to read the case individually.
• The facilitator to summarise what the participants have read.
• He gives participants time to ask questions 40
• The facilitator should stick to answering questions about the written case only
and not supply any answers or solutions involuntarily or in his anxiety to
project that he is more knowledgeable.
• Divide the group into smaller groups and ask them to discuss the case.
• To increase involvement start by asking the participants to discuss what is
happening in the case Organization or situation. Also ask them to identify
what is negative and what is positive about the situation.
• Ask the group to reassemble and discuss the case led by the facilitator.
Facilitator would write the relevant points raised by each small group on the
white board and ask why they think so.
• The facilitator steer the discussion towards pinpointing the real issue.
• He would implore the participants to think about the situation as though they
were a part of the situation - rather than looking at it from outside.
• At no stage the facilitator gives an expert advice. He steers the discussion
towards finding a solution and derive a consensus.
• Participants are to be advised to several analytical truths like (i) the stated
problem may not be the actual problem (ii) symptoms are not causes (iii)
stated problem may be technical but actual problem may be human.
• Participants should be advised to think about the issue I situation in terms of
people as well as facts.
Process of the Case Study

Case is a descriptive record of a real life or simulated situation in form of a
incident or a case.
• In a case study situation the analysis is to be done individually without
being able to talk to others. The person I trainee visualises himself as the
person in the case and putting himself in the situation experiences the
situation vicariously as if he had been involved in that situation and then
find a solution of which he has to accept ownership. Since the trainee puts
himself in the situation at the position of the person involved in the real life
situation, he occupies the role of that individual along with his perceived role,
responsibility and authority and then takes a decision providing solution to
the problem, understanding fully well that the decision has been made by
him alone and its responsibility also rests with him. This results in profound
learning for all involved in the Case analysis.
• Then the trainees meet in small groups to discuss their diagnosis, alternatives
available and solutions generated by them.
• Finally the trainees meet the trainer, who facilitates and guides• further
discussion.
Trainer should impress upon the trainees that (a) no single solution is right or
wrong, and (b) solution are not important but their understandinq of the situation
and development of the managerial, analytical and decision making skills are
important.
ROLE PLAY
Role Play was first used by J. L. Moreno (1923) (Das Stegrit Theater, Potsdam:
Kiepenhever). Role playing is a technique in which people are presented with
roles in the form of a case or script of a situation, then they act out the roles.
Subsequently how the roles were handled by the role players is discussed.
Role playing is actually a spontaneous human interaction that involves realistic
behaviour under artificial or simulated conditions.
Role play is a method of human interaction that involves realistic behaviour
in imaginary situations. It essentially consists of an interview or a series of
interviews wherein the participants are provided with a role brief and a particular
set of circumstances to be enacted. The way the role brief is carried out depends
upon one’s role and how one believes in handling particular situation. The role
player develops a strategy on how to approach. the task and tries to anticipate the
reaction of the other party. One of the, common aspects identified in this method
is the idea that role playing involves action doing and practice. The technique
makes it possible for individuals and groups to improve their effectiveness not
by talking about a problem but by actually doing something about it. This action
goal is accomplished by people ‘playing’ parts or roles in hypothetical or real
situation.
The degree to which the scenario to be role played is structured, depends on the
goal(s) of the training. Role play has wide utility in leadership and management
development, communication skills, improvement of interpersonal relationships,
team building etc. It can provide an interesting medium for observing different
behaviour patterns, and evaluating their experience, thereby providing a
potential learning opportunity for individuals to develop an increased sensitivity
both to their own and to other’s feelings.
The basic training theory in role-playing includes ingredients like:
• Learning by doing - Role is played by a few participants, others observe.
• Learning through imitation - When the role players try to enact somebody’s
role, they try to imitate all activities of the original person. Learning accrues
to both the persons enacting the and role the observer.
• Learning through observation and feedback - Trainees observing the roles
being enacted learn as also through the feedback.
• Learning through analysis and conceptualisation - Analysis of the situation

and conceptualising the dynamics of situation result in learning.
Learning is helped by
• Extent of active involvement of participants’ involvement, either in several
groups at once or in one group, depending on the size of the group
• The degree to which the role play situation is structured
• Role multiplicity-The trainees get an opportunity to enact a role. The more
the number, more will be learning.
• Degree of non-verbal emphasis i.e. making use of non-verbal observation
in role play, particularly to generate awareness of non-verbal factors in
interpersonal behaviour. More use of non-verbal actions helps trainees to pay
closer attention which results in better interpersonal behaviours.
• Clearer conceptualisation of the role to be enacted will enable the trainee to
put more real life role tech in the role.
All the four dimensions are independent and they could be combined
imaginatively.
The main requirement in role playing is in designing the role brief, understanding
and acting them out. Some of the methods adopted in achieving the set goals
are - simple role playing, multiple role playing, audience role playing, skit
competition method, dramatised case method etc. The success of the method
depends primarily on the facilitator’s role in generating learning through sharing
and observation.
“Role Playing” is used for one of the several reasons:
a) To practice behaviour in preparation for a new role as on anticipated problem
situation.
b) To examine a problem situation in order to learn how it could have been
handled better.
c) To learn insight into the motivation and roles of others or oneself.
In role playing the emphasis is on developing new skills and insights and on
solving and preventing problems. In case of a real life situation, one can never
be sure of handling it in the best possible manner. Role play tries to simulate
the real-life situation, it could be simulated repeatedly and the outcomes could
develop holistic understanding of situation.
Role play is practical enactment of a simulated situation which may be

hypothetical or a real situation/event and hence learning is both cognitive
and effective. For example if Amit and Vinod both colleagues working in a
department have fought and then got reconciled by Amit going to Vinod wanting
to be forgiven and pardoned. In a role play situation when the person enacting
the role of Amit goes to the person playing the role of Vinod and asks for pardon,
then both can feel the real impact of this exercise. Both of them can recount their
experience in real terms. They can also retry by modifying their behaviour and
see the difference.
In case of lecture or case study the whole incident can at best be imagined or is
in the “Thinking” stage whereas, in role play, it is “thinking” and “doing” both.
The learning here to both participants is ‘owned’ by them. The participants in
a role play engage in actual behaviour, confronting problems and other people.
They get instant feedback on their demonstrated behaviour and whether it is
acceptable or needs to be modified.
The discussion that follows a role play is the core of the learning process. It
typically reveals various attitudes and habits that can be clarified, evaluated and
modified through group interactions. Observers can note both the interaction
between role players but also their own assessment and reactions, Role playing
has wide applicability in programmes on leadership, interpersonal relationship,
team building” communication skills, etc.
Role playing is widely used by military in war games, assertiveness training,
communication skills, team building exercises and developing interviewing skills
both for interviewer and interviewee.
The unique value of role playing includes the following:
• It requires a person to carry out a thought or decision. In other words, it
demonstrates the difference between thinking and doing.
• It permits practice in carrying out an action and allows repetition.
• It highlights the fact that g09d human relations require skills like acquiring
expertise in any game like Tennis etc.
• It enables changing the attitudinal dimension of people practicing the role
play. It clarifies that behaviour is a function of one’s inherent personality as
well as the situation.
• It trains a person to be sensitive to the feelings of others.
• It enables people to become aware of their short comings in dealing with

others. For example, someone who is in the habit of cutting jokes with others
at their cost, may realise its negative impact on people and may subsequently
refrain from doing so.
It enables the role player to control his behaviour by repeatedly enacting the role.
While enacting the role of a Manager one can understand how to modify his/her
wrong/adverse behaviour with subordinates.
Role playing helps people to :
• Act in different ways
• Understand why people behave differently.
Thus it proves to be a very potent tool of developing some interpersonal skills.
Structured role play helps in understanding about various characters, their
attitudes, needs, approaches, behaviours etc.
Performance Counselling
It is a process in which a senior experienced member of Organization counsels
a junior member on work-related matters, behavioural issues, performance
improvement interpersonal effectiveness, self development, and dealing with
problem effectively.
Objective Counselling
Counselling involves the following stages:
a) Helping one to realise one’s potential as a manager
b) Helping one to understand oneself - both strengths and weaknesses
c) Helping your to acquire more insight into his behaviour and analyze the
dynamics of such behaviour
d) Helping to have a better understanding of the environment
e) Increasing the personal and interpersonal effectiveness
f) Encouraging to set goals for further improvement
g) Encouraging to generate alternatives for dealing with various problems.
h) Providing empathic atmosphere for his sharing and discussing his tensions,
conflicts, concerns and problems.
i) Helping to develop various action plans for further improvement.

j) Helping to review in a non-threatening way his progress in achieving various
objectives.
The Process of Counselling
Communicating
• listening - Asking questions
• Responding - Initiating
• Feedback Questions that do not help
Questions that do not help
• Critical questions – criticism
• Testing questions – right or wrong
• Resenting questions – tone indicatory, doubt
• Leading questions – is that true?
Influencing
• Increasing the autonomy of the person
• Positive reinforcements
• Identification
Conditions for effective counselling
• General climate of openness and mutuality
• Generaly helpful and empathic attitude of management
• Focus on work-oriented behaviour
• Focus on work-related problems and difficulties
• Avoidance of discussion of salary and other rewards
In-Basket Exercise
This is a very versatile training method for developing analytical skills,
managerial acumen in understanding of Organizational process and decision
making skills in the trainees. The method is very flexible as it can be used in
any training situation. Its utility gets further exaggerated because of its practical
application ‘learning by doing’ and instantaneous feedback.
The modus operandi involved is :

• Place two trays on an Executive Table, in-tray and out-tray. The In-tray
contains sheat of paper, each requiring attention of the trainee in terms of
solution to problem highlighted and immediate decision. The out-tray is
empty.
• The trainee is made to sit on the chair placed in front of the desk and is
supposed to dispose off the papers in the in-tray, one by one analysing the
situation highlighted in the paper as a regular manager would handle it, and
after giving his comments on the body of the paper and signing it; place in
the out-tray.
• Likewise, the trainee is required to deal with all papers placed in the in-tray
within a specified period of time say, half an hour.
This training method is used for:
• Assessing managerial ability. of the individual with regard to various
managerial functions.
• Assessing ability to take on the spot decisions in various functional issues
related to jobs on-hand.
• Estimating the degree of in-depth understanding of Organizational processes.
• Estimating the ability of the person to understand the dynamics of
Organizational interpersonal equations, IT situations, superior subordinate
relations, communication processes and work culture.
• Enabling the trainee to identify his/her ability to adopt the role of the manager
or Head of Department and take the decisions.
• To impart training to the trainee to anticipate different expected roles one has
to play on-the-job.
Steps Involved. In the In-Basket Exercise

• An Executive Table has two trays: in-tray and an out-tray.
• The trainee is supposed to read each document/paper and record his
observation and necessary instructions and place the paper .in the out-tray.
• The trainee/participant has been given a specified time within which he has
to complete the task.
• The trainee exercises his judgement on each issue, and takes a decision.
• The information / data required by him to take the decision and issue
necessary instruction are contained on the sheets / documents:
• The participant should take decision according to his interpretation of the
situation. In fact, the trainee plays the role of a manager notionally presuming
that he is a manager.
Examples of various types of situations the trainee is expected to negotiate:
• A worker who is a chronic absentee again absents himself and the Head of
Department has lodged a complaint to the management. The case has been
put up to the trainee.
• In a different case, a person has stolen some stationery. A supervisor has
misbehaved with the Shift In-charge.
• A worker has been taken into police custody on the suspicion of murder.
• Due to negligence of an administration official, water has not been filled up in
the overhead tank and there is no water in the plant. What action should be
immediately taken by the employee to diffuse the situation.
Behaviour Simulation as a Pedagogical Device

The use of Behaviour-Simulation as a pedagogical device is relatively new
though its use in military and industry has been widely prevalent for some time.
However, behaviour simulation in games and exercises has not been much used.
These have recently been used as training devices in management education.
Their pedagogical potential is quite high.
Types of Behavior Simulations

Behavioural simulations can be divided into various categories on several bases.
We can distinguish the various simulations on the basis of the following four
different groups,
• Players Involved: 5 kinds of Simulation Exercises on the bases of players
involved.
The simulation may require an individual to play the game alone, or may involve
two players, or several persons playing in a single team, or it may involve inter-
team activity, or there may be an activity in which quite a large group is involved
as a total Organization. We may thus have five kinds of simulation exercises or
games according to the players involved.
• Variables Involved: Multiple Simulation Exercises as per requirement.

Simulation exercises can also be divided on the basis of the number of
variables used. In an exercise only a single or several variables may be used
so that it becomes a complex exercise,
Orientation of the Simulation: Problem-oriented and experience-oriented
simulations of orientation can be divided into two categories, problem-oriented
and experience-oriented. Problem-oriented simulations are primarily task
simulations. Some task may be provided and the simulation may be prepared
to help the learner to understand how that task is done. In an experience
-oriented simulation the main emphasis is on the process, simulating various
kinds of processes. Some of the processes, which have been simulated in games
are competition or cooperation, trust, encounter, decision-making, resource
utilisation, etc.
• Purpose of Simulation: Simulation exercises can also be classified according
to the purpose for which an exercise is designed and used. There, may be
four different purposes: (a) to demonstrate some process of some aspect of
learning; (b) to provide a cognitive learning about ‘certain processes; (c) to
develop an insight into the behaviour, or to change orientation or attitudes
of the players. Usually such simulation exercises shock the learners so that
they are jolted into realising what kind of behaviour they demonstrate. Such
simulation is used to create cognitive dissonance as the main basis of learning
and consequent change. (d) Simulation may be used to give practice in certain
skills. Very good examples of such simulations are given by Miles (1959).
Elements of Behaviour Simulation

Behaviour simulations involve several dimensions. The following are the main
elements of the various exercises and games designed and used.
Objective
The main objective of the simulation exercise should be clear to the trainer. The
objective could be one of the following:
a) Demonstrating certain ideas
b) Cognitive learning
c) Develop ability to understand behaviour
d) Appreciate the interpersonal effectiveness.
It is better to state the objective of the exercise in terms of expected outcomes.
Clarity of Cognitive Framework

The underlying cognitive model should clearly relate to the simulation exercise.
All aspects of cognitive framework should be covered by simulation.
Clarity of ‘variables simulated

The simulation exercise may pertain to a work process, a thought process or a
behavior process. All variables of the type of process being simulated and the
roles simulated should be clearly defined and covered.
Control of Variables
Rules that would apply during simulation exercise with regard to behaviour of
interaction among the participants should be properly controlled to make the
simulation effective.
Interaction
All behaviour simulations involve interactions usually amongst people, or if
the exercise is being played by an individual alone, then between him and the
simulated roles.
Roles for Behaviour and Interaction

Simulation exercises predetermine what rules will apply to the behaviour and
interaction amongst the various roles and participants involved. It is determined
in advance that certain things may be permitted and certain other things may
not be permitted. This is done to make the simulation effective. Such a control
of certain variables is necessary for directing and channelising simulation into a
specific way.
How to Use Behaviour Simulation

Several elements are involved in the use of simulation games and exercises. To
make these exercises effective for the purposes of learning of various kinds, it is
necessary that due attention is paid to several aspects. The following suggestions
are made in this regard.
Facilitator - The facilitator plays the crucial role in behaviour simulation. The
facilitator plays several roles and guides simulation according to its purpose. He
is a resource of expertise on a particular topic, which is involved in simulation.
He also plays the role of theory building, in the sense of evolving a cognitive
model out of the experience, by relating various elements, which emerge out of
the experience into a meaningful cognitive understanding. This would mean that
the facilitator integrates experience and the data generated by experience with the
cognitive elements involved. The cognitive elements do not hang loose, separated
from one another. On some occasions, the experiential data may not necessarily
fit into the cognitive framework, which the facilitator has prepared, and is ready
for use at the end of the exercise after the data are generated and discussed in the
group. ‘Here, the ingenuity of the facilitator in weaving the data into a cognitive
framework showing the various inter linkages is crucial. Such occasions provide
the most thrilling moments for deep understanding and creative theory building
about the experience generated.
The facilitator as a theory builder should not only be well-read in various theories,
but should also be creative so that he is prepared for rethinking and his current
knowledge does not necessarily freeze him into inactivity if the data gen~rated
is quite different from the expected data. The third role is, making simulation
effective for behavioural change. The ‘facilitator uses a simulation to help the
learners become aware of certain behavioural processes, and thereby facilitates
behavioural change. The simulation exercise is conducted according to the plan.
In the area of learning of basic skills in reading and arithmetic, Rosenshine
(1978) found that the academically engaged time is the most important factor in
learning. This seem to be true in other areas also.
• Participation of Learners - Although the simulation exercises or games are
constructed with predetermined rules, and several variables are determined
and controlled in advance, the participants or learners should have enough
freedom to respond to situations in their own way and learn by their
experience.
• Insight Learning - It is necessary that behaviour simulation produce insight
in learners. This is possible when the learner is involved in the simulation
through his behaviour, is able to see the consequences of his behaviour and
the results obtained.
• Cognitive Learning - Behaviour simulation should also result in cognitive
learning. If simulations are used merely to provide experiences, and the
necessary insight to participants without trying the experience in a cognitive
framework, which explains what the participants experienced, they may
remain only exercises of behaviour modification.

• Flexibility - Behaviour simulation should not become a routine exercise or a
ritual. The facilitator needs to exercise his own creativity. He may innovate
the roles according to the changes occurring in the group. He should also feel
free to drop some part of the simulation as the exercise develops and if he
feels that this may be required.
• Debriefing - One of the criticisms against some simulation games and exercises
is that exercises are designed without the knowledge of the participants as to
what processes they are being exposed.
Business Game
Rationale
There are two major reasons why Business Games should be increasingly used
in management development programmes. The first is related to effectiveness of
learning. A person learns more by doing something. A trainee taking part in a
business game learns while playing the game. The second reason is its relevance
to the situation in the industry.
One of the major problems of the industry and management today is that
a manager’s basic loyalty is to his department and not to his Organization. A
marketing manager views all problems from the marketing point of view, a
production manager from the production point of view and a finance manager
from the financial angle. They fight for what is good for their respective
departments, and not for what is good for the Organization. Many a time, what
is good for a particular department is not good for the company. But fights based
on departmental loyalty keep on taking place within Organizations reducing
their effectiveness. Business games help in reducing such conflicts. Some
business games stress on this mutuality, which is so important for the growth
and prosperity of an Organization.
What is it?
Business game is a training technique in which participants consider a sequence
of problems and take decisions. It is a simulation, which consists of sequential
decision- making exercise structured around a hypothetical model of an
Organization’s operations in which participants assume roles in managing the
simulated operations. It attempts to reproduce the socio-psychological and
economic dynamics of Organizational behaviour in an artificial setting. As it is
only a simulation, there is no real loss to the Organization in case mistakes are
made by participants.
Induction: Orienting the New Employee
Starting a new job has been compared with your first day at school. You are
bound to be:
• a little nervous, but hopefully enthusiastic;
• keen to impress, but not wanting to attract too much attention;
• anxious to learn quickly, but not wanting to be deluged with names, facts and
figures;
• hoping to fit in, but not look too ‘new’ and inexperienced.
The reception you receive from your employers should anticipate these feelings.
After all, the Organization has spent good money hiring you and should treat
you as an investment to be nurtured and encouraged. In reality, however, you
are likely to receive an induction or orientation which can be anywhere between
two extremes:
In at the deep end - expecting you to get on with the job without any real
welcome or information, Overwhelming - providing you with an avalanche of
introductions, site tours, information packs, etc.
What induction is not about

Most large Organizations inflict at least some of the following on new recruits:
• Handing out the employee handbook - the HR department may be proud of it
but it is not going to be an easy task.
• Introducing the new recruit to everybody in the business - embarrassing at
best, and likely to be off-putting to a new hire who wants to slide into the
job quietly, Besides, no one will remember what they have been told nor the
names of the people to whom they have been introduced.
• Dishing out even more facts and figures on day 1.
• Doing so in the form of a lecture or presentation - with slides.
• Doing it again on day 2.
• Not giving the employee their own ‘home’ - workspace, desk, phone,
computer.
• Having the immediate supervisor away on vacation, in a continuous series of

meetings, or just too busy to be involved.
In her excellent practitioner guide, Dynamic Introduction (Gower Publishing,
2003) Susan EI-Shamy (p. 20) describes a typical ineffective induction programme
in these words:
Many of you may be all too familiar with the standard three-hour orientation
programme that has too many inductees crowded into a small, hot room with
too few chairs and too many long-winded speakers, Endless slide presentations
may have given way to endless PowerPoint presentations, but the central goal of
getting all the information dumped onto the new employees in the quickest way
may not have changed at all.
These activities run the risk of being boring and confusing, rather than helping
the new employee. Obviously, there is information which new recruits need and
paperwork (payroll details, social security, etc) that has to be done. Also, there
is a degree of ritual - a ‘rite of passage’ expected by the new hire, colleagues
and the Organization. But the process needs to be thought through, especially in
relation to timing, quantity and intensity.
The simple truth is that most people responsible for orienting new employees do
not put themselves in the new hire’s shoes, i.e. do not take account of just what
it is like to start a new job. Further, they think of induction as an adult learning
process which has to be designed to take account of the ways in’ which people
learn.
Susan EI-Shamy goes on to argue that ‘the goals of the orientation or induction
training programme should be the same as the goals of an entire induction
process. According to EI-Shamy, these goals include:
• creating a positive impression
• addressing any new-job regrets
• increasing comfort levels and feelings of belonging
• increasing knowledge about the Organization and its policies and procedures
• sharing Organizational values, goals and initiatives
• distributing basic staffing and human resource information
• communicating information about the work environment
• sharing job-specific information.
(VII) RECENT TRAINING METHODS

With the increasing application of behavioural sciences in industry, the training
techniques are undergoing improvements and modifications. Training has
become increasingly accepted in all types of enterprises. Expansion of training
has given the trainers an opportunity to experiment with new methods and
technologies. The training methods dealt in this topic can be classified as given in
following paragraphs:
Conventional Techniques
Certain techniques have been in existence for more than 2 or 3 decades and
have been successfully used by large number of Organizations. The following
three techniques are covered under this method: (i) Programmed Instruction
(ii) Incidence Process iii) On-the-Job Methods of Training.
More recent techniques include:
• Action Centre Leadership
• Coverdale Training
• The Gestalt Approach
• Team Group Training such as Kepner-Tregoe Training
• Instrumentation• Method
• Questionnaire Method
• Discussion Method
• EST
• Transcendental Meditation
Coverdale Training
This approach was originally developed by Ralph Coverdale during his work
with Wales and Esso Petroleum Co. The approach emphasises discovery learning
and it is composed of sections of group work, demonstration and lectures.
The approach draws distinction between acquiring knowledge and learning to
operate in the real work situation. The Coverdale approach emphasises learning
through experience.
The training is usually conducted over a period of two weeks and it is divided
into two parts. During the first part, the participants form themselves into an
unstructured group and they are allowed to discover the skills and resources
of the group members. The trainer or the leader is called the Coach. His main
responsibility is to help the groups to become effective team members and make
them aware of the problems and issues involved in team work.
He is not expected to give any lecture or interpret the process that is taking place
in the group. His main task is to monitor the group, to give them feedback about
the strategies used and help them draw their own conclusion based on their
observations.
During the second part of the session the emphasis is given to translate the
learning to a variety of work situations. Besides, the formal training is continued
through specific workshops, job analysis, etc. during the actual performance in
the Organization.
Action – Centred leadership training

This training was originally designed by John Adair and is concerned with
specifications which a leader has to take in order to become effective. The training
stresses the need for the following inter-related functions:
• Developing individuals
• Building the team
• Achieving the task
It is believed that all the functions are equally important for achieving optimum
results. The participants are encouraged to develop specific action plans after
which they return to work situation. The programme is normally held for a
period to 2 to 3 days and it is based upon a sequence of structured activities.
For each item the leader is appointed and its specific actions are analyzed by
observers under three different categories.
As the name indicates, it is an-action-centred training programme for developing

leadership skills mainly on three fronts as mentioned above. A number of
structured activities like case study, role play, team building exercises, simulation
exercises etc. are used, making the participants go through simulated real life
situations and draw conclusions for handling leadership roles. Outdoor games
can also be used for providing a real life situation making the participants learn
the roles of the game in practice.
The Gestalt Approach

The method is based on Gestalt therapy and the main areas of its usage are in
developing skills for team building, self-awareness and counselling. The first
step in the training programme is development of self awareness. The training
takes place with a small group of 10 to 15 participants and they are encouraged
to speak about themselves. The focus of training is on learning by discovery and
it is intended to enable the individual to look at his total behaviour. The giving
and receiving feedback are emphasised throughout the programme.
In some respects, the course is similar to that of Sensitivity Training. Compared
to the other unstructured situation, the training is less confronting and painful.
The trainer helps the participants in interpreting the dreams, imagery and
fantasy. The training requires the assistance of experienced Gestaltists. However,
the participants need not learn the various conceptual framework of Gestalt
psychology. The focus is not only on learning knowledge or concepts. The job
of trainer is to help trainee in understanding his own limitations and help him
come out from his self-created mental blocks. The trainer helps him to take
responsibilities facing life and provides him with insights by which he can
discover ways of satisfying his own needs.
Kepner-Tregoe Training
This training emphasises problem analysis and decision making. The programme
utilises live situations and strategies for specific courses of action. A number
of specific cases are discussed and leadership styles are analyzed. Different
leadership styles and decision making styles are compared in group setting.
The Team Group Training

The broad philosophy of training consists of the three premises.
a) Teams are important,
b) Every individual can learn from any other individual through observation
and feedback,
c) The individual can significantly learn from sharing and analysing his own
experience. The role of the trainer consists of the following:
• Encourage the expression of feelings,
• Help people to be specific and concrete in their observations,
• Support the people to re-examine their values and assumptions,
• Help individuals to focus on “here and now” relationships,
• Provide feedback which is non-judgemental,
• Facilitate group members to give and receive feedback.
Training by Using Training Instruments

A number of innovations have taken place in the training technology relating to
human relations. The use of structured instruments has acquired considerable
prominence in this endeavour. Well designed instruments can be scored and
the interpretation can be provided by the facilitator. Instrument data can focus
on the behaviour pattern of the group and can provide directions for change.
Some instruments can also be used to teach specific concepts and theories. Some
instruments often create fear in the minds of participants. They are often time
consuming and require proper skill in discussion. Before instruments are put
into use, their validity and reliability have to be verified. The availability of the
right type of instruments and the need for relating them to learning objectives
are important factors.
Questionnaire Method
This is a new method developed by a group of trainers with a view to bring
about greater participation of the trainees. In this method, the trainer has to do
considerable preparation by asking a series of relevant questions by obtaining
responses from the trainees themselves. Questions are not intended to test the
knowledge or make investigation or conduct interviews. Questions are meant
to draw out the trainees for discussing concepts and ideas based on their own
experiences. The trainer does not suggest answers, but provides a framework
for discussing issues based upon the response to different questions. The trainer
may occasionally fill the gap by providing some information. He may also ask
questions to provoke controversies on different aspects.
This method was developed by a group of trainers working under the framework
of the Indian Society for Training and Development and used for the first time by
Dr. R. D. Mohota at Nagpur in 1972. Subsequently, a number of other trainers
at Nagpur have successfully used this method for giving training on different
topics. Questions used by these trainers have not been uniform, and they varied
according to the level and topic under discussion. The questions may be either
open questions or direct, specifically to individual trainees.
The advantages claimed for this method include the following:
a) The thinking process of the trainees is activated.
b) It enables trainees to get feedback depending upon the responses received by
the participants.
c) The trainees learn more since they will be motivated to participate in
responding to different questions.
d) A specific advantage of this method is that it can be used for younger students
who may be anxious to learn more about their career.
This method appears to be an innovative effort to promote participative training
techniques. It is a recent one and further research is needed before it can be used
on a wider scale.
Discussion Method
A variety of specific techniques used in training can be grouped under Discussion
Method. A discussion leading ‘in a specific skill is necessary for successful use of
the different training methods. The trainers should be aware of the guidelines for
structuring the questions and leading the discussion. The discussion method of
training is not a specific or standardised approach as in the case of role play, case
method or programmed learning. A number of variations can be made under the
discussion method and these are often called by different names. While there are
differences among different techniques, the main features can be summarised as
follows:
a) The trainer uses this method when the group is relatively small,
b) The trainer’s role is to provide framework for sharing experiences and to act
as facilitator,
c) The trainer does minimum amount of lecturing and his major role consists of
asking relevant questions,
d) The trainer has to ensure that participation of the trainees is structured with a
view to achieve the learning objectives,
e) The trainer summarises frequently and ensures th.at individuals do not
dominate the session. The shy members are encouraged to participate.
Syndicate Method
The syndicate method is a variation of the discussion method. The method, as
developed, is specifically useful for advanced management training programmes.
The syndicate is a small group of experienced executives with expertise in
different areas. Each syndicate or working group is given specific assignment,
case studies and projects. The syndicate has to work as a management team
and its work group will have a Chairman and Secretary. Depending upon the
assignment, the position of Chairman and Secretary are rotated. The time for
completing the task and preparing the reports is specified by the trainer. At the
end of the allotted period the reports from different syndicates are compiled
and circulated to all the members of the course. The Chairman of the syndicate
is required to present the report, explain the highlights and summarise the
contribution of different members. At the time of the presentation, the trainer
will coordinate the discussion to bring about a synthesis of ideas from different
work groups.
Erhard Seminar Training

The Erhard Seminar Training (EST) is a recent development in the technology
of training. The training emphasises the sharing of experiences and provides
a framework for learning through self-awareness. The training was developed
in 1971 and become quite popular in recent years. The training is a mixture of
data process and sharing. The data or information on the functions of the mind
and behaviour patterns is provided by the trainer. The trainer encourages
participants to examine their established attitudes, beliefs and ideas. He draws
their attention to inhibitions and other perceptual blocks in the process of
thinking. The participants become aware of some of the perceptual pitfalls and
realise the problems inherent in the tough process. Throughout the training, the
participants will be exposed to specific psychological exercises and processes,
which provide them an opportunity to look at specific aspects of their behaviour
and life patterns. The exercises are specific and the participants, encouraged
to seek clarity by asking questions. They allowed to offer comments, insights
and ideas for discussion. But the discussion takes place under strict rules and
regulations laid down by the trainer which are communicated to the trainees in
advance. Their written consent is obtained before the trainee is accepted.
The training takes place in large groups of people and class strength varies from
200 to 300. But a single trainer handles the whole training and-the participants
are not divided into groups. The training is very intensive and takes place under
controlled conditions. A large number of staff will be assisting the trainer with a
view to ensure that all the participants follow the rigid regulations. The training
is not concerned with any specific discipline or concept. It deals with problems
of communications, relationship and behaviour profiles. Since no specific subject
is discussed, the participants coming from different backgrounds, levels of
education, etc. are .allowed to participate in the training programme.
Similar programmes are organised by ‘Landmark Forums’ with fairly high
degree of success.
Transcendental Meditation
The technique is both ancient and modern. In the context of behavioural sciences,
it has its origin in humanistic and transpersonal psychology. The new theory,
technically called ‘Transpersonal psychology’ has been developed in recent years.
This field has philosophical overtones and it combines ideas from the eastern
religions and western psychology. Many scholars describe it as semi-scientific
and consider it as more intuitive than rational. Many opponents of transpersonal
psychology feel it is a ‘fad’ and question its usefulness in the field of academic
discipline. While some are skeptical about the personal approach, a number of
recent scholars have taken scientific and serious interest in this theory. The first
great psychologist who did considerable research on transpersonal psychology
was Carl Jung. He had a great respect for Yoga and eastern philosophies.
Transcendental meditation (TM) can be considered as a branch of transpersonal
psychology.
Basic Concepts
Meditation has an important place in Hindu religion. The focus of transpersonal
psychology is on Yoga and Zen. Zen is a philosophy, which is related both to Yoga
and spiritual approaches. Meditation can be described as a form of concentration
and focusing one’s attention on a specific plan. Transcendental meditation was
made popular first by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi who has a large following. TM
has gained’ rapid popularity in the US. At present, scientific and systematic
‘studies are conducted in different parts of the world on TM. Perons practicing
TM experience a relaxed and enjoyable state, enabling them to fix attention (i.e.
mind) on the track of a problem. The mind becomes very quiet but keenly alert.
A pure awareness gives a great deal of energy and strength. TM has a mantra - a
sacred word or chant, which can be one word or set of few words but helps the
process of meditation by facilitating undivided concentration. The mantra is a
tool to reduce anxiety and increase concentration.
TM, as practiced today, is a training technique of recent origin even though it is
based on Yoga and eastern religion. There are more trainers outside India than in
our country. The advocates of TM suggest that it is not related-to religion and it
can be practiced by people with any religious background. TM cannot be learnt
by reading literature, and it has to be taught only by a qualified trainer.
Advantages
The basic advantage relates to benefits associated with overcoming stress and
anxiety. Chronic anger, nervous tension, anxiety and depression are common
in modern industrial societies and TM claims to offer relief and happiness in
such situations. Herbert Benson, Associate Professor to Medicines, Harvard
Medical School has given number of examples relating to the beneficial effects of
transcendental meditation. In his book ‘Relaxation Response.’ Benson feels that
meditation is unique and valuable in combating stress-induced diseases.
TM enables a person to use his inner reserves of energy of intelligence to provide
a sense of psychological well being. The modern business environment does not
often encourage psychological flexibility in problem solving and decision-making.
Thus, managers and supervisors lack self-confidence and become dependent on
the environment for their psychological growth. They react emotionally, develop
defence mechanisms and are incapable of discovering their inner resources. As an
approach to developing people, an individual can practice TM with considerable
flexibility. It compliments other behavioural -science-based techniques and helps
the individual realise and develop his potential.
The functioning of the body can be related to the functioning of the nervous
system, which produces the total personality, and behaviour of a person. By
bringing the mind concentration into full play, of which the functioning of brain
and nervous systems are a part, TM improves the potential to perform and
provide a high level of energy, mental clarity and perceptuality. The technical
word used is ‘expansion of consciousness’.
A MICRO LAB
It is a group or team assignment including group discussion aimed at finding
the reasons for occurrence of a particular behaviour and devising remedial
corrections for the same. For example, a microlab will help the participants to
become better listeners and learn how to make connections with others’ ideas.
A micro laboratory is useful for the following reasons:
a) To unfreeze or open up the participant.
b) To familarise the participants with one another.
c) To warm up the participant and to draw into the environment as a group.
d) To generate the feeling of warmth to each others as part of the entire group to
enable the normally quite persons to speak up and not remain silent during
the training programme.
A micro lab arouses interest of the participants enabling them to become pro-
active to the suggestions of the trainer. There is no typical structure for a micro
lab; each micro lab could be designed by the trainer. The main features of micro
lab are :
a) Allowing free hand to the participants to move around as they wish - this
gives a feeling of freedom to the participants.
b) Since the participants come face-to-face with each other they develop an
instant rapport with one another. This helps them to come closer to each other
during the next two to three days.
c) During micro lab the participants are required to share important things
about themselves which makes them open up with others and shed their
reservations.
d) A micro lab induces a very healthy climate which maturates the employees to
look forward during 2-3 days.
Cross - Cultural Groups

A micro lab can be a very valuable tool to warm up and bring closer together
cross-cultural groups that are meeting for a brief period of time in a conference
or a training programme. The following activities are suggested for such groups
(not necessarily in the same sequence).
• Share with your partner one problem you have recognised about yourself in
programmes of this kind in the past and how you plan to overcome it.
• Share with your partner one of your strong points and one of your weak
points.
• Tell your partner something you like in him or her.
• Tell your partner something about yourself that you are proud of and
something you would like to change.
• Mill around and greet the other members of the group non-verbally or
through symbols.
• Form pairs and tell each other (non-verbally) something about the place at
which you are working.
• Use three adjectives to describe the people with whom you work.
• Tell other persons in your triad one thing that you need to be effective in your
work.
Because in cross-cultural groups there are likely to be communication barriers,
the use of non-verbal activities is suggested. If self-oriented sessions are not a
part of the programme, self-oriented items should be kept to a minimum in the
micro lab. If language is a barrier, it is necessary to give participants enough time
after every item. Abrupt interruptions in such cases may cause frustration. It is
also necessary to ensure that the instructions are understood properly.
Motivation Laboratories
Some of the questions that are used for conducting a micro lab are given below:
• Describe one thing that you like most in your job and one thing that you like
least in your job.
• Share with your partner a driving force prompting you to do your job in your
Organization.
• Share with your partner his or her weak points.
• Describe the climate of your Organization non-verbally to your partner.
• Think of a significant •incident in your life and describe it to your partner,
telling how you felt and why it was significant to you.
• Use three adjectives to describe the strong points of your subordinates and
three to describe their weak points.
• Use three adjectives each to describe the strengths and weaknesses of your
superiors.
• Recall a situation in which you felt very powerful and describe it to others in
your triad or group.
• Share with your partner an important goal of your life.
• Share with your partner a strength that you think helps you achieve your
goal.
• Share with your partner something you consider significant about your role.
This is not a comprehensive list of questions. Questions can be customised by the
trainer as per the need.
Any sheet of questions could be used to introduce creativity in the group. These
questions highlight the creative spark in the participants.
• Introduce yourself non-verbally to your partner.
• Select one object in the room and describe the various uses of that object in
two minutes. Your partner will time you and count the number of uses you
cite. Then your partner will repeat the activity.
• List the various attributes of a pen in your pocket.
• Think of a creative person you know and describe that person (without
naming him or her) to your partner. Your partner may ask you several
questions.
• Coin four new words using English and one other language you know. Give
each a meaning and share with your partner.
• Describe the various associations the word ‘arm’ arouses in you.
• Use anything in this room to prepare something you would like to give as a
present to someone you like. You have 10 minutes.
• Assemble in small groups and prepare a non-verbal skit to present your
feelings and reactions to this lab.
Uses of a Micro Lab

A micro lab can be used in different situations and in different ways. A
practitioner can frame his or her own items depending on the kind of programme
being conducted. There are no rigid rules in using a micro lab.
Management Games
After two decades of being relegated to the sidelines of training, management
games are now occupying centre-field. From indoor recreation to outdoor sports.
From case studies to competitive bargaining from role-enactment to puzzles,
games are sweeping into corporate corridors, turning moribund management
mindsets upside down, supplanting the orthodoxy with strategic blasphemies.
Today, executives are sharpening their decision-making skills while rafting on
the beds of the Bhagirathi in the Garhwal Himalayas. Managers are mastering
the mechanics of winning products by competing to make eggs that don’t break
when thrown 20 feet up into the air.
Games are proving particularly efficient at improving the relationship between
the members of a team and their leader. Managers playa structured experience
game like tower-building where the team leader has to stack building blocks
blindfolded with his less used hand.
The Companies which use Management Games

American Express: Asea Brown Boveri; BHEL : Cadbury: Crompton Greaves:
HCL: Larsen & Toubro: Mafatlal industries: Modi Xerox: Thomas Cook
The Benefits
• Boosts teamwork
• Breaks mental blocks
• Catalyses creativity
• Develops leadership
• Encourages exploration
• Facilitates innovation
• Aids holistic thinking
Assessment Centre: Tools for Competency Development

Assessment Centre has gained momentum during the past decade as a
multidimensional approach designed by an Organization to provide reliable
and valid information about a range of competencies of an employee considered
essential for successful performance at a target level in a specific job.
Assessment centres are battery of assessment and situational exercise, which

are competency-based and are used extensively in various countries for
recruitment, potential appraisal, promotion, and human resource development
and Organizational development. Assessment centre might appear to be a place
but it is not: it is actually an approach or a process. It helps an Organization in
identifying the most suitable potential candidate for employment and promotion.
It focuses on performance against pre-determined selection criteria and has the
advantage of providing objective information about a range of competencies
to the Organization for making the ‘right’ decision. The methodology used in
it helps to reduce subjectivity in judgement to which most traditional means of
selection are generally prone.
A number of studies about the effectiveness of selection techniques yield that
no single method of assessment can achieve a high validity rating whereas a
combination of different techniques produce the best results of all. These studies
thus throw light on the nature of assessment centre process and on the use of
assessment centre which have developed across the globe over the past decade.
It is, therefore, necessary to decide as to what to include in the assessment battery,
which largely determines the centre’s duration. A typical assessment centre
usually involves 1-2 days. It includes sufficient range of exercises involving
challenging tasks in realistic settings, with focus on assessing behaviour in
simulated work settings. A balance between individual and group activities is
kept considering the nature of job, target level performance in question for which
assessment is to be carried out.
Factors in the Assessment Process

In planning the assessment process, three factors merit consideration:
a) list of competencies or other qualities to be assessed and the procedure for
scoring and rating,
b) the weightage to be assigned to each element and exercise,
c) the various forms of assessments for a competency to ensure consistency of
judgement and prevention of any bias.
The various steps involved in Assessment/Development Centre have been
presented diagrammatically in Figure 1 below.
Fig. 1: Steps involved in Assessment/Development Centre (Sharma, Radha R. 2002)
Having identified the need for having an assessment centre and also establishing
hcriteria of competencies, weights need to be assigned for various parameters.
One can give even equal weight to all. The exercises that are used in the
assessment centre include:
• In-basket exercises
• Leaderless group discussion
• An assigned leader exercise
• Presentation on a relevant topic relating to the job
• Report
• Role play exercises
• Formats prepared by assessors for objective recording of data
• Psychometric testing
Some Organizations include psychometric testing as an integral part of an
assessment centre. Psychological assessment of participants through standardised
psychometric tests can effectively supplement the assessment ratings provided
the tests have high reliability and validity and meet the requirements of the
competencies and the participants. The most important aspect of psychometric
testing is a knowledge, expertise and familiarity of the psychologist with the
test. Psychometric tests and questionnaires provide useful informa-tion about a

range of competencies of an individual and prove as a scientific aid in selec-tion,
potential appraisal, promotion, training and development of an individual or a
group of individuals.
5.3 THE RIGHT WAY TO APPLY A TRAINING METHOD

• Formalised training is considered the most efficient and sometimes the only
way to train people. It is viewed as a specialised activity. Companies are
convinced that learning does not occur till employees are taken away from
their work, made to sit in a classroom and taken through a step-by-step
instruction programmes. Companies invest in trainers, workbooks, videos
etc. and then complain that training is an expensive investment, which does
not yield the desired results.
• Business cannot be learnt in a classroom. It is akin to learning
swimming theoretically. No matter how much you read about it or hear of
it through others, you learn only when you get into the water. Despite the
benefits being rated highly, formal instruction is inadequate without actual
experience.
• A recent survey revealed that while employees learn only 30% through formal
training, 70% is learnt from other people informally If Organizations can
leverage informal training, most training programmes will not be a waste of
resources as they are now. People learn through events and experiences, since
job-related training happens irrespective of whether the company is aware
of it or not. Most companies are oblivious of the existence of these informal
modes and therefore cannot leverage the process.
• Learning on the job by actually doing is the best way to learn. However, any
job activity should be preceded by sufficient amount of reflection about the
mistakes and the will to correct oneself are the key.
• Training has to be a continuous function and both formal and informal
methods should be judiciously encouraged to prevent employee obsolescence.
• Ideally, organizations should aim at making their employees useful not only
to the organization but also to their family and society at large. This would
improve the image of the organization through word of mouth.
5.4 CONCEPTS IMPORTANT TO TRAINING METHODS

The following are the concepts important to different training methods:
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO)

William C. Schutz describes interpersonal relations in terms of basic needs for
inclusion, control, and affection. He differentiates in each of these areas between

the behaviour and feelings we express towards others and the behaviour we
want from others.
A person will express these basic needs in varying degrees by attempting to
interact or associate with others (inclusion), to control or influence others (control),
and to demon-strate love and affection for others (affection). Conversely, each
person wants others to behave towards him by interacting or associating with
him, by controlling or influencing him, by showing love and affection for him.
The basic FIRO model had two dimensions that interact with each other,
• Inclusion/Control/Affection
• Expressed behaviour/wanted behaviour
Table give below shows the six areas or cells of intersection that are created In
each of the cells is a statement representing as individual’s orientation towards
interpersonal relations.
To complete the basic FIRO model, Schutz added a third dimension to each cell-
intensity. Intensity level describes the degree to which an individual expresses
behaviour towards others or wants them to express behaviour towards him in
each of the three areas (inclusion, control affection). Extreme characteristics of
people in each of the orientation modes are described by Schutz.
Table : Six Areas of Interpersonal Orientation

Factor Inclusion Control Affection
Expressed I join other people I take chargeI I got close to people
behaviour (toward I include others influence people
others)
Wanted behaviour I want people to I want people to I want people to get
(from others) include me lead me close and personal
with me
Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP)

NLP is a model of human behaviour and communication.
NLP implies identification of both conscious and unconscious patterns in
communication and behaviour.
The word neuro is derived from Greek word “neuron” which means nerve. NLP
implies that all behaviour emanates from neurological processes.
Linguistic is derived from Latin word ‘lingua’ meaning language, which

indicates that neu-ral processes are represented by language and communication
processes.
Programming- refers to the process of organising the components ofthe system to
achieve specific outcomes.
NLP model embodies several key components:
• Rapport and Communication
• Gathering Information
• Change Strategies and Interventions
This can further encompass:
• eye-accessing movements
• Verbal and non-verbal pacing and leading
• Communication translation skills
• Representational system overlapping
NLP Representational System

The basic premise of NLP is that people perceive the world through information
that is filtered through their sensory system.
Data is first processed at the unconscious level,’ experienced internally and then
mani-fested in NLP is a model for understanding the processes that people use
to ENCODE & TRANSFER experience and to guide and modify their behaviour.
The perceptions we make about our internal and external environment are
represented in terms of three sensory systems:
• The Visual
• Auditory and,
• Kinesthetic
People who rely on their Visual System - Run movies in their head when
remembering or sharing information. If people are auditory - They play a tape
recorder for absorbing information through sounds. Kinesthetic people - People
respond to internal bodily feelings or tactile sense. They remember bodily
sensations in recalling experiences.
Johari Window
The Johari Window: is a model for soliciting and giving feedback. The process of
giving and receiving feedback is one of the most important concepts.
In training, it is also through feedback that the other people know how we see
them. Feedback is a verbal or non-verbal-communication to a person or group
of persons how their behaviour is affecting you. Similarly feedback could be
communication of other person(s) about your behaviour.
The process of giving and receiving feedback can be illustrated through a model
called the Johari Window. The window was developed by two psychologists,
Joseph Luft and Harry Ingavm
Known to
Others
Arena or Open
Known
Blind Spot
Self
Unknown
Unknown Façade or Hidden

Area
Known to Self
Unknown Known
Johari Window
The model can be seen as a communication window through which you give-
and receive information about yourself and others.
Looking at the X-axis, representing “Self’ depicts “Solicits Feedback” and Y-axis
representing “People or Group” depicting “Self disclosure or Gives Feedback”.
The four panes of the Window are four compartments which can be named as
(i) Arena
(ii) Blind spot
(iii) Facade (hidden Area)

(iv) Unknown
Arena
“Arena” is represented by two sides i.e. things I know & things they know about
me. This is the area where free area exchange of information between me and
others (group) takes place without any hesitation. My behaviour is open and
public and everyone can see it. The area in this pane increases as the thrust and
openness between me and others increases. Things I know about myself increase
due to group feedback from others and my feedback about myself to others.
Consequently areas (ii), (iii) & (iv) decrease.
Blind Spot
The second pane i.e. the Blind Spot contains information that I don’t know about
myself but other people i.e. group may know. This means I am blind to certain
aspects of my personality or traits but others are aware of those traits about me.
This means when I interact with others, I give away certain information about
myself to others to which I am oblivious but the group can see it. This may be in
the form of my mannerism, body language, gestures, facial expressions etc. This
happens because I can’t see myself when I drop these bits of information and
these could be very surprising and disconcerting.
Facade
Pane 3 represents information that I know about myself but the Group doesn’t
know about me. This area indicates that though I know certain things about
myself either I don’t want others to know and hide it or inadvertently others are
not able to see or note, Why-I hide it may be due to risk of rejection show down
or hurt me by way of one upmanship by others.
Unknown
This pane represents the area containing information which is not known to
me-or the Group knows about me. This area may contain information about my
interpersonal dynamics, early childhood memories, latent potential, IE, EO, etc.
This area can be gradually reduced by more and more interaction with others by
way of giving and receiving information about myself.
The size of the panes could be increased or decreased by (i) seeking information
about oneself and (ii) giving information about oneself
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) List any four training methods and list the similarities and dissimilarities
in them?
(ii) Take the example of any organization, which training method do you
suggest to improve (i) Team Work, and (ii) Problem Solving?
Chapter – 6
Selection of Training Method(S)
Learning Objectives:
• To critically examine the need for a training programme
• To understand the different criteria that influence the selection of a training
programme
Training is crucial in the corporate world. However, it must be cost-effective
especially when cost cutting is the norm of the day. Hence, training managers
are under pressure to find the most appropriate training solutions with limited
organizational resources.
A dilemma training managers face is in opting for a training programme
developed in-house, or procuring an off-the-shelf training package. What features
should they look for? Here are a few pointers to help’ one decide.
6.1 NEED FOR TRAINING

Training is usually conducted in response to a problem in an organization or a
shortfall in the needed skills. Training may or may not be able to address the
cause of the problem, though it may reduce or remove the shortfall in skill.
The ‘following issues will help determine the actual cause’.
• The first issue to be addressed when launching a training programme is the
reality of the training need. Although training is often considered a likely
suspect for performance problems, a few basic questions will help determine
the root cause of the problem. If training is necessary, the following facts need
to be established:
 Whether the problem or deficiency is real or perceived:
 Whether the cause of the problem is a deficiency of skill or knowledge,
 or it is due to personnel or management issues.
 Whether the problem needs to be addressed immediately.
 How training will solve the problem?
• If training is the solution, how should it be administered:
a) Individually b) in a class room or c) on the job

In order to answer the above questions, best possible Training Programme and
the method of delivery of Training has to be decided upon. There are three
options.
• Developing an in-house programme: In this case management should work
with the training staff or consultant to formulate a training programme to
solve the problem. It might of course take longer and cost more than expected.
If the problem is situation-or industry-specific then developing a programme
is preferable. If it is generic then nominating trainees to external programme
may be a better solution.
• Purchasing it: Off the shelf (OTS) training packages are best suited for general
training needs. For instance, packages which have universal application
like Executive Development Programme, Leadership programme etc. These
programmes do not need customisation.
• Customisation: This approach makes use of the vendor’s experience as well
as the customer’s knowledge of the specific needs of the organization. Such a
programme may be either developed in-house or bought.
• The decision to buy or develop a training programme is never easy. On one
hand is the expensive training package while on the other hand, is a time
and resource consuming programme that needs to be developed. However,
packaged programmes can be time consuming too, if their generic content
does not meet the specific needs of the industry or the organization.
• Buying the package and customising it according to specific needs is
advantageous, as it meets the organizational needs perfectly while drastically
cutting down the time and resources required. Though most organizations do
not have spare time to develop a programme they prefer a programme that
gives them the flexibility to modify according to their needs.
6.2 HOW AND WHAT TO CHOOSE

• Qualify of Training Needed: Is the need for a training programme of a general
supervisory nature or for specific job skills. Is it possible to meet the need by
customising a generic programme? A generic lecture might suffice if trainees
merely need new know/edge. However, if they need to learn a new skill then
application and practice become necessary.
• Are sources available? Have some training programmes already been
conducted on the problems being faced by the organization? If yes, can they
be used?
• Ease of customisation: When a programme has a bibliography of sources, it
can usually be customised easily. When it does not include the sources, then
the customisation is expensive. Customisation might amount to 10-30 percent
of the initial cost.
• Staff availability: Is the staff required for development available with the
organization? Can the existing staff assist the vendor in delivering the training?
In-house staff is any day preferable as they can quote real life and relevant
examples of their experiences. However, for in-house staff to be training
instructors, prior experience is necessary. These additional responsibilities
might affect the in-house staff’s primary job functions.
• The budget: Purchasing a programme is cheaper than developing one
internally. The development could take 20-30 hours of research for a training
programme of an hour’s duration.
• The urgency: How immediate is the training need? If the need is’ urgent then
purchasing a programme is advisable. Otherwise developing and testing a
customized programme is better.
The above tips should be borne in mind when making a choice between buying
or developing training proqramme, strategic planning for this purpose will be far
more effective and fulfilling.
6.3 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TRAINING METHOD

The following are the criteria for selecting a training method
6.3.1 Methods to be used

Once the content is decided, it remains to cover the content in a class-room
setting. It has been widely accepted that the effectiveness of the coverage of
content largely depends on the method employed by the trainer. Further, the
choice of method not only depends on the content but also on the learning
objectives set for the major module or content. In ensuring transfer of learning,
the appropriateness of methods plays a crucial role in the attainment of training
goals. In order to internalise certain behavioural concepts, the participants are
given an opportunity to manifest their behaviour, look at their own selves and
with the eyes of others, relate it to a back-home situation and find a definite
meaning to it. For this, the trainer has to use methods capable of providing
experimental-based learning to the participants. Methods used can be listed at

one end and the experiential point of view is at the other, as shown below.
Highly Didactic Highly Experiential

Reading Experiential lecture / lecturettes
Discussion Case study
Role playing Instrumentation
Structured experience
Further, the methods depend upon the type of behavioural outcome desired,
such as knowledge, skill and emotionalised control. This is represented in the
following table. Therefore, method is important only when it carefully takes into
account the objective, the content and the behavioural outcome desired in the
programme.
6.3.2. Behavioural outcome, training methods and techniques
Type of behavioural outcome Suggested training methods /

techniques
Knowledge Lecture, symposium, panel, colloguy
of dialogue, motion picture, slide,
reading assignment, case discussion,
critical incident process, games
recording
Skills Role play, in-basket, T-groups, non-
verbal exercises, drill, coaching,
games
Emotionalized control (attitudes, TV demonstration, motion picture,
values, interests, etc) slides, lecture symposium, colloguy,
experience sharing, role play, critical
incident process, T-groups, exhibits,
field visits, non-verbal exercise, case
method
6.3.3. Material Required - Tools, kits etc

The effectiveness of methods employed during the training depends on the
material required for use in a particular method. If a trainer wishes to highlight
the risk-taking preference among participants through experiential learning

method, he needs to have a complete set of the ‘Ring-toss kit’ or some other kit
to generate relevant data about risk-taking. Therefore, it is essential to indicate
the material required against each method. Planning in advance for the material
needed for operational use saves any last minute flops.
6.3.4 Current Level, Motivation, Learning Style
(i) Current Level

People are not machines. They cannot be neutral. Each participant will bring to
the event different levels of accumulated skills and experience. You need to know
your target population and identify the gap between their existing knowledge
and what you are aiming at by the end of the course. The more precisely you can
identify the gap, the more precisely you can plan how best to close it.
(ii) Motivation Level

People are more than the sum of their skills and knowledge. They also have
developed attitudes based on their own experiences. Their previous experiences
of learning and how they perceive they are treated by the organization can have
a considerable impact on their motivation. This in turn will have an impact on
how quickly they assimilate any new learning material.
(iii) Learning Style

Different adults also have different styles and preferences as learners. Knowledge
of your audience’s learning style can have a marked impact on your design e.q.,
a group of engineers who are keen to learn how to apply practical approaches
that will directly solve their problems, will usually not sit still for a long lecture
on the theoretical background which explores several hypotheses but comes up
with no conclusions.
6.3.5 Influences, Methods, Considerations

When designing training events the training manager has to take into account
a number of complex factors. The media and methods chosen for each eventual
training session will involve a balancing act between these various influences.
Achieving the right balance will require considerable skill on the part of the
trainer. The following model can act as an aid memoir to ensure you give
consideration to a wide number of factors.
Training Facilities Available
(Space and Equipment)
Training Budget Time Available
Trainer’s KSA Levels

Group Size
Choice of Training Methods

and Media
Adoption of Type of Trainees

Principles of
Learning
Learning Objectives Organization’s

Culture
Overall Training
Skills
FACTORS IMPACTING CHOICE OF TRAINING METHOD
When you make your design choices you have to live in the real world. For
example, there will be little point in specifying that the group watch a film if you
have no projector, blackout facilities or (even) no electricity. It would be equally
inappropriate to design an experiential encounter group using therapeutic tools
such as transactional analysis, unless the trainer has the necessary knowledge,
skills and experience and this approach is acceptable within the setting of your
organisation.
6.3.6 Considerations
There are many popular methods that the trainer can deploy as part of a training
event. When deciding which methods to choose from the range available you
will need to be guided by three factors:
• Your knowledge about how the method works
• Your trainer’s skills in being able to carry out the method effectively
• How applicable it is to the objectives of the sessions and event.
6.4 ADDITIONAL CRITERIA FOR SELECTING TRAINING METHOD

There are different criteria with which one can choose between different teaching
and learning methods. For example these criteria could be learning objective,
learners’ profile, learner / participants and availability of human resources and
material as sources for enabling training.
Factors to consider in the selection methods: There is no single simple criterion
which one can use to select a method, it is nevertheless important to evaluate and
use different methods rather than espouse to a single one. There are several basis
for choosing a method.
(i) Human factors - the facilitator: The facilitator’s knowledge, managerial
and teaching experience and personality are all factors of primary
importance and are intentionally mentioned at the beginning. To put
it bluntly - facilitator’s personality has to be acceptable to be student or
trainees so that effective communication links can be established quickly
and easily. If these condition are fulfilled a well chosen and properly used
method is likely to ease and simulate learning. If they are not fulfilled
unfortunately, the method may become an end in itself.
(ii) Expertise in using and analysing various methods: Facilitator has to
assume personal responsibility for choosing the best methods for his
particular teaching assignment. He ought to be able therefore to make a
rational appraisal of his abilities and to try to employ methods likely to
enhance and not reduce the impact he hopes to make. Facilitators should
use a greater variety of methods, but certainly not impose upon themselves
methods which make them feel uneasy.
(iii) Methods of training: These must respect the participants’ background
specially:
• their intellectual level and educational background;

• their age and practical experience; and
• their social and cultural environment.
With regards to participants’ practical experience, a distinction must be
made between young people with little or no management experience, who
have learned about management at the university, and the participants
having practical experience of managerial functions.
In training people with experience it is absolutely essential to relate the
teachings to the participants’ experience. However, some of the participants
with practical experience may take the attitude of “better knowledge
in advance”. If so, the facilitator’s main problem is to change their self-
complacency and make them aware of what they need to learn to do their
job better. In such cases it is rarely succinct for the facilitator to talk about
new methods and techniques of management. Practical assignments, case
studies and simulation exercises are more likely to help the participants
realise that they have gaps in their knowledge and skill and that training
may be the answer.
(iv) Objective of Teaching and Training: As a rule training needs and objective
of educational and training programmes in management are defined in
terms of changes to be effected in knowledge, attitudes and skill which
should afterwards lead to improved managerial action. Various training
situations will be concerned with various types and levels of knowledge,
attitudes and skills. A preliminary analysis of need will help to identify
what objectives a particular programme ought to have. Methods will then
be selected with regard to their ability to impart new knowledge, influence,
attitudes and develop practical skills.
Any participative method can be effective only in connection with a specific
purpose. If training is intended to improve multiple skills, a combination of
teaching methods must be used. Similar type of analysis could be made to
determine which methods are most likely to affect the manager’s attitudes
or impart a specific kind of knowledge.
(v) Subject Area: Various subject areas (finance, personnel, operational
research, general management etc.) have their own specific features. For
example operation, research techniques are based on the extensive use of
mathematics and statistics. It is usually taught through combination of
lectures (using audio-video aids) and exercise during which the techniques
may be replaced or supplemented with programmed books. However,

the main thing from the management point of view is not to know the
techniques itself, but to know when and how it can be used. This ability
can be developed through practical projects simulation exercise, business
games, case studies etc.
In a training programme concentrating on the behavioural aspects of
management communication, leadership and motivation, training methods
may be selected and combined in a way to give the participants numerous
opportunities to analyze human behaviours and at the same time directly
influencing the attitudes and behaviour of the participants themselves.
These programme or case studies dealing with the “human side of the
enterprise”, business games emphasising communication are related
to participants’ training and various other forms of group discussion
assignments and exercises.
It is often possible to choose form several methods, if we want to deal
with a particular subject or problem. Thus, the analysis of balance sheet
can be through the case study method, a combination of case study with
role playing, a lecture as a classroom exercise or by reading a text or a
programmed book on the subject. This is possible because the principles’
method is versatile enough for teaching a number of different subjects.
Lectures discussions and case studies are being used in virtually all subject
areas. However, in management education and training the problem is
not to deal with specific subject area and function, but it is much more
important to:
• Explain the relationship between various sides and functions of the
enterprises and show the highly complex character of the management
process.
• Help the participants to avoid a one-sided and oversimplified approach
to multi-dimensional situations.
• Promote general management skills, which are essential.
(vi) Time and Material factors: Decisions about the choice of teaching
methods are not independent of time, financial resources and other
factors. Preparation time varies for the different teaching methods. As a
rule, complex case studies and business games require long and costly
preparation which includes testing with experimental group and making
necessary revision.
The length of the course predetermines the kind of methods which can be
used. The longer the course, the better are the chances that the facilitator
will be able to use business game, complex case studies and practical
projects. This is not to imply that participative methods should be
eliminated from short courses. However, only methods which are not time
consuming and are liable to quickly pass the message can be used in this
course.
The time of day is more important than many course designers would
imagine. For example, in the post-lunch period (1400-1600 hrs) it is more
desirable to have enjoyable and attractive sessions which require active
involvement.
The teaching facilities may be a limiting factor in some institutes or in
courses given outside the institute e.g. in small towns. Factors such as
the number of rooms available for group discussions or syndicates are
important.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) How a company can ascertain the need for training programme?
(ii) While training for a technical skill, which is the most suitable training
method(s) for (a) a large group of 250 participants and (b) for a small group
of 20 participants?
Chapter – 7
Skills of An Effective Trainer
• To list the skills of an effective trainer
• To explore ways to acquire the skills for an effective trainer
Skill is defined as “An organized and coordinated pattern of mental and/or
physical activity in relation to an object, person, event or display of information.
Whereas, the knowledge which is a collection of related concepts. The knowledge
a person has can be of two types; facts that a person can remember, and ideas
that a person understands Skill is the ability to use two-dimensional knowledge
into practical three dimensional world. Trainers have to do different things, may
be different training methods, depending on whether they are trying to develop
knowledge, skills or attitudes. There is a wide range of specific skills needed to
undertake one-to-one coaching, team building, facilitating, counseling, besides
being an interventionist and change agent. The problem is that a large proportion
of trainers and of training is still traditional in nature
7.1 FACTORS THAT HELP TO MAXIMIZE THE LEARNING

Our definition of learning makes it clear that people acquire and develop skills
and knowledge and change in behaviour as a result of an interaction between
forces within the learner and in the environment. The factors which help
maximising learning are:
(i) Trainee Characteristics

 Trainability
 Motivation
 Ability
 Perception of the work environment
 Personality and attitudes

 Conditions of practice
 Active practice
 Massed versus spaced practice sessions
 Whole versus part learning
 Over learning
 Knowledge of results (feedback)
 Task sequencing
 Retention of what is learned
 Meaningfulness of material
 Degree of original learning Interference
(iii) Transfer of Training

 Identical elements
 General principles
 Stimulus variability
 Support in the work environment
 Opportunity to perform
 Transfer of training climate
(iv) Training Characteristics

Trainability = f (Motivation × Ability × Perceptions of the Work Environment)
• The way trainees perceive training (e.g., as remedial or advanced, or as an
unpleasant task versus an opportunity) affects levels of learning perceptions
of efficacy, anxiety, and perceptions of fairness.
• The way in which individuals view their own ability (as a fixed entity or an
acquirable skill) affects anxiety level efficacy perceptions, and the learning of
declarative (factual) knowledge.
• Experiencing negative events on the job prior to training can increase trainees’
motivation to learn and also their performance in training.
• Other factors have been found to increase individual’s motivation to
participate in and learn from training. These include involvement in decisions
about training, perceptions that participation in training will lead to benefits
(e.g., increased job performance and career advancement opportunities), and

perceptions of support, or lack of obstacles to use what has been learned in
the work environment.
• Characteristics of the organization (e.g., policies, rules, and guidelines
regarding training participation) have been linked to participation in
developmental activities.
7.2 RETENTION OF WHAT IS LEARNED

• The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainees understand the
tasks or material being presented. It is equally important that newly learned
material is retained. Three additional issues that influence retention are the
meaningfulness of material, the degree of original learning, and interference
• The meaningfulness of material is the extent to which it is rich in associations
for the individual learner.
• The degree of original learning also influences learning retention. The more
effectively that information is initially learned, the more likely it will be
retained.
• Interference can also affect the extent to which learning is retained. Interference
inhibit recall of the newly learned material. Second, information learned after
a training session may also interfere with retention.
7.3 TRANSFER OF TRAINING

The transfer of training to the job situation is a critical component to the success
of HRD efforts.
• Transfer can take different forms. Positive transfer occurs when job
performance is improved as a result of training. Zero transfer occurs when
there is no change in job performance as a result of training. Negative transfer
occurs when job performance is worse as a result of training.
• Another distinction that should be made is between “near transfer” and
“far transfer.” Near transfer has to do with the ability to directly apply back
on the job what has been learned in training, with very little adjustment or
modification, whereas far transfer has to do with expanding upon or using
what was learned in training in new or creative ways.
• Trainee characteristics can playa role in the learning, retention, and transfer
of skills and factual material. Three additional factors that account for
differences in individual learning processes are: different rates of trainee
progress, interactions between attributes and treatment, and the training of
adults and older workers.
7.3.1 Rate of Progress

People learn at different rates. Some people progress more quickly than others,
and individual learners may even progress at different rates during the same
training programme.
Learning curves can provide useful feedback to both trainer and trainee. For
instance, if a trainer notices a plateau, a different approach, encouragement, or
some other intervention may be needed for the trainee to improve
7.3.2 Internalising the observations and reactions

After involving in the activity the instantaneous reaction is contemplating on it
and retaining it (internalising) for further reference. Some of the activities could
be:
• Recording the experience
• Reflecting on the incident
• Memorising the factual information
• Feeling good or not so good.
7.3.3 Sharing with others

Sharing means authenticating and evaluating, comparing the experience with
self and others. Some of the activities could be, sharing with:
• Colleagues
• Team members
• Seniors
• Juniors
• Comparing with previous experience
7.3.4 Understanding the dynamics of the process

Recapitulating the complete process step-by-step and drawing meaningful
deductions which amounts to learning. Some of the processes in this phase are:
• Step-by-step recapitulation
• Benchmarking the activity
• Matching with targets
• Content evaluation
• Comparing with similar process
• Assessing the quality
• Understanding the process flow
7.3.5 Evaluating and analysing the outcomes

Evaluate the outcomes with predecided performance standards. Analyze whether
this is the best method of performing each activity or is there a better way of
doing it. The other similar processes in this phase could be:
• Matching each outcome with performance standards
• Analysing the lacunae. if any
• Identifying the performance gaps
• Identifying the method of bridging the gaps.
7.3.6 Data I Information warehousing

Once the entire process analysis has been systematically done. the structured
outcomes may be stored step-by-step. stage by stage for future reference. S o m e
of the similar processes could be:
• Writing / preparing reports
• Storing the complete information on Desk PCI server
• Noting critical incidents
• Referencing key words / Sentences / Statements
• Knowledge management
• Data mixing & data warehousing
7.3.7 Application of the stored experience

Whenever the person faces a similar situation I problem area, the experience
already stored could be recalled and applied in a sequential manner.

Some of the processes similar to this are:
• Practice
• Application
• Project handling
• Completing other assignment by applying the stored experience
Any learning process is complete when the whole cycle is complete and the
application of what has been learnt can be made on a new experience. In this
above structured method, both the trainer and the trainees can be made observers.
These observers record their observations and pool them.
7.4 SKILLS OF AN EFFECTIVE TRAINER

Paragraphs 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 describes the characteristics of an effective training.
For this to happen, trainer plays a crucial role. The skills of such an effective
trainer are listed in this paragraph.
(i) Mental Skills of an effective trainer can also be considered as falling into four
categories:
• Thinking – Ability to generate logical and holistic thoughts to enrich the
contents. This will help to bridge the gap between theory and practice.
• Acting – Trainer needs to be sensitive and quickly take corrective actions so
that learning proceeds smoothly.
• Reacting – Should not react emotionally. Should be tactful so that participant’s
self-esteem is not hurt.
• Interacting Leader of the group. This includes - Decision-making, Interpersonal
relations and Planning
The above skills can be acquired by practice and constant reflection.
(ii) Interpersonal Skills of an effective trainer obtained by combination of

practice and patience are:
• Use of various interpersonal communication skills to facilitate large and small
group of learning. Analysis of group process activity in terms of task and
maintenance functions; and Giving and receiving appropriate performance
feedback.Feedback is the process of receiving and evaluating information

about our behaviour. It tells us how another person sees our actions; and
gives us the choice to change our behaviour. It is essential for both the trainers
and the learners to receive and give feedback in order to make the learning
process more effective
• A keen sense of observing the trends.
(iii) Qualities (inner abilities) of an effective trainer are:

These can be acquired by cultivating positive self-image
• Enthusiastic – Demonstrating the high energy levels while communicating a
concept.
• Ability to work under pressure – Tact and Patience to handle “difficult” and
“cynical” participants.
• Sincerity and Openness -
• Flexibility – For example, not rigid about timing for a break.
• A Good Sense of Humour – Timing, Content and Delivery of humour is
necessary to break the monotony and facilitate learning.
• Willingness to Recognize Good Contribution – Should not have false prestige
about one’s knowledge. If better and original ideas do come from participants,
it should be recognized and acknowledged.
• Willingness to Accept Mistake and Spontaneity to Apologize so that learning
spirit within continues.
(iv) General Skills of an effective trainer: Can be acquired by frequent self-

reviews
• Paraphrasing and Summarizing - Separate idea should have separate
paragraph. Summarizing should focus on overall outcome of an exercise.
• Question Asking – Ability to generate curiosity by putting stimulating
questions to participants.
• Extending – Able to elaborate a concept with increasingly clear explanations
and examples.
• Non-verbal Cues – sensitive to non-verbal messages from the participants.
• Group Maintenance Skills -Gate keeping, Mediating, Listening, Encouraging

and Relieving Tension
• Group Task Skills - Clarifying Focusing, Seeking Useful Information, Reaching
Task Agreement, Giving Useful Information, Moving Towards action.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) What characterizes an effective training programme?
(ii) List out the skills of an effective trainer with examples.
Chapter – 8
Audio-Visual Aids and their Application
Learning objectives
After reading this chapter the student should be able to understand:
• The available Audio Visual devices for delivering effective training
• How to design visuals
• Effective application of Audio Visual Aids for delivering effective training.
Audio-visual aids can significantly enhance and reinforce learning. It is worth
remembering that people remember 20-percent of what they hear; 30-percent of
what they see and 50-percent of what they see and hear. The use of all audio-
visual aids helps in capturing the attention of more than one sense facilitating
listening and remembering.
Following factors should be taken into consideration while deciding which
device to use:
• Audience - to whom the presentation is to be made (class, convention) and
where it is to be held. This will affect the size of the visual.
• Usage - the number of times the presentation will be made. If it is to be
presented just once, very elaborate and expensive visuals will not be justified
most of the time, but exceptions are possible. Single presentations can be
made with the help of transparencies and overhead projector. Multiple
presentations would justify the cost of preparing slides.
• Location - is the presentation going to be made in the office premises or does
it have to be carried elsewhere? A slide projector is much easier to carry than
an overhead projector.
8.1 AVAILABLE AUDIO-VISUAL DEVICES

Blackboard: It is inexpensive and generally available in all lecture halls, depend
as we do on the lecture method, which needs presentation and noting down of
important points on board. Use of a blackboard requires no prior preparation.
Flip Chart: It can replace the blackboard with the advantage that no erasing is
needed. It is especially useful for single presentations, which may not justify the
designing and preparation of costly visuals.

Magnetic Boards: It can be used for showing prepared visuals. It can also be
used as a blackboard. Magnets may be used as drawing pins for its usage as pin-
up boards although is very heavy and its portability creates problem.
Flannel Boards: Flannel board visual consists of a paper surface seen by the
audience and the flocked material on the side away from the audience that holds
the visual in place. All visuals must be prepared well in advance.
Overhead Projector: One of the equipment most widely used by trainers is the
Overhead Projector. It projects large-size transparent images on to a screen under
normal daylight conditions. Transparencies may be conveniently produced by
drawing or writing directly on to transparent acetate sheets with grease pencils
or felt-tip pens of a type suitable for working on glass or plastic surface. Such
pen sets are available in 6 colours. Transparencies can also be prepared using
a photocopy process, in which case the drawing or the material is prepared on
an ordinary sheet of white paper. Cardboard frames are available as permanent
mounts for the plastic sheets.
Slide Projector: The epidiascope used for projecting small-sized opaque, even
directly from books, has gone out of vogue mostly because of its bulky size.
Of late 35 mm slide projector is gaining popularity. 35 mm slides are not very
difficult to prepare. They are also less expensive and easier to operate than a
16 mm film. They can easily be adapted to different training needs.
Filmstrip: Instead of cutting up 35 mm film into individual frames and mounting
them separately for their use through a slide projector, they are often preserved
in strip form. They are portable and extra copies can be made easily.
8.2 DESIGNING VISUALS

Visuals-cannot be prepared in isolation. They are an integral part of a good talk
or presentation. To ensure that visuals do not look disjointed, the complete plan
of the visual-aided presentation should be arranged in such a way that points or
concepts are built up step-by-step. The following points need to be kept in mind
while designing the visuals.
• Maximizing the impact: The nature of visuals need to be different for creating
impact in the beginning from that of the ones at the middle and end of a
training programme.
• As inclusive as possible: Any visual should contain as much message as
possible.
• Stimulation: Visuals should stimulate thinking and bring about a change.

• Coordination: Visuals should have good coordination with the audio
component for maximum impact.
8.3 WHERE TO USE VISUALS?

Visuals are used:
• To bring out a series of facts leading to some conclusion. Complete sentences
should not be written in the visuals unless it is a quote. Usually two or three
key words should be sufficient to convey the point being made. Visuals
should be arranged in such a way that points or concepts are built up step-by-
step.
• To emphasise some points. In any presentation there are some specific points,
which must be highlighted. Visuals should be prepared for such points only.
• To attract attention. Attention can be attracted by the use of colour. As per
ILO Handbook on Training. colours rank in the following order in terms of
attraction:
i. Orange ii. Red iii. Blue
iv. Black v. Green vi. Yellow
vii. Violet viii. Grey
The colour preferences are in the following order:
i. Blue ii. Red iii. Green
iv. Violet v. Yellow
Taking the two preferences together indicates that red and blue are the two best
colours. Apart from black on white and white on black, the best combinations are
dark blue on white, brown on white and green on white.
Present complex industrial, mathematical or chemical processes through visuals.
Writing such processes or formulate on the blackboard takes considerable time
thus decreasing the interest of students in the presentation. A visual on such
processes improves the time management of the trainer and is also more effective.
Film
This is a media which has a great deal to offer to both the instructor and the
trainees. Films stimulate interest in a way that an instructor would not normally
be able to. Not only can a person absorb-a lot more through viewing a film rather
than reading a book, but he will probably also remember it longer. Through
the media of a film, one can go places, engage in activities, demonstrations
or experiments that it might otherwise be impossible or too dangerous for an
ordinary human being to do.
Films can be used in the industrial context to study human relations, for
demonstrating selling techniques, making case studies come alive and for
studying intricate processes and machines.
The effectiveness of a film as a training aid, however, depends largely on the
imagination and skill brought to use by the instructor in the selection and
integration of the film into his training programme.
In selecting a film, the instructor should ensure that a few basic requirements are
met:
Length: The duration of the film should be suitable to the lecture / presentation
and the audience. It is also necessary to examine the possibility of using the film
in parts.
Condition: The film should be in fairly good condition - not broken, defaced or
too old. Design & Setting: The film should preferably not reflect old fashioned
styles of clothing, sets, automobiles or outmoded machinery as it may prevent the
viewer from identifying with the characters or cause them to reject the message
itself as outdated.
Content: The objectives of the film should be well synchronised with the subject
under consideration for the training session. Technical information should be
upto date and appropriate to the knowledge and prevailing interest levels of
the audience. Clarity of attitudes and concepts should be maintained and the
narration smooth.
Style: The style of the film-the humour, cartoons, drawings and charts, animated
drawings etc. should be understandable and appreciated by the audience. The
acting should be convincing and the attitude portrayed by the film acceptable as
realistic by the audience.
• The instructor should ensure that the film is properly introduced, the purpose
of showing the film explained and suggestions given regarding points to
be looked out for in the film. Questions the audience may be required to
answer after viewing the film, may also be sometimes given in advance. Some
characters in the film may also be introduced in the initial briefing. Such a
briefing makes the later discussions much more valuable. The trainer may
even want to stop the film at appropriate moments to ask participants to
analyze or summarise the events upto that point of time as it is found that this
increases the extent of learning and retention. There are some films, which
have to be stopped mid-way to initiate discussion. “Eye of the Beholder”,
an excellent film on perception and communication, is one such example.
Similarly, some films have questions at the end to facilitate discussion. The
film “Engineering of an Agreement” questions flashed at the end.
• The projector has to be switched off to get answers from participants.
• A blackboard or flip chart should be available for review notes. Follow-up
of a film could even include role-playing, re-acting events and obtaining
suggestions of the participants.
• The room in which the film is to be projected should arrange for good
viewing comfort. It should be sufficiently darkened with ample ventilation.
The position of loud speakers and projectors should be suitably determined.
Breakdowns, poor sound reproduction, bad film focus, a stuffy atmosphere
and unnecessary background noise will limit the impact of even the most
excellent of Films.
• Films are an effective training media. However, trainers should resist the
temptation to utilise films to fill in gap created by faculty drop out or session
ending ahead of schedule. The inclusion of a film should be a well thought
out exercise, part of the total design and consonant with the objective of the
course.
• The trainer should do his homework to ensure effectiveness of the film. It will
be a good idea to prepare questions on the film. Film should not be followed
by a lecture as the concepts brought out in the film can best be reinforced
through a discussion initiated by the trainer asking relevant questions.
• A wise trainer remembers that the purpose of showing a film is ultimately
training and not entertaining.
8.4 KEY POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND

The following four points are to be kept in mind while utilizing audio-visuals
during the course of a training programme.
• Flexibility: Since each training batch or audience is different, it is better to
gather information regarding mentality ot the audience and modify the
audio-visuals accordingly. This is possible only with the self-made audio-

visuals.
• Intervention: Audio-visuals should intervene when audience are feeling the
fatigue to get the maximum impact.
• Duration: Audio-Visuals should not be too long or too short. 15 to 30 minutes
is ideal.
• Pace: The pace or slide transition should not be too fast like in a cinema or
should not be too slow. The transition speed varies from audience to audience.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) What are the key points to be kept in mind while using audio-visuals in a
training programme?
(ii) Mention any five key principles in designing audio-visuals for a training
programme?
Chapter – 9
Computer Assisted Instructions
• To get a knowledge about computer assisted instructions
• To know the various applications of computer assisted instructions
A self-learning technique, either computer-based or online, involving interaction
of the student with programmed instructional materials. Computer Assisted
Instruction is made up of three words i.e. Computer + Assisted + Instruction.
CAI, as the name suggests, stands for the type of instructions aided or carried
out with the help of a computer. Computer is ahead of the teaching machine on
account of its unlimited capacity of doing more work and multiple types of works
at the same time for unlimited number of individual learners. In short about CAI
we can say that CAI is the instructions which are given to the learners with the
help of computer.
According to Bhatt B.D. and S.R. Sharma, “CAI is defined as an interaction
between participants, a computer controlled display and a response entry device
for the purpose of achieving educational outcomes.” Thus, computer assisted
instruction is the use of computer to provide instruction to the participants’ in
such a way that the participants react to that instruction accordingly and get the
result of their reaction immediately.
According to Hilgard and Brower, “Computer Assisted Instruction has now
taken as so many dimensions that it can no longer be considered as simple
derivative of the teaching machine or the kind of programmed learning that
Skinner introduced”.
Thus, CAI is the providing the instructions to the participants using computer.
In other words we can say that CAI is the system of instructions in which the
instructions are given by the use of computer instead of trainer or other mode
as in the traditional way of instructions. Computer is the wholesome controller
of all the activities in the front end. The back end of the system is controlled,
designed, planned and implemented by human being who are mainly trainer,
hardware and software engineers.
9.1 SCOPE OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

A computer has a lot of applications in all the fields. The presence of computer
cannot be ignored in any field of life. Visualization gives better aspects of

understanding rather than imagination. In teaching, through CAIs, if the subject
is visualized then it becomes easier for the participants to understand. Computer
gives visual form of subject matter i.e. aid of computer make education simpler
and easy to learn. So, we can say that computer is the wave for education. In
the last few years the number of persons using computer assisted instructional
material has increased markedly and numerous articles have been written about
the role of technology in education in the 21st century. Example of such materials
include programmed tests, audiotapes, videotapes, slide kits, monographs,
computer-assisted and web-based instructional materials which may be used
either alone or in combination with written materials for independent learning.
9.2 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION (CAI)

Following are the basic assumptions of computer assisted instruction due to the
characteristics of computer:
• Instructions to large number of participants: This assumption specifies that
the instructions can be given to a number of learners at a time. It can do a much
faster work than human being. So it can handle lots of users at a time. The
number can be increased by improving the hardware configurations. Internet
is a live example where millions of users are handled by few machines.
• Automatic Response Recording: The second assumption is related to the
recording of responses. The participants interact with computer and they
respond in this process. Whatever is their response is recorded immediately
and automatically. This response is then further used by the computer to
provide the feedback to the participants.
• Variety in Presentations: Computer is a multimedia equipped machine. It can
have a lot of presentation styles, methods and techniques. The combination of
hardware and software can generate lots of presentation styles and methods.
This variety in methods and techniques is helpful in attaching the participants
to the system for more and more learning.
9.3 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

Computer can provide all kind of information and resources in the field related
to Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Medical etc. In the field of education,
computer takes a necessary place. Various challenges like population explosion,
knowledge explosion, new ideas of providing education and child centered
education etc. can be overcome by the use of technological developments. The

shortage of trainers is another challenge. Then solution of these problems is to
increase the speed of education, automatize it and make education individualized.
All these characteristics are beared by the computer assisted instruction. The
importance of CAI can be seen from the following points.
• Systematic Learning: Computer in itself is a systematic machine. It performs
the activities according to a set system of instructions. Thus the activities
of computer make the learning process systematic and the learners learn
according to the pre-set system.
• Use of various senses: The participants use various senses in learning. There
are all types of hardware available which are developed by the keeping in
mind the senses and their functioning. Multimedia approach of computer is
the reason for the involvement of all the senses of learner in the system.
• Self Pacing: Psychology says the participants should move at their own
speed of learning. They should not follow trainer’s speed of teaching. The self
pacing is provided by the Computer Assisted Instruction. Each student on
CAI system learns its own speed.
• Improved Accuracy Rate: There is no doubt about accuracy rate of computer.
Thus the accuracy rate of learning is increased as there are lots of chances of
error in the other system of instructions. In CAI the human beings are kept at
back end. So error rate is reduced resulting in increased accuracy rate.
• Individualized Instructions: CAI system of instruction does not give the
group instruction. It interacts with each and every individual separately. The
participants are considered as an individual not a class or group. Computer
diagnoses the participants and then provide him the necessary instructions.
Thus learning by CAI is individualized.
• Makes learning Interesting: CAI by use of variety and change in its style,
methods, techniques make the study attractive and the learners take interest
in the process. They are motivated at every step of learning The interest is
maintained at every step.
• Provide Effective Feedback: CAI system provides immediate and varied type
of feedback to the participants. Thus the feedback techniques motivate the
participants and they keep on learning using the CAI system.
• Speedy Work: The learning speed is increased in whole. It does not mean
that the participants are given fast instructions. When a large number of
participants are instructed at a time then the whole effect of system is very
much large as compared to traditional classroom learning. This increase the

speed of learning work.
9.4 USES OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

Computer is used in every subject today. Computer and any subject have a close
relation with each other these days. Computer is useful to the participants of all
the subjects. The benefits of computer have introduced new modes of education.
The uses of CAI in education can be seen from following discussion.
• Instruction of Learner: The major aim of CAI is to provide the instruction
to the learner. This can be done in many styles. Using the concept of
programmed instructions, instructions can be provided to the participants.
Computer assisted instructions take care of individual difference and handle
each student accordingly. Instructions related to any subject can be given
using CAI.
• Drill and Practice: Participants can use the computer for solving problem
related to their education. Drill and practice on computer helps the participants
to understand and revise the concepts. Branching style remedial program can
be used. Such practice has longer life of retention.
• Simulation: Instructions can be given in simulation. There are various
techniques available which gives a perfect real life experiences. The abstract
concept or the situation where participants cannot be taken can be taught
using simulation techniques.
• Tutorial and Dialogues: Subject matter can be taught to the participants
in effective way using various apparatuses. Today participants can talk to
computer and listen to it. Thus they can have a dialogue with computer system
related to their education. They can have the solution of their educational
problems.
• Providing Educational Guidance: Computer can diagnosis the participants
from every aspect and can have the whole picture of student’s status. Thus
with proper diagnosis it can guide the participants for their education.
The timely and proper guidance can lead to the participants for excellent
achievement in education.
• Evaluation uses: Evaluation is an integral part of Education. Participants can
be evaluated objectively and in less time by using computer. As evaluation
is comprehensive term and it involves a lot of aspects. Thus computer can
access all these aspects and can have the whole picture of participants.
• Vocational Guidance: Career adjustment is a major problem in front of

participants. They have some time a lot of options and sometimes none.
They need to be properly guided. Computer can help the participants in this
situation also. It can provide the information related to vocations from all
around the world.
• Upgrading Knowledge: Computer is a vast source of knowledge. Knowledge
is doubling every three years. It cannot be gained by going through books.
Internet is the medium to access the knowledge. Internet helps the participants
to make them upgraded in every aspect.
• Education Research: Research has become an integral part of Education. It
is helpful in improvement in the educational process. Internet is an ocean of
knowledge. It provides a lot of information and instructions to the research
scholar related to education. Also the findings of research can be shared using
computer with no time delay. It increases the speed of improvements.
9.5 ROLE OF TRAINER IN COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

Computer plays the leading role in CAI. This does not mean that the trainer has
nothing to do in it. CAI has put the trainer in background and not eliminated it.
It has taken the control of the educational activities. The trainer is still present but
in the background. We cannot ignore the importance of a trainer in CAI system.
Any machine can do nothing in any field without human assistance. So as is with
computer. The system is made workable by the trainer. If computer provides the
instructions to the learners, it is trainer who gives instructions to the computer.
Once the system starts, the trainer relax and watch the whole system. The role of
trainer can be seen from following points:
• In Planning: Trainer is the designer and planner of all activities. He has to
decide what to do, how to do and what should be the outcome of the process.
The initial planning becomes the base of all the further activities.
• Evaluation: Evaluation is an importance part of CAI. The trainer decides the
following:
• How to evaluate?
• When to evaluate?
• Interpretation of Result.
• It is the trainer who knows all about this. He can plan and design perfectly
the evaluation process.
• Selection of feedback techniques: Feedback is necessary in CAI. There

are various types of feedback techniques. Each has its own advantages and
applications. The trainer decides which feedback technique is to use and
when to use. He can also design a comprehensive feedback technique.
• Selecting motivational techniques: Motivation is required in the learning
process. Lack of motivation makes the process boring and the participants
indifferent. Thus proper motivational techniques should be used and this
decision is taken by the trainer.
• Providing Guidance: The participants may adopt wrong way in the CAI
process. The can go in wrong direction. It is the duty of trainer to provide
them proper guidance related to the CAI system. The participants keep on
right track with timely and proper guidance.
• Providing human touch to system: After all computer is a machine. It
makes the system mechanical. This can harm the participants in many ways
physically as well as psychologically. The human touch is required in the
system. This human touch is provided by the trainer.
• Developing Instructional Material: What is to be taught to the participants
is a big issue. What type of content should be presented to the participants?
What should be the sequence of presentation of content? All these decisions
are taken by trainer.
• Selecting Method: The methods and techniques to be used in the system is
another factor which is decided by the trainer. The trainer knows what the
methods of teaching are and which one will suit to the participants who are
going to use the CAI system. Thus we see that the trainer has to play a lot of
duties in CAI. The machinery in CAI cannot replace the trainer. Infect nothing
can be replace a trainer in the teaching learning process. Only the place may
change. Sometime the trainer is in front and sometime computer.
9.6 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

This is one of the training methods developed in recent years. It places
emphasis on giving flexibility to individual learners. The relevant information is
communicated in writing in a form known as Programme. Imported features of
this training method are:
• It is self-Instructional.
• The subject matter is divided into small steps and the sequence.
The programme is designed in such a way that it can provide immediate

knowledge of results. After the trainee makes selection, he can verify the
correctness of his decision.
• Each learner can work and go through the programme at his own speed.
• The information to be given is in the form of a textbook or brochure in some
cases, audio tape recordings, visual projection and other audio visual aids can
also be used.
Advantages
• Large amount of information can be conveyed to many people simultaneously
undergoing training.
• Each trainee can adjust the method according to his convenience. The trainee
who is weak can put extra hours for understanding the subject.
• The method has particular advantages where the training facilities are limited.
The programme can be repeated to several batches of trainees year after year.
This gives flexibility.
• The method meets basic psychological principles of feedbacks, self-pacing
and individual learning.
Disadvantages
• Programme writing is time consuming and requires great care and analysis.
• Its use is limited to situation conveying factual knowledge and information.
Practical issues, case studies and controversial problems cannot be easily
incorporated in this method.
• The method combines advantages-of a good instructor with self-teaching.
It cannot, however, be used in all training situations and it will not replace
the instructor entirely. A number of standard programmes on various topics
dealing with management are available. The ILO has published a book,
“How to Read a Balance Sheet”. Similarly the National Institute of Banking
Management has published a number of books relating to transactions in
banking. In deciding the use of this method following factors have to be
studied.
a) The background of the trainees and their present performance.
b) The expected performance on the job.
c) The nature of training imparted earlier.

d) The specific objectives of providing information.
e) The nature of information to be supplied. If the information and facts
change often, the programmes have to be revised.
f) The decision to buy a standard programme or write a separate programme
specifically suited to individual needs.
Programmed instruction is a method which emphasises self-learning. The
programme consists of a series of steps called frames. The learning .material
is carefully divided into sections based upon logical sequences. This method
requires the trainer or the programmer to design a series of lessons in the form
of specific segments. In other words, the learning material is arranged in a logical
pattern and provided to the trainee in different segments. When the programme
is written, it is tested and the trainee responses are carefully analyzed.
The popularity of programmed learning can be attributed to a number of reasons:
• Many managers and executives do not have time to participate in training
programmes.
• Trainees are often geographically isolated and work in different parts of the
region.
• In many cases there is a serious shortage of professionals who can provide
good training.
The programmed learning is designed to be used on a repeat basis and under
conditions involving large number of participants. Because of the above
advantages, ILO has done extension research and helped many developing
countries with experts in the field of programmed learning. The ILO has
published several excellent texts in the field of programmed learning. University
of Pittsburg, USA has also published a dictionary of programmed instruction,
which gives information on publishers, consultants, trainers and other
international agencies engaged in programmed’ instruction throughout the
world.
9.7 ON-LINE TRAINING

There are now numerous sources of on-line training (learning information from
computer diskette, CD-ROM. the Internet. etc, This form of learning is sometimes
called Web-based training. Various forms of distance learning involve learning
over the Internet as well (Digital Think offers a free experience of using Web-
based training).
9.8 TUTORIALS
Tutorials include guidance to proceed through learning some technique or
procedure, e.g. a tutorial on using a computer software package. There are an
increasing number of on-line tutorials (tutorials available on diskette, CD-ROM,
over the Internet, etc.).
• Interactive video, which produces computer-generated text graphics and
sound together with video sequences: In general the more sophisticated
(costly) the hardware, the higher the quality of the graphics. There is
considerable variation in available systems which link a micro with either
video tape players or video disc players,
• Some recent development in this technology offer cheaper ways of providing
a system by using equipment already in the possession of training department
or learner. For example, in the tape-based systems IVL provides a way of
linking an existing Apple lie to any commercial remote control video cassette
recorder (VCR) to create an interactive video system (available from Dalroth).
Felix have the Felix link which connects any of four micros (BBC ‘B’, 1MB PC,
Apple and Sirrius) with a commercial U-matic VCR. Personal Development
Projects Ltd. have just announced their ‘Expert Learning System’ which uses
a domestic VCR and TV set, They sell a micro which links the components
into interactive video system which needs no disc drives. This is the first
system the author has seen that could bring interactive video into the home
ownership bracket. A growing library of courseware is now available for this
system.
• Other technology, like broadcast TV via satellite or cable telecast or view data
systems and teleconferencing all have potential and are alternative ways of
delivering materials. An excellent new book gives very extensive coverage of
the Role of Technology in Distance Education based mostly on the unique
and extensive research and experience of the OU (Bates, 1984).
• Authoring languages and systems constitute important elements of new
technology. In theory they enable a tutor to programme a micro for computer-
based or interactive video learning. In practice there is considerable difference
between a very easy to use system like the Felix Fast 1: 6 which offers the
tutor a range of options and gently interrogates him and the more complex
languages which have to be learned but may be more flexible. A new

interactive video system bases on Betamax and BBC B-micro called ‘Take 5’
offers the best and simplest authoring system found so far (using low cost
components).
• New technology has the potential of greatly extending the range of options
for creating distance learning materials. Some types of technology may be
essential to certain forms of learning (like inter-personal skill development),
and may allow learning at a distance which has not been possible before, There
are, however, many unanswered questions and little operating experience in
the field of management development.
9.9 COMPUTER-BASED AND INTERACTIVE VIDEO PACKAGES

These are in general of short duration (1 to 2 hours) and generally have a limited
but specific learning goal. The designs often show links with what might be
called a training philosophy rather than an educational one. There are interesting
exceptions as in the ‘Nipper’ programme which facilitate reflective learning using
the principles of repertory grid. In various ways packages involving computers
are interactive.
An interactive video system has four types of output: text, graphics, audio and
video. A computer-only system has only three, since the video output is missing.
Input is most often through a keyboard which may be supplemented with a
touch screen.
Design-Based
A number of design features are discernible in most computer-based learning
(CBL) systems, which are borrowed from traditional designs These include the
use of:
• Action mazes;
• In-tray exercises;
• Simulations;
• Human interactions (modelling);
• Choice and feedback in a task;
• Data Feedback;
• Games;
• Giving information and testing.

One obvious possibility is to use computers as programmed learning machines,
and some of these principles are discernible in some packages. The question of
whether these designs are suitable for management development is doubted by
some people. Even more to be avoided is the use the computer as an electronic
page turner.
Learner Interaction
There are a number of ways in which a learner may interact with a CBL system:
• Answering questions;
• Reacting to video sequences;
• Making decisions;
• Making choices.
Materials and infrastructure

Various types of media effect new technology through different factors. These
factors might have more to do with the distance aspects of learning. There is
undoubtedly much untapped potential, and many new developments, which
need to be made to fully explore the limits of what management development
can or cannot successfully achieve at a distance. Research into materials design
forms an important part of the research programme in the Centre for the Study
of Management Learning at the University of Lancaster. Of equal importance is
the infrastructure in which the material is used. On one extreme is a stand alone
programme designed for colo learners which requires little or no tutor support,
and contains only self assessment activities. Such a programme would not be
typically called computer-based, especially if it involved a significant amount of
study time. It is easy to imagine the difficulty a busy manager would find in
getting the progamme to the top of his priority list.
The practical manifestation might well be an inability to actually start or to
progress very far when started. Complete lack of infrastructure might thus
be a dominating factor regardless of the quality of the materials or media
used. Conversely, a defined infrastructure including such things as a course
calendar, assignment deadlines, tutorial dates, and completion dates ready for
examinations, might provide just the trigger for giving the work higher priority.
It would appear that in some instances infrastructure may influence the degree of
openness experienced by the learner. In any event, it appears to be of the greatest

importance to consider materials design delivery. Infrastructure is an equally
important aspect of open and distance learning; these are complementary aspects.
For example, short stand along with interactive video package which has a high
fascination value may need little infrastructure, whereas a long programme
involving dense text in print may need quite a lot.
There are a number of options for providing infrastructure. It can come from the
producing and/or delivering organisation (Open Business School) in which the
learner works (self--help groups, site supervisors, etc.).
Business Games
Business game is a training technique in which participants consider a sequence
of problems and take decisions. It is a simulation, which consists of sequential
decision- making exercise structured around a hypothetical model of an
organisation’s operations in which participants assume roles in managing the
simulated operations. It attempts to reproduce the socio-psychological and
economic dynamics of organisational behaviour in an artificial setting. As it is
only a simulation, there is no real loss to the organisation in case mistakes are
made by participants.
Rationale
There are two major reasons why Business Games should be increasingly used
in management development programmes. The first is related to effectiveness of
learning. A person learns more by doing something. A trainee taking part in a
business game learns while playing the game. The second reason is its relevance
to the situation in the industry.
One of the major problems of the industry and management today is that a
manager’s basic loyalty is to his department and not to his organization. A
marketing manager views all problems from the marketing point of view, a
production manager from the production point of view and a finance manager
from the financial angle. They fight for what is good for their respective
departments, and not for what is good for the organisation. Many a time, what is
good for a particular department is not good for the company. But fights based
on departmental loyalty keep on taking place within organisations reducing their
effectiveness. Business games help in reducing such conflicts. Some business
games stress on this mutuality, which is so important for the growth and
prosperity of an organisation.
Types of Business Games

Business games are relatively new. However, they are available for dealing with
every facet of business activity. These games can be classified on the basis of (a)
coverage, (b) competitive element, and (c) processing of results.
By Coverage
• Total Enterprise Games - Such games link different functions like marketing
inventory management etc. in a simulated company to show how these’
functions are inter-related. This has to be kept in mind while taking decisions.
• Functional Games - Such games cover only a specific function in the simulated
company. Trainees would learn about problems in the simulated function like
sales. The game could as well be advertising vis-a-vis increase in sales.
• Other Specialist Areas - Games have been designed to test out impact of
different pJ.Jbfic policies of the Government.
By Competitive Element
• lnteracting Game - Here the results are affected not only by the decisions of
the team but also by the decisions of the competitors.
• Non-interacting Game - Here each individual team is in command of its own
performance. The competition continues, but results are wholly dependent on
the team and its actions, and not on the decisions taken by any competing
team.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) What do you mean by computer assisted instructions? How they are useful
for a busy executive?
(ii) What is the role of computer assisted instructions in breaking the monotony
in a training programme?
Chapter – 10
Distance Learning, Open Learning and E-Learning
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter you should be able to understand:
• The concept of distance learning
• The characteristics of distance learning
• The concept of open learning
• The concept of e- learning.
10.1.1 Introduction
Distance learning can be taken to be the delivery of appropriately designed
training material at trainee’s doorstep though the trainee may be located at
considerable distance so that a trainee can use it on his or her own pace & time,
probably with local support and central coordination. The comment is frequently
made that this could also be taken to be a definition of ‘Correspondence teaching’.
This is quite correct. The simple text materials with crude feedback and advice
systems used by many correspondence schools are at one end of the Distance
learning spectrum. The art of teaching at a distance has evolved considerably in
the last 20 years and many of the Distance or simple correspondence courses bear
little resemblance to their earlier practice. Today’s Distance learning programmes
benefit from:
• More developed theories of training and learning,
• More comprehensive educational design techniques,
• Availability’ of varied and advanced media for delivery, and
• More developed mechanism of support.
Students in Distance Education system communicate the teachers and other
fellow students through several media. Distant learners always enjoy felexibility
in terms of choosing the place and time of study. However, the degree of
flexibility the students able to enjoy depends on the availability of the media
and learner’s access to them. Based on the availability of technology, flexibility
in Distance Education system varies worldwide (please see 4-Square Map of
Groupware Options). However, it is true that Distance Education must have
at least some flexibility in compared to most inflexible traditional on-campus

education system.
10.1.2 Characteristics of Distance Learning

a) Neither Distance nor Open Learning methods should be viewed as a
replacement for the more traditional methods of training. There are a number
of clear characteristics of residential, face-to-face, group and practical methods
which would be difficult to duplicate in any system of individual study
particularly, where this study may be carried in parallel with normal work
experience.
b) Effective as the traditional methods may be for many activities, they fall
short of the present requirement for training and retraining. It has been
estimated that approximately 80% of the managers and supervisors have
received no training for their positions; or training taken by them is of such
short duration and erratic nature as to make it worthless. Industry and the
need to keep abreast of the changes in the new business environment pose
considerable problems for the training system.
c) The new techniques provide a compliment to the more usual tools of the
trainer, through which many present and future training programmes can be
addressed. They can provide a means of:
o Supplementing a limited resource at low cost.
o providing a cost-effective mass training resources for special requirements.
o Offering alternative methods of study.
o Allowing greater flexibility in terms of time, style, and location of training.
o Maintaining a uniformly high standard presentation of concepts.
o Ensuring an adequate level of preparation in order to make most effective
use of other training methods.
At the very least, Distance Learning can provide some basic training where for
reasons of scare resource, cost or location, it can be provided by other means.
Where it is used as a part of well planned comprehensive training scheme, it can
embrace the general levels of training available within an Organization.
10.1.3 Advantage of distance learning

a) Distance Learning is a method of training which breaks down some of the
traditional barriers - location, inflexible schedules, cost and style.

b) It comprises specifically designed material created through the latest
educational techniques. The programmes are delivered through a variety of
media - diagram, text, audio and video. Some programmes also have optional
computer and interactive video-disc components.
c) All course elements are completely integrated and each has a vital role to
play.
d) This type of training is available on demand.
e) There are generally no starting and finishing dates imposed from outside;
programmes can be studies as and when suitable to the individual or to the
Organization.
f) The costs tend to be considerably lower than equivalent training carried out
through traditional training methods.
g) It provides an opportunity to increase the productivity of the training function
by providing proven, high quality reliable materials than can reach a large
audience.
h) Distance learning is ideal for training today’s managers. The tough competitive
conditions of today’s business environment demand managers who have
developed a high level of skills in different disciplines. Unfortunately, the
very pressures that are creating this demand make it difficult to release
managers for traditional residential or even in-house training programmes.
Distance learning programmes provide access to training materials for on-site
or home study. In addition, these are of a quality that would be prohibitively
expensive if developed in-house.
i) The courses can be used by trainers and line mangers in a wide variety of
ways to suit the needs of each company I individual.
j) Where one or two mangers need training in a particular skill, the programmes
can be used individually, with regular tutorials and reviews.
k) Where large numbers require training in a particular location, in-company
group exercises and discussion can be incorporated with the basic material.
10.1.4. Distance Training in Context

a) Distance learning is not a panacea for all types of training needs. While it is
certainly true that it has several advantage over other forms of training in
certain circumstances, trainers appreciate the dangers of over-claiming the

benefits of these courses or any other training medium.
b) Distance learning should not be viewed simply as a replacement for more
traditional training methods. The characteristics of residential face-to-face,
group methods are difficult to duplicate in any system of individual study.
Studying by distance learning within the ambit of a company, however, rather
than a lone student, may compensate for lack of group activity with student
gatherings, joint performance of exercises and involvement of in-company
experts. These activities should be a designed to help towards the motivation
while the consistent quality of the courses themselves will ensure sustained
student interest.
c) One of the hallmarks of good training is that it should be enjoyable. It is
believed that students would find these courses fun to do, and trainers derive
considerable pleasure and satisfaction in setting up and supporting distance
learning schemes.
10.1. 5 Organizational Response to External Pressures

a) The business environment is changing fast. Knowledge and skills are
becoming ever more perishable. In the past, required levels of knowledge
and kills remained more or less static across the career span of an average
employee; occasional, booster shots were usually considered sufficient to top
them up. This is no longer true. Some industries are now going through radical
upheaval every five to ten years and few Organizations find themselves
immune to the pressure to change all have led to greater competition in the
market place.
b) Traditional training policies are no longer tenable. There is growing
recognition that training must become a life-long activity. This affects all
levels of an Organization. A career will no longer be planned to last from
school leaving stage to age of retirement. People will change their jobs more
often and need to change their skills too, whether they stay within one firm or
move between many.
10.1.6 Need for New Strategies in Learning: Key Factors

a) Such prospects of uncertainty offer both exciting opportunities and major
problems in distance learning. Education and training will need to be
structured in entirely new ways. Key factors for strategies for today are:
• Cost
• Relevance
• Flexibility and
• Accessibility
b) These key factors require some elaboration.
Cost: It is beyond the financial resources of Organizations to make courses
available to all those who might benefit from them. However, one of the
advantages of new technologies and techniques is that they can reduce
the overall costs of training. For example, a unit in the health sector had a
requirement for a small group of managers and made a comparison of the
relative costs of a residential programme and the use of distance learning
materials. The comparison brought out the point that the distance learning
programme costs less than 50% of any equivalent residential programme,
even if the programme is to Qe supported internally. It also offered some
other benefits: it was more extensive, more directly related to the workplace
and more flexible to use. Other cost factors have to be taken into account.
Traditional programmes have hidden costs: key personnel need training as
they need to take on new tasks. Their loss for the period of an external course
represents a high opportunity cost element, which is often more important
than the basic cost of a programme.
Relevance: Increasing levels of training would place additional demands on
the individual. To cope with this pressure, students must be highly motivated
and this state would last only as long as they are able to recognise any
training programme to be directly relevant to their circumstances and needs.
The question of relevance is not simple. It is much more than matching the
method of training-to suit the students’ study requirements and availability -
indeed it goes without saying that distance learning must always be designed
to cater to a very wide range of different learning styles and their relevance
must also be assessed by a complete understanding of training needs and
these are complex.
Training needs vary in relation to three key factors, all of which need to be fully
understood and finally judged.
• The individual personal requirements addressed through appraisal of
achieve-ments and capability.
• The demands of the Organization as defined by its objective and dictated by
its stage of development.
• The external pressure which make demands on both the individual and the
Organization created by changes in the economic environment or market
forces.
Further, the methods used to assess the individual or evaluate the effectiveness
of the programme must be relevant to the objectives.
A distance learning programme studied over an extended period in parallel with
normal work activities is likely to lead to the new skills being put into practice.
Students should be encouraged to discuss the course with their immediate
colleagues and with the functional specialist within the Organization.
Flexibility: It is rarely realistic, or economically feasible to construct individual
programmes to suit every circumstance. Sophisticated and far reaching
training schemes are costly in terms of funds, time and human resources.
The most efficient programmes are those that have sufficient flexibility to be
used under the range of conditions. This means that they have to be flexible
in terms of: Time, Pace, Place and, Style.
Most conventional training programmes inevitably have a fixed duration,
starting date and geographical location. Distance learning is free from these
constraints.
Accessibility: Formal qualifications are no longer the only or even the best
indicator that individual should receive training. They can often simply
mean that a person has demonstrated the capacity to learn, and possibly
perform certain skills within a specific and frequently limited domain. This
may mean that he or she can undertake new learning activities, but it does
not necessarily signify that he or she can benefit from training in a different
area. Considerations of more importance may be - relevant experience and
motivation and the identification of the training needs through formal or
informal appraisal.
10.1.7 Summary
• Distance learning or distance education is an innovative system. It has come
as a result of consistent efforts to develop a non-conventional and alternative
channel for imparting education. Distance education has always been open
to all teaching methods and media. It is a teaching - learning system which
combines both teaching and learning activities. The induction of the concept
of two-way communication between teacher and student, integration of
modern technological (communication) devices and wide choice of media,
have all contributed to make the distance learning system more effective.
• If cost relevance, flexibility and accessibility are the key considerations in
training, then trainers would find Distance Learning to be extremely useful.
Finally, regardless of the view that distance learning is not a panacea for
all types of training needs, nor does it replace the traditional training methods,
the system has its own distinct advantages and applications. As a training
tool and technique, distance learning would always be of profound interest to
trainers.
• In short, DE is the system of education where students learn by themselves
in the absence of classrooms. Teachers are separated from the students –
students do not get any personal touch of the teacher. A wide variety of media
are used to serve numerous educational programmes to students. According
to Simonson et al (2000), ‘‘ the term distance education have been applied to
a tremendous variety of programmes serving numerous audiences via a wide
variety of media’’. American Council on Education (ACE) defines distance
education as ‘a system and a process of connecting learners
10.2 OPEN LEARNING

Another term which is frequently used is Open Learning Systems. This is the
provision of education and training through open access, without barriers.
Normally this implies that there are no educational prerequisites for undertaking
a course of study. The materials, teachers, trainers etc. will be on demand
allowing flexibility of timing. Any type of method can be used in Open learning
System. To sum up, it can be said that a correspondence course is a subset of
Distance Learning, and can be a part of Open Learning system. This is termed as
“Open Distance Learning”.
Another perspective about open learning is “open space learning” where the
formal authority of a trainer is bare minimum and therefore there is a openness
between the trainer and the trainee. Thus, the trainer acts more as a facilitator.
Openness, meaning flexible ideas about time and space for learning. Here,
Trainers question the classroom convention and routine, and construct learning
environments in response to new physical and virtual contexts. Open plan
learning environments alter the learning landscape and culture to the extent that
adaptability is not simply preferred but also is necessary. There is a complex and
dynamic interplay of space, time and teaching.
In open learning flexibility, collective practice, visibility and scrutiny provide
a team orientation, and the de-emphasis of hierarchy afforded increased

interactions and the democratization of authority. This provides evidence that
open space learning provides for the awareness, expression, and translation.
John Coffey defines openness in terms of removing both educational and
administrative constraints. An example of an education constraint is, ‘student has
to accept the sequence of teaching that is offered.’ Example of an administrative
constraint is ‘student must attend in a specific place’ (Coffey, 1977). The removal
of this latter constraint is a cornerstone of distance learning (Holmberg, 1974). The
characteristics of distance learning given by Keegan include removal of Coffey’s
administrative constraints together with some other positive characteristics like
the use of media (Keegan, 1980).
• It involves separation of the Trainer and the learner through a distance; in
other words, learners are not face-to-face with each other or tutor. In this
instance the word tutor is used to identify trainers, teacher, coaches, authors,
etc.
• It involves the use of at least one form of media: print, video, computer output
etc.
• It needs a delivery system.
• It works anywhere provided any hardware required is available.
Open learning involves learners having:
• Choice about learning goals they wish to pursue.
• Choice about sequence, or depth of learning.
• Choice about learning process and level of involvement.
• Unrestricted access, i.e. no educational pre-conditions.
10.2.1 Dimensions of Open Learning

Since most examples of open and/or distance learning do not meet the conditions
of complete ‘openness or distance’ it is useful to consider these as dimensions.
The ‘dimension of distance’ would appear to the extent of learners’ face-to-face
interaction with the tutor.
Table : The ‘Distance’ dimension

No distance Distance
High tutor interaction and proximity No tutor interaction other than through
to learner media nor proximity to learner
Examples of the extremes are, for no-distance traditional management

development workshop. For instance, a self-development workbook (Pedler.
et. al, 1978) or workbook plus passive video (Henley module on Accounting for
Managers). The broadcast or taped video programmes and workbooks are fully
distance, whereas the residential weekend is specifically described as enabling
learners to test out their own ideas, and to learn from others in ways which
simply are not possible at a distance.
The dimension of openness did appear to involve the extent to which he learner’s
activity is prescribed compared with exerting choice Examples of the extremes
Table : The ‘Open’ dimension
Not open Open
Totally prescribed Totally learner choice
are: ‘no-openness’, a standard taught course; and ‘high openness’, the programme
developed at the North-East London Polytechnic based on self-managed learning
sets (Binsted and Hodgson, 1984). If these two dimensions are put together they
suggest a model or map on which a particular programme can be plotted.
Table: The ‘Open’ and ‘Distance’ model

Open Open not Distance Open and Distance
Not open Neither open nor distance Distance not open
Not distance Distance
In an investigation for the MSC, the programmes and packages then found
(January, 1984) were mostly in the ‘distance not open’ quadrant. Some were in
the ‘open and distance’ quadrant whilst others were really resources for tutors to
use with a learner group and are neither open nor distance.
10.2.2 The New Technology in Distance and Open Leaning

The new technology becoming available to tutors links with the distance
dimension of learning. There is nothing inherent in any technology which

predisposes it to be open or not. The technology is about media and creation
and delivery of learning materials. Some technology is well established while
some is only at the experimental and unproven stage in the field of management
development. Technology for distance learning (as distinct from technology in
the classroom) creates and delivers materials which facilitate learning.
10.2.3 The most common forms of media are:

• Print in the form of study books (Strathclyde MBA) or workbooks (the
Open Business School Henley, Cranfield Programmes.): These may include
text, graphics and photographs. The advent of word processors has greatly
improved the economic production of text.
• Linear or passive video, either broadcast (Open Business School) or on video
cassette (Henley, Cranfield Programmes, Leeds University coaching skills
package): The enormous advantage of video is the ability to show dramatised
or documentary interactions and situations. New technology in video
production (like the camera/recorder) is helpful but delivery systems (video
cassette, recorders and TV/monitors) are well established and are available in
increasing numbers in the home.
• Computer output, in the form of text and graphics and limited sound (the
most common of which is ‘peep’) : This may be via mainframe terminal (as at
work stations) or on single or networked micros. Micros are increasingly to be
found in the home. Although new micros are coming on to the market very
frequently, the educational programmes to run on computers (courseware)
are at the moment quite space in the management area. However, the limited
number that can be accessed at the moment give some idea of the potential of
the technology (The Petty Cashier from Daedal, a production line simulation
from Ferranti, or the ‘Nipper’ programme developed at the London Business
School (Boot, 1979). The big advantage of computer-based learning is its
interactivity.
• Interactive video, which produces computer-generated text graphics and
sound together with video sequences: In general the more sophisticated
(costly) the hardware, the higher the quality of the graphics. There is
considerable variation in available systems which link a micro with either
video tape players or video disc players,
Some recent development in this technology offer cheaper ways of providing a
system by using equipment already in the possession of training department or

learner. For example, Personal Development Projects Ltd. have just announced
their ‘Expert Learning System’ which uses a domestic VCR and TV set, They sell
a micro which links the components into interactive video system which needs no
disc drives. This is the first system the author has seen that could bring interactive
video into the home ownership bracket. A growing library of courseware is now
available for this system.
The benefits of tape versus disc is an area of lively debate. There is little doubt
that disc offers significant technical advantage for delivery whereas tape has an
advantage for in-house production of non-generic courseware.
• Other technology, like broadcast TV via satellite or cable telecast or view data
systems and teleconferencing all have potential and are alternative ways of
delivering materials. An excellent new book gives very extensive coverage of
the Role of Technology in Distance Education based mostly on the unique
and extensive research and experience of the OU (Bates, 1984).
• Authoring languages and systems constitute important elements of new
technology. In theory they enable a tutor to programme a micro for computer-
based or interactive video learning. In practice there is considerable difference
between a very easy to use system like the Felix Fast 1: 6 which offers the
tutor a range of options and gently interrogates him and the more complex
languages which have to be learned but may be more flexible. A new
interactive video system bases on Betamax and BBC B-micro called ‘Take 5’
offers the best and simplest authoring system found so far (using low cost
components).
10.2.4 Programmes and Packages

Two sorts of open and distance learning material are currently available, and
they tend to differ in a number of respects.
10.2.4.1 Programmes
These are integrated learning activities which form a complete programme of
study using some distance learning format. They use a multimedia approach of
workbooks, passive video and audio cassettes, and the package are held together
with course maps, course calendars, and a number of back-up documents for
reference.
The Open Business School models contain marked assignments, and assessment
is an optional choice for the learner. The programmes are clearly designed for solo
learners, or with the option of using the material in small groups. Opportunities
are also provided for face-to-face or telephone tutoring, and in the Open Business
School Programmes; students are expected to attend residential week-end
tutorials.
Another form of progamme found in the research for the MSC already referred
to were examples where Organizations had produced their own programmes
internally. In these cases much less emphasis seems to have been given to tutor
support. The designs of the programmes would seem to reflect fairly strongly
the values of the Organizations which originated them. The objective in the
educational institutions was clearly to produce generic material of wide appeal
to as many people as possible so that these programmes could be described as
distance but not very ‘open’.
10.2.4.2 Computer-based and Interactive Video Packages

These are in general of short duration (1 to 2 hours) and generally have a limited
but specific learning goal. The designs often show links with what might be
called a training philosophy rather than an educational one. There are interesting
exceptions as in the ‘Nipper’ programme which facilitate reflective learning using
the principles of repertory grid. In various ways packages involving computers
are interactive.
An interactive video system has four types of output: text, graphics, audio and
video. A computer-only system has only three, since the video output is missing.
Input is most often through a keyboard which may be supplemented with a
touch screen.
10.2.4.3 Design-Based
A number of design features are discernible in most computer-based learning
(CBL) systems, which are borrowed from traditional designs These include the
use of:
• Action mazes;
• In-tray exercises;
• Simulations;
• Human interactions (modelling);
• Choice and feedback in a task;
• Data Feedback;
• Giving information and testing.
One obvious possibility is to use computers as programmed learning machines,
and some of these principles are discernible in some packages. The question of
whether these designs are suitable for management development is doubted by
some people. Even more to be avoided is the use the computer as an electronic
page turner.
10.2.4.4 Learner Interaction

There are a number of ways in which a learner may interact with a CBL system:
• Answering questions;
• Reacting to video sequences;
• Making decisions;
• Making choices.
10.2.4.5 Materials and infrastructure

Mention has already been made of various media and their effect on new
technology. It was suggested that these factors might have more to do with the
distance aspects of learning. There is undoubtedly much untapped potential,
and many new developments, which need to be made to fully explore the
limits of what management development can or cannot successfully achieve
at a distance. Research into materials design forms an important part of the
research programme in the Centre for the Study of Management Learning at
the University of Lancaster. Of equal importance is the infrastructure in which
the material is used. On one extreme is a stand alone programme designed for
colo learners which requires little or no tutor support, and contains only self
assessment activities. Such a programme would not be typically called computer-
based, especially if it involved a significant amount of study time. It is easy to
imagine the difficulty a busy manager would find in getting the progamme to the
top of his priority list.
It would appear that in some instances infrastructure may influence the degree of
openness experienced by the learner. In any event, it appears to be of the greatest
importance to consider materials design delivery. Infrastructure is an equally
important aspect of open and distance learning; these are complementary aspects.
For example, short stand along with interactive video package which has a high
fascination value may need little infrastructure, whereas a long programme

involving dense text in print may need quite a lot.
There are a number of options for providing infrastructure. It can come from the
producing and/or delivering Organization (Open Business School) in which the
learner works (self--help groups, site supervisors, etc.).
10.2.5 Factors Affecting Open and Distance Learning

There is a growing opinion about the fit between open and distance learning and
management development. There are two elements to be considered; access to
programmes and packages which is predominantly the ‘distance dimension’ and
suitability which is predominantly the ‘open dimension’.
10.2.5.1 Access
On the question of access, a facility where managers can learn at their convenience
and pace is a very attractive one, and seems to fit the lifestyle of the manager
who may have to work irregular hours, travel extensively etc. The facility is
particularly beneficial for those in employment or business.
The suitability aspect recognises that managers are most frequently mature
experienced people who may not be assisted by formal study methods, being
predominantly people of action. They may be biased against attending lone
courses of study, and favour learning from experience and inevitably look for
the practical relevance of learning to their work situation. They may, therefore,
be attracted by the use of video, micro computers and other distance learning
media, or the flexibility and choice offered in open programmes. There seems to
be some sort of fit between open and distance learning and management people,
but whether this potential is finally fully realised will become evident in the
coming days.
Infrastructure which supports the learning materials is a critical factor. In one
sense, the more open and distance a programme or package is, the less the
infrastructure will be. This however, tacitly assumes that the learner is highly
motivated and self-disciplined. The problem many managers may well be that
other demands on their time always have a higher priority. Some supportive
infrastructure may therefore be vital. In CBL, the packages are usually short and
can be more easily fitted into other activities.
The position of the delivery point may be critical and this will in turn depend on
technology (whether the learning station is terminal of a mainframe computer at
a work station, or in a special location as a learning resource, or in a home micro).

Not only is the infrastructure important, the design of the material is crucial as
well. Thus the fascination factor of a good interactive video, or the avoidance of
dense text without graphics, or the use of commentators on video, who jolly you
along. (Henley) all appear to be important. A great deal more should be known
about this in two years time.
10.2.5.2 Factors Affecting Growth

There are a number of factors affecting growth of open and distance learning
which are all occurring simultaneously, and are thus forcing development at a
rate which may seem too rapid. These factors can be summarised as follows.
• Educational institutions: A number of education institutions which specialise
in the management field have either started or are planning to enter the
field. They have a high reputation and a pool of subject experts. The Open
University has started up an Open Business School, and with Henley and
Cranfield actually have many programmes already on run. Strathclyde has a
distance learning version of MBA and are setting up a Flexible Management
Development Programme. Further expansion is being worked out.
• New Technology Development: Hardware manufacturers, particularly those
who produce micro computers and video disc machines, and a number of
software houses in the educational and training field are producing high
grade management courseware. Although the amount of material in the
management field is growing it is still fairly meagre. Output from those
people includes generic courseware (i.e. programmes that you buy off the
shelf), and customised programmes specific to a client. There is still enormous
scope for development in this area. Some of these groups offer consultancy,
design and training services.
10.2.6 The Current Scenario

This is an area of considerable growth and interest but there is little accumulated
operational experience available to provide clear guidance of what producers
and researchers are churning out. Various networks and research projects which
focus on learner experience will greatly help this process.
There is considerable interest in open and distance learning, and enough has
been done to demonstrate the potential for management development. To what
extent this potential is realised will depend on what happens in the next years.
The powerful driving forces already referred to may in the end be dysfunctional
if development is forced too far ahead of research.
10.2.7 Future Developments

It is obviously risky to try and predict future developments. However, some can
already be seen as it were, in embryonic form. Some of these are:
• Use of small groups of learners: In many instances the assumption implied
in design is that the learner is going to spend most of the time working
alone with the materials. This may indeed be a pressing reason for engaging
in distance learning in the first place, since the learner may be isolated in
some way. However, the use of groups opens up a number of possibilities.
Limited experimentation indicates, for instance, that people using computer-
based learning packages seem to learn much more when working in groups
of twos or threes, although this extends the time of interaction. A group of
two or three people working through a Henley programme may provide
infrastructure and support for each other on a’ self-help basis.
• Provision of selection and choice so that the learner is free to select exactly
what she/he wants, and equally miss out exactly what she/he wants. This
could be linked with self-diagnostic activities where learners can measure
their current level of competence in a particular area.
• An emphasis on removing other educational constraints and moving towards
more ‘Openness’.
• Extension into the interpersonal skill and affective learning area and the
deeper levels of cognitive learning and attitude change.
• Self-directed groups inside Organizations who have a wide variety ofopen
learning materials available off-the-self to use at any time.
• New hardware in the form of micros and video sources, and use of more
conversion kits which link equipment already owned to form interactive
video systems.
• More powerful and user friendly authoring languages and systems.
• Packages for home micros (as distinct from business micros).
• Utilisation of artificial intelligence and expert systems.
• Use of prestel, cable television, satellites etc.
• More collaboration between a number of groups or individuals with different
expertise since inherently the whole operation of producing distance learning

in this field requires a great deal of skill not normally found in one person or
one part or even in one Organization.
10.2.8 Dilemma for the Trainer and Management Development

The problems of deciding where to start are legion. For example:
• What level of technology to select, interactive video disc tape or printed text?
• What hardware (if any) will fix in many cases, the authoring language and
the courseware that can be bought in?
• Should one buy generic material, get it specially adapted, make one’s own or
get someone else to do it for one?
• Which areas of training to choose and who will be the learners?
• Negotiating realistic budget for hardware, software and courseware.
To get started within an Organization, there are a number of steps which are
essential.
• Treat the introduction of open and distance learning as an Organization’s
development problem. Work out a change strategy based on a client-centered
approach.
• Find out what is available by contact with producers and hardware
manufacturers (exhibitions, promotion meetings, trailer videos) or use
the MARIS index and other Open Tech sources, or go where research and
development is being done (for example the National Computing Centre
or the Centre for the Study of Management Learning at the University of
Lancaster).
• Put as much thought into the infrastructure to support learning as into the
design or selection of material and media.
• Evaluate pilot project, particularly using the experience of the learner.
• Ensure as far as possible that the first pilot project succeeds.
10.2.9 Likely Scenario of Open and Distance Learning

Use of open and distance learning in the management field is being driven by a
number of forces already referred to.
• What will eventually happen is uncertain, there is growing belief that one of
the key factors will be the educational quality of programmes or packages

which become available. The success however depends on the ability to make
a learner involved to learn from each other’s experience at the workplace.
• In view of the difficulties associated with the formal types of training, open
and distance learning may possibly divert people from the traditional form
of management training and development into open and distance learning
activities. Since many providers of management education and training
have already got that message, the result should not be too catastrophic. The
other more exciting possibility is, however, that these methods might attract
many more people to continue their development in a way which would
.be suddenly much more acceptable to them than the traditional means of
education or training.
• However, if the quality of the material or the infrastructure which are offered
are not good enough or in line with what managers need, then the whole
approach will become discredited, as so many ideas become discredited in the
management field. Thus the necessary research efforts to allow high quality
material to be produced and intelligently used are of utmost importance.
Further, intensive marketing could well raise expectations far above reality,
and this again would surely be a way to discredit the whole operation. Overall
one has reasons to be optimistic that the-considerable and exciting potential
already visible will be converted into new practice.
10.3 E-LEARNING
E-Learning is defined as the change in levels of knowledge, skills and or behaviour
of a person by using electronic medium such as radio, television, computers and
internet. Another name for e-learning is “computer based training (CBT)”.
e-Learning is the brash new kid on the training and development block.
Magazines, semi-nars or conferences on training increasingly bombard you with
information about product announcements, seminars, conferences, case studies
and vendors, all trying to convince you that:
• e-Iearning is an excellent opportunity for self-development
• You should be doing it now
e-learning is very new, very embryonic, and growing and evolving very rapidly.
Here are some strategies the HR team can use to help ensure a high course
completion rate.
10.3.1 Interactive video

When first introduced, radio programmes were in effect lectures in which the
listeners were not able to see the speakers; television programmes were lectures
with the addition of powerful visual effects. In either case, the programme was
predetermined and there was no way in which a true dialogue could take place
between the originator and the trainee. The best that could be done to encourage
trainee involvement was for a trainer to lead a discussion after the programme
and attempt to answer any questions. There was no possibility of interaction
taking place when it was needed and likely to be most effective during the
programme itself. Thus, the learner has little control over the content, sequencing
or pacing of his training. A link-up between a computer system and a video
cassette recorder (VCR) enables most of the functions of the more sophisticated
teaching machines to be performed, but with added advantages. The combination
of computer, VCR and television set represented a dramatic advance on earlier
learning aids. Application of laser technology has provided a major breakthrough
in the development of video-recording equipment. The video disc is a device
which makes use of a modulated laser beam form both recording and playback.
It has several advantages over magnetic tape (as used in the VCR).
A further technological advance which enables considerably more data to be
handled, at the same time retaining the other advantages mentioned above, is the
optic-al digital data disc. A disc of 30 cm diameter can carry 16,000 million bits of
digital information. The digital disc is, of course, compatible with the computer
and therefore is most suitable for accessing and recording very high-density
information from the computer database. Clearly the latest technology offers
practical advantages over earlier training aids. This gives bet-ter opportunities
for using different instruction and learning strategies, thus introducing greater
variety into the training process.
Another very useful application is the practical use of closed circuit TV equipment
in training.
10.3.2 Soft Skills Training through CBT

General perception about computer-based training is that it is more useful for
technical training and not for soft skills or behavioural training.
Haven’t we heard time and again that CBT is best suited for technical training
and soft skills training best left to classrooms? What happens when soft skills
training has to be taught to people in offices spread across the globe? In these
cases, Instructor-led Training (ILT) is not just an expensive proposition but an

impossible one too, especially when there is vast information to be covered in the
training.
Sigma Laboratories, an international bulk drugs company, faced a similar
situation when it conducted a needs assessment for management development
programmes in May 2000. After identifying key competencies required for soft
skills, the director of training and devel-opment realised that a lot of information
had to be included in the training session. CBT was a cost-effective solution
to the problem, the other advantages being the large amount of information
a computer could dispense as it could be accessed anywhere at any time. The
problem however, was of teaching soft skills like interpersonal skills and team-
building skills through a computer. The perfect solution was to have a mix of
CBT and ILT.
CD-ROMs on soft skills such as performance management, coaching, or
interviewing skills were sent to managers. After spending two weeks on the
programme, they would meet in two groups via teleconferencing to summarise
and discuss what they had learnt. Finally they all met once for three days to
conduct role-play exercises. Though CBT on soft skills training cannot provide the
interactivity of an ILT session, it can provide a standardised training programme
across units without bringing the trainees together. It also allows train-ees to
learn new concepts and build a foundation in those areas. Unlike the earlier CBTs:
which were question-answer based, today CBTs are more interactive, almost like
video games. Some CSTs have animated’ pictures of fictional employees who
look at their watches when the trainee takes too long to answer a question.
10.3.3 Imparting Soft Skills Training through Computers

CBT is cheaper and therefore requires less investment. The time that would have
been invested in ILT is drastically reduced, as the employees don’t cut their work
time to attend training sessions. The training session is taken at a time convenient
to the employee and so it is more effective. Additionally CBT eliminates boredom.
Consistency in content and style of training: Different instructors have different
styles of teaching, CBT sessions standardise the style and content of training
across different locations.
Privacy: CBT eliminates the discomfort and awkwardness associated with role-
plays, which are an integral part of any soft skills training session. Most people
dislike exposing themselves when they do badly in role-plays. CBT sessions
ensure that the mistakes of employees/managers remain confidential. After a

few rounds of practice through CSBT role-plays, the trainees are better prepared
for live role-plays.
To be successful, however, CBT must be timely, so that learners can put their
new skills use right away. The CBT group works together with employees, like
Macek, to develop new CBT courses as the company develops or revises its
merchandising systems. This approach reduces the amount of time it takes to get
training to the field.
Example: CBT cannot be used for all soft skills, but is a cost-effective way of
providing background information.
When Smita Jain conducted a needs analysis for management development
programmes recently, she was overwhelmed by the amount of information her
company’s 15 to 20 frontline managers needed. “We identified key competencies
in soft skills that we needed to fill, and I realised we had a lot of information
to give out to the managers. It seemed like too much information even for a
week long session, It says Smita, Director of Learning and Development for the
Mumbai-based Cerindia Co., an HR information systems provider. “I knew they’d
be overwhelmed if we gave the information to them all at once, so I decided to
give it to them in chunks, then bring them all together for one meeting:
The problem was that even this approach, if adopted and conducted through
conventional seminar-style training sessions, would bust the budget. We are
geographically distrib-uted, so it was cost-prohibitive to bring everyone to one
place several times. It would have also involved a lot of time” Smita says. We
had to find a way for them to get the majority of the soft skills training on their
own.
Enter the computer. It’s readily available and always able to dispense information.
Best yet, it’s there before work, after work, during lunch, and even on weekends.
Sure, it was accessible, but could Smita get these managers to learning warm,
intangible interpersonal skills through a block of plastic? Could a computer
programme, the ultimate representation of low-touch, high-tech approach, really
teach low-tech, high-touch people skills?
Smita developed a training programme that combined the best elements of CBT
with the advantages of working in a group. The managers were sent a CD-ROM
on soft skills like performance management, coaching or interviewing skills.
Then, after spending about 10 days on the programme, they would meet in two
separate groups by teleconference. At this point, they would discuss what they
had learned, summarise key points and ask questions. Ultimately, they would
meet as a large group for three days to conduct role-play exercises.
The computer lessons were not the same as meeting in person, but they sufficed,
says Padmanabhan, manager of application development for Cerindia’s Chennai
branch.
Padmanabhan also pointed out the advantages. “It provided a way to give us a
standardised training programme without having to bring us together,” he says.
“It was a good way to learn few basic concepts, to build a basic foundation in
certain areas. The scenarios the CDs set up were an effective way to get a better
feel for the situation, as opposed to merely reading text.”
Just-in-time learning: A trainee can brush up his soft skills just before his
performance appraisal or before interviewing someone with the help of CBT
which is not possible in ILT (Interactive Learning).
Ideally, in the case of soft skills training, CBT should be employed to introduce
and familiarise trainees to new concepts. Live training should be conducted only
when all the trainees are considerably familiar with the basic concepts and are
ready for practical exercises, using a successful training schedule.
CBT is a learning experience based on the interaction between an employee and a
com-puter. The computer provides a stimulus, to which the employee responds.
The computer then analyzes the response and provides feedback to the employee.
The CBT system enables the HR to design courses that meet specific needs. The
courses put trainees though computer simulations that provide them with actual
experience in us-ing company procedures.
Besides customer-service training, other CBT courses include:
• Interviewing techniques
• Effective people management
• Retail method of inventory
• Sales promotion
• Professional selling skills
• Line-budget maintenance
• Check authorisation
• Inventory systems
• Career planning
• Family budgeting
The computer-assisted instruction is individualised, enabling employees to
work at their own pace. This increases learning and retention, and improves
employees’ attitudes to-ward computers, the subject matter, and the learning
process.
Although CBT customises training to individual learners, its record-keeping
capabilities help standardise learning outcomes. Test results and other data can
be saved for later reporting, which improves quality control by ensuring desired,
consistent learning. Consis-tent comprehension serves as a solid base for further
study, practice and application.
10.3.3.1 Strong Foundation

Like learning itself, CBT isn’t a one-time event. CBT can help employees
maintain their skills over time, through courses designed with refresher
paths that enable them to review information without repeating the whole
course. CBT lays a strong foundation for ongoing support of employee
performance.
10..3.3.2 Play the Game

Today’s soft skills programmes are more like video arcade games. Take too long
to re-spond to an employee’s question he shuffles his feet and looks at his watch.
Say the wrong thing when conducting a performance review, and the functional
employee becomes bellig-erent and difficult to manage.
“I was sceptical about managing to capture real-life situations when you’re
alone in a room with a computer,” admits Gangadhar, Vice President product
development for OBM in Kochi city. “But just like a good computer game, these
programmes literally show you the consequences of your actions. I wouldn’t
have believed in them, but they work.”
Even Gangadhar acknowledges that these programmes are no substitute for
classroom training, but they do provide some advantages in a cost-conscious,
employee-lean mar-ketplace. “When you look at any soft skills training, you
see that a great deal of time is spent being lectured to. This technology lops off
that time and presents the information in a more engaging way. It also builds a
common understanding of what is .appropriate inter-personal skills behaviour.
The acqulsition of information becomes fun instead of drudgery. Then, the
company can follow up with company-specific information in a classroom set-

ting:” says he. Other advantages include:
• CBT-based soft skills training helps alleviate the discomfort of role-play
exercises
• Allows trainees to take control of their development which often yields better
results
• These programmes mirror the workplace’s just-in-time nature.
Win today’s fast-moving business world, there isn’t time to learn something
and then prac-tice it for months,” says Gangadhar. “But if you have a CD with a
soft skills programme on it, and you have a performance review coming up, for
example, you can access the programme just a few minutes before the employee
comes to your office. You can’t get that immediate refresher with classroom
training.”
10.3.4 Uniform Training

CBT system enables HR to design courses that meet specific needs. Today,
computer -based technology plays a vital role in the day-to-day operations of
even the most slaid brick-and-mortar Organization. In the light of technological
progress, Organizations must constantly address training of their technology
support and user employees. It helps to provide uniform training to large number
of employees by integrating e-learning into the training system.
CBT is a learning experience based on the interaction between an employee and
a com-puter, the computer provides a stimulus, to which the employee responds.
The computer then analyzes the response and provides feedback to the employee.
The CBT system enables the HR to design courses that meet specific needs. The
courses put trainees though computer simulations that provide them with actual
experience in us-ing company procedures.
10.3. 5 Online Culture

Develop an online culture - An employee, who attends a classroom or training
lab, or even an online session, usually enjoys an uninterrupted learning time.
However, employees who learn at their desktops often face constant distractions.
The HR manager can send the message across that everyone should respect an
employee’s e-Iearning time.
Individual comparisons - The competitive culture in a company can be leveraged
by high-lighting the “percentage completion” of each employees course

(so that employees can compare their performance with others. Use weekly
e-mail updates to communicate the results. A Fortune 500 company created
internal competition to encourage employees to complete and pass online
management courses. This technique was again initiated at senior management
levels, and shared with employees via internal newsletters, e-mails and the
Website.
Hold managers accountable - Senior management should also act as role models,
taking and completing online courses themselves. Managers at Dell Computers
receive e-mail from their CEO Michael Dell, if the online course completion rate
in their divisions is not 100%.
Formal rewards - Financial incentives seem to work best for people taking their
first online course. Once they finish a course, they often return for another course.
For example, 60% of e-learners at Trans America Financial Services, which has
been offering financial incen-tives, signed up for another course.
Track performance - GE Capital discovered that performance tracking is
crucial. A supervi-sor who does not know whether an employee has progressed
through a course can do little to motivate or help them. When supervisors check
performance, they can intervene if an employee is lagging behind.
Hold a team contest - Dividing e-learners into teams of two or more-by business
units; geographic location, etc. and pitting them against each other in a “course
completion com-petition” leads to a healthy rivalry between teams and a lower
drop-out rate.
The bottom line is that companies must manage e-learning and not
expect employees to complete courses without any support. A good e-learning
provider can provide consulting services on how best to manage the online
experience.
The future of e-learning lies in its ability to provide an online learning experience.
Retention studies show that employees attending a lecture remember only 5%
of what they have heard. e-learning can enhance learning through simulations,
discussions and hands-on training.
The e-learning industry is moving towards a future in which the most important
product is not a course, but learning objects - the building blocks of a course.
Learning objects are small chunks of instruction that take about 15-20 minutes
of study. They are easy to revise and update, so learning becomes much more
topical and relevant. You can mix and match learning objects to create a course.
e-Iearners are already creating their own courses by deciding which learning
objects they need in order to learn a particular skill. What used to be just-in-case
learning has become just in time, and in the future we can expect learning that is
just-for-me!
10.3.6 Promoting e-Learning

Studies reveal that 20 to 50% of distance learners drop out of e-learning
programmes designed by corporations in the US Compared to traditional face to
face training, the drop out rate is 20% higher In the distance learning system.
Several factors are cited for this high rate. Lack of time and motivation,
management oversight, problems with technology, individual learning
preferences, badly designed courses, and inexperienced instructors, to name a
few. Measures suggested for HR professionals to ensure that employees complete
e-Iearning modules are outlined below.
Nurture an e-Learning Culture - Employees learning at their workstations are
usually inter-rupted for routine jobs unlike in a classroom. A ‘Do Not Disturb’
board does not always help. Hence, HR could allot a few workstations for
e-learning sessions to create a lab-like atmosphere, where employees can learn
without distractions. Or else, it could provide courses through the Internet and
Intranet facilities, thus giving employees the option of studying during their
leisure at no extra cost.
Compare Attendance - The learning culture can also motivate employees.
Statistical data depicting the number of employees having completed the courses
instills a sense of com-petition. Learners can be informed about where they stand
through e-mails. Minds / Infotech, a software company, has an internal system
designed for its managers to com-plete and pass online management courses.
Managers compare their “time scores” to know their position. The results of these
competitions are communicated through newsletters, e-mails and the Website.
Involve Management - In companies like Esoteric Consulting, the CEO sends
mails if employees’ attendance for the online training falls short of 95%.
Create a Learning Community - Provide opportunities for social interaction
alongside e--learning. This can be done through assignments requiring employees
to work in groups. A faculty to help employees solve their problems is advisable.
Free lunches for employees taking the courses will foster greater interaction
between employees.
Communicate importance of the course - Make employees aware that the courses
will benefit them and will be considered for their appraisals. Nonetheless, avoid
threats to force them to complete the course.
Motivate through rewards - Monetary incentives and certificates of appreciation
motivate employees to complete training courses.
Tracking performance- Performance-tracking is important to gauge employees’
progress. The data can be used to post regular reports on each employees’
progression. Dash-boards can be used to show the average progress of employees.
However, do not humili-ate those lagging in the courses. Instead, send them
personal letters, empathising and giving tips on how to improve performance
and asking if they need assistance.
Hold Inter-team competitions - Divide e-learners into teams based on business
units; geo-graphic location, and have course completion competitions. This
promotes healthy compe-tition among employees and also reduces the percentage
of dropouts.
Launch an e-learning campaign - Encourage top e-learning performers to advice
others through newsletters and websites. e-learning should be managed by the
company assisted by external vendors in carrying out effective programmes.
Nevertheless e-learning should never be considered a substi-tute for classroom
sessions. Since most classroom sessions are one-sided and not volun-tary,
e-learning should be more interactive. This is possible through simulations,
probing discussions and practicing skills. It should be continuously updated and
made contemporary.
As employees take responsibility for their learning, their desire to undergo
further e-learning is likely to diminish. Therefore, HR should encourage them to
make learning a part of their job.
10.3.7 Authorising systems or languages

These allow training staff to programme micros or interactive video systems with
little or no pervious knowledge of programming or computers. This will enable
companies to develop their own sophisticated materials. It does not, of course,
solve the problem of designing the material in the first place, which is the key to
the quality of distance learning materials but it enables sophisticated designs to
be transferred to interactive video systems.
• Television production companies clearly see the possibility of making and
selling high quality video material through this new market.
• For the fear of being left out many more management development people
are beginning pilot projects, and ‘getting their feet wet’!.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) How Distance Learning can support the regular training systems in a
company?
(ii) Distinguish between Distance, Open and e-learning? Where each is most
suitable?
Chapter – 11
Technology Convergence and Multi-Media Environment
Learning Objectives
• To get a overview of Technology Convergence and Multi-Media Environment
affecting the present day organizations.
• To understand how training function can utilize the merits of Technological
Convergence and Multi-Media Environment.
The overview of Technology Convergence is presented under two different sub-
paragraphs.
11.1 DEFINING TECHNOLOGICAL CONVERGENCE

The term technological convergence is often defined in a very generalized
and simplified terms as a process by which telecommunications, information
technology and the media, sectors that originally operated largely independent of
one another, are acting together. Technological convergence has both a technical
and a functional side. The technical side refers to the ability of any infrastructure
to transport any type of data, while functional side means the consumers may be
able to integrate in a seamless way the functions of computation, entertainment,
and voice in a unique device able to execute a multiplicity of tasks.
Technological convergence is the tendency for different technological systems to
evolve toward performing similar tasks.
Digital convergence refers to the convergence of four industries into one
conglomerate, ITTCE (Information Technologies, Telecommunication, Consumer
Electronics, and Entertainment).Previously separate technologies such as voice
(and telephony features), data (and productivity applications), and video can
now share resources and interact with each other synergistically.
Telecommunications convergence, network convergence or simply convergence
are broad terms used to describe emerging telecommunications technologies, and
network architecture used to migrate multiple communications services into a
single network.[1] Specifically this involves the converging of previously distinct
media such as telephony and data communications into common interfaces on
single devices, such as most smart phones can make phone calls and search the
web.
11.2 IMPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY CONVERGENCE

Technology convergence phenomenon has wide applications for various fields
e.g. market for its services, consumer behavior, producers risk, uncertainty
analysis, economies of scale and scope etc. Technology convergence can have
its impact on various service sectors like marketing, business consultancies,
tourism and banking, knowledge management, new media industry and others.
Technology convergence also affects the society in different ways e.g. culture, life
style, life standards, social psychology, communications and public relations and
others.
• Convergence has lowered barriers of entry to the market for new operators
and service providers. The emergence of new market players intensifies
competition, giving consumers an extensive pool of providers and services to
choose from and lower communication costs.
• Additionally in a technological convergent environment industry boundaries
become blurred, allowing service providers to offer services in multiple
markets. For example, besides access to television, cable operators can also
offer voice telephony and internet services.
• Content providers can now easily access consumers with no need to own the
distribution network. For example, a company may produce TV content and
distributed it through cable networks without having to own it.
• Established companies will find in convergence an opportunity to operate
more efficiently, increase returns on technology investments and realize other
business benefits through development of new services and rapid market
expansion. Convergence opens up new sales markets for companies, a case
observed in mobile operators. As the market saturates, they look to non-voice
services, such as video streaming, portals, messaging, information services,
and gaming, to drive future revenue growth.
• New applications have given rise to new ways of entertainment (i.e. online
gaming) and socialization (i.e. chat rooms). The convergence of voice, video
and data gives consumers new ways of communication as we can all talk,
send text and video over one single network, using one single application at
much lower costs than before.
• At device level, consumers find in convergence an opportunity to enjoy the
convenience of having many devices all in one, saving on both size and
ownership costs. For example, a single mobile phone device can receive
television programmes and play videos, thus enabling simplicity and
convenience in device ownership as one device can be used to access multiple

services.
• Technological Convergence leads to the possibility of using audio, video, and
animation features through a telecommunication network and this has altered
the user-to-user interfaces.
• Technology Convergence provides four stages for business strategy:
channel enhancement, value chain integration, industry transformation
and convergence. Business convergence seamlessly integrates customers
and business partners into companies to build networks, focuses on their
core competences, and outsource non-core business components. Business
convergence is the unification of business functions, which creates the basis
for new “value added services” for business and customers that will increase
revenue and margins in an increasingly competitive and connected market.
11.3 IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TRAINING METHODS

• Creates the need for constant and brief communication with the clients. This
would help to familiarize the trainer with the trainee.
• Facilitates dispatching the course material.
• Facilitates queries and thereby better follow-ups after a training programme.
• Considerably reduces the inventory of training equipments because one
equipment can do multiple functions like LCD projector, Computer,
Telephone and TV.
• It becomes easy to store and monitor the progress of a participant in long-
duration project based management development programmes.
11.4 MULTI-MEDIA ENVIRONMENT

Multimedia technology is an ideal platform to support advanced forms of learning
and training. Active learning, for instance, requires a high degree of interactivity
in different forms - for which multimedia technology provides a solution.
Multimedia may be broadly divided into linear and non-linear categories. Linear
active content progresses often without any navigational control for the viewer
such as a cinema presentation. Non-linear uses interactivity to control progress
as with a video game or self-paced computer based training. Hypermedia is an
example of non-linear content.
Multimedia presentations can be live or recorded. A recorded presentation may
allow interactivity via a navigation system. A live multimedia presentation may

allow interactivity via an interaction with the presenter or performer.
Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected,
transmitted, or played locally with a media player. A broadcast may be a live
or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be either
analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be
downloaded or streamed. Streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand.
Multimedia games and simulations may be used in a physical environment with
special effects, with multiple users in an online network, or locally with an offline
computer, game system, or simulator.
The various formats of technological or digital multimedia may be intended to
enhance the users’ experience, for example to make it easier and faster to convey
information. Or in entertainment or art, to transcend everyday experience. A
laser-show is a live multimedia performance.
Enhanced levels of interactivity are made possible by combining multiple forms
of media content. Online multimedia is increasingly becoming object-oriented
and data-driven, enabling applications with collaborative end-user innovation
and personalization on multiple forms of content over time. Examples of these
range from multiple forms of content on Web sites like photo galleries with
both images (pictures) and title (text) user-updated, to simulations whose co-
efficients, events, illustrations, animations or videos are modifiable, allowing
the multimedia “experience” to be altered without reprogramming. In addition
to seeing and hearing, Haptic technology enables virtual objects to be felt.
Emerging technology involving illusions of taste and smell may also enhance the
multimedia experience.
In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses
(popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A
CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular
topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment
is the combination of education with entertainment, especially multimedia
entertainment.
Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the
introduction of multimedia. Several lines of research have evolved (e.g. Cognitive
load, Multimedia learning, and the list goes on). The possibilities for learning
and instruction are nearly endless.
The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education,
particularly higher education. Defined as separate technologies such as voice

(and telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video that
now share resources and interact with each other, synergistically creating new
efficiencies, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in universities
all over the world. Likewise, it is changing the availability, or lack thereof, of jobs
requiring this savvy technological skill.
11.5 MULTI-MEDIA – COMPOSITION AND ADVANTAGES

Multi-media infrastructure involves the following three components:
• Content resources, eg spoken and written words enhanced by images, moving
pictures, or active objects
• Delivery infrastructure and media players, eg basic Web browser functionality
(hypertext), audio player (audio stream), animation player (animations),
advanced Web browser and server functionality (active, dynamic pages using
applets, HTML forms, or servlets).
• Learner is simultaneously exposed to “comprehension and reasoning” audio-
visuals in the form hypertext and audio messages “controlled observation”
requiring controlled animations and “Diagrams and Interactive Query
Options” through need for active participation. All these three would result
in better synthesis of the concepts.
Results from several studies indicate that multimedia technology greatly
influences the learning process and widens the scope of learning skills and
knowledge. Multimedia mode of learning provides an alternative to the
traditional lecture-centric learning and enables trainees to enjoy a richer learning
environment. It empowers trainees to become active learners and display their
ideas and information in terms of the multimedia format and use their higher
level thinking skills like analysis, synthesis, evaluation and reflection while
solving authentic problems.
This learning mode also allows the trainer the flexibility to present the
curriculum in an innovative manner and to become a facilitator, a consultant or
guide on the side, helping trainees to access, organize and obtain information to
provide solutions to the problems rather than the one supplying and prescribing
information and knowledge to the learners as in the traditional behaviorist
learning mode. In this learning mode, trainee learning, in particular, the learning
process, becomes the main focus, not the content, trainer or the technology used,
which play only supportive roles; thus showing that creating a trainee-centered
learning environment using multimedia technology can contribute substantially

towards enhancing learning and the learning process.
11.6 SOME AREAS OF RECENT DEVELOPMENT
Interactive video
When live radio and television programmes were first seriously introduced into
education and training, they were used either to substitute for or to augment
existing formal teaching methods. Radio programmes were in effect lectures in
which the listeners were not able to see the speakers; television programmes
were lectures with the addition of powerful visual effects. In either case, the
programme was predetermined and there was no way in which a true dialogue
could take place between the originator and the trainee. The best that could be
done to encourage trainee involvement was for a trainer to lead a discussion after
the programme and attempt to answer any questions. There was no possibility
of interaction taking place when it was needed and likely to be most effective
during the programme itself. Thus, the learner has little control over the content,
sequencing or pacing of his training. A link-up between a computer system
and a video cassette recorder (VCR) enables most of the functions of the more
sophisticated teaching machines to be performed, but with added advantaqes.
The combination of computer, VCR and television set represented a dramatic
advance on earlier learning aids. Application of laser technology has provided
a major breakthrough in the development of video-recording equipment. The
video disc is a device which makes use of a modulated laser beam form both
recording and playback. It has several advantages over magnetic tape (as used in
the VCR).
A further technological advance which enables considerably more data to be
handled, at the same time retaining the other advantages mentioned above, is the
optic-al digital data disc. A disc of 30 cm diameter can carry 16,000 million bits of
digital information. The digital disc is, of course, compatible with the computer
and therefore is most suitable for accessing and recording very high-density
information from the computer database. Clearly the latest technology offers
practical advantages over earlier training aids. This gives bet-ter opportunities
for using different instruction and learning strategies, thus introducing greater
variety into the training process.
Another very useful application is the practical use of closed circuit TV equipment
in training.
11.6 WHY USE COMPUTER-BASED TRAINING (CBT)?

Use of CBT is so prevalent because it provides overriding benefits to organisations.
Some of these benefits can be listed below:
(i) Reduce the costs of training

• Reduced costs - Reduced student travel and living costs. Students do not have
to travel to class sites. In many cases the computer hardware can be placed in
dispersed locations so that the students can take the training at or near his
work site. For large companies with a geographically dispersed work force
this can become a very large saving.
• Reduced length of training - There is considerable evidence to support the
industry’s claim that students in CBT programmes complete the training
in about 30 percent less time than if they had been trained in the same
programme in a classroom. The reduction in training time is primarily a
function of the ability of each person to proceed at his or her own speed and
not to be constrained to the pace of the slowest person in the class.
• More timely training - A CBT training programme can be provided to a
student as soon as he or she requires it. New hires do not have to wait for
sufficient people to organise a class. They may begin a CBT orientation
programme as soon as they join the organisation. Timeliness also means
that individuals may take CBT programmes at odd times during the day or
night rather than during prescribed class hours. Timeliness makes employees
productive faster.
• Increase student to instructor ratio - Whether the reference is to an instructor
or facilitator who manages students on terminals in.a classroom or to the
instructor who is at the end of the phone to answer questions from students
scattered across the country, the result is the same. The instructor or facilitator
of a CBT programme can manage or support considerably more students,
perhaps sevenfold more, than can the instructor in a more conventional form
of training. The result is a reduction in the instructor/facilitator staff for the
same student load.
• Reduced amount of operational hardware - When a training programme
includes operational hardware, which students are learning to operate
or maintain, the amount of hardware required to support training can be
decreased significantly by the use of computer simulations. For instance, the
copier company which teaches copier maintenance on a personal computer
simulation generates considerable hardware savings. A classroom with six

$5000 enhanced personal computers and one $40,000 copier can produce the
same training result as a classroom with six $40,000 copier.
• Reduced equipment damage - When the student is learning equipment
operations or maintenance, his or her mistakes are less costly on a computer
simulation than when performed on an expensive piece of equipment. The
ultimate example is the airplane flight simulator on which pilots develop
their skills rather than training on the more expensive airplane. The same
principle applies, in a less dramatic fashion, when a technician learns to apply
equipment, trouble shooting diagnosis and repair on a computer simulation
rather than on the copies, the aircraft engine or the radio. If a student makes
a mistake on the actual hardware, it could be costly. If he or she makes the
same mistake on a simulation, only student pride may be damaged and he or
she can learn from the error.
(ii) Enhance the Effectiveness of Training

In addition to making training more efficient, CBT can make the training more
effective. The impact on effectiveness is seen in the following ways:
• Standardised delivery. Unlike the human instructor, the computer delivers the
instruction the same way every time. It doesn’t have good days or bad days.
Every day is the same. It is important to note that the standardised delivery
is only as good as design and development behind it. Standardised delivery
could be poor delivery, if the programme was developed ineffectively.
• Standardised feedback. Each time a student responds to a situation. The
computer can provide standardised feedback.
• Individualised student programme. CBT can individualise student
programmes in three different ways. It can tailor an entire programme to the
capabilities of a student as determined by testing before the course begins.
At per determined places within a course, it can tailor the reminder of a
course student based upon performance to that point in the course. Finally,
it can tailor the work within a module or segment of a course based upon
the student performance in the beginning of the module. Individualisation
can be expensive because of the increased computer programming required.
Both the computer memory required to handle individualisation and the
programming costs have been the principal constraints to its being used more
than it is.
• Increased performance practice. One of CBT’s major ‘contributions to

effectiveness is seldom recognised. The computer can offer each student
sufficient opportunity to practice a ski” until proficient. It is often difficult
within instructor-delivered programme to provide each student, the
opportunity to practice until proficient while delivering accurate, consistent
feedback for each student attempt. CBT can, and while doing so, guarantees
a performance result. Once again, that performance result reflects underlying
training expertise required.
• These benefits are impressive. For companies with large work forces, and
particularly where the work force is geographically dispersed, the cost
savings can be considerable and the training more effective. However, a CBT
solution for a programme of any size provides risk as we” as rewards. The
key to success is the ability to perform a cost-benefit analysis depending upon
knowledge of CBT benefits and their derivation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(i) Has Technology Convergence helped in different stages of training i.e.,
need identification, design of programme and evaluation? If so, why?
(ii) In which situations, do you think multimedia training environment is
effective? Can this be used for cross-cultural training?
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Glossary of Terms
• Application Blank: It is a written form completed by job aspirants detailing

their edu-cational background, previous work history and certain personal
data.
• Apprenticeship: A training method that puts trainees under the guidance of a
master worker, typically for 2-5 years.
• Assessment Centre: It is a standardised form of employee appraisal that uses
mul-tiple assessment exercises such as in basket, games, role play, etc. and
multiple raters.
• Benchmarking: Measuring the performance of processes within your
Organization, comparing these performance levels with the best in class
companies and where deficiencies exist, using the information on the best
practices to improve your Organization’s own business processes (Kehoe).
• Campus Recruiting: Visiting specific-skill institutes to hire graduates.
• Case: An in-depth description of a particular situation an employee might
encounter on-the-job.
• College Piecements: An external search process focusing recruiting efforts on
a col-lege campus.
• Counselling: The discussion of an employee’s problem with the general
objective of helping the worker cope with it.
• Culture: It is the Organization’s personality revealing the shared values,
beliefs and habits of its members.
• Development: Activities that prepare an employee for future responsibilities.
Diversity: The situation that arises when employees differ from each other in
terms of age, gender, ethnicity, education, etc.
• Education: Conceptual learning that improves understanding of a subject
theme.
• Employee Counselling: The process through which employees are given
advice is solving that work-related as well as personnel problems.
• Employee Leasing: Hiring permanent employees or another company on
lease basis for a specific period as per the leasing arrangement.
• Employee Referral: A recommendation from a current employee regarding a

job applicant.
• Executive Search: Hiring search firm I head-hunter to track candidates.
• Feedback: The process of providing trainees with information about their
performance.
• Flexitime: A work scheduling system that allows employees some discretion
when they arrive at work place and leave. The employees are re-quired to
work a number of hours a week, but are free to vary the hours of work within
certain limits.
• Functional Job Analysis: It is a systematic process finding what is done on a
job by examining and analysing the fundamental components of data, people
and things.
• HR Audits: HR audits summarise each employee’s skills, knowledge and
abilities. Audits of non-managers are called skills inventories; audits of
managers are known as management inventories.
• Human Resource Forecast: An attempt to predict an Organization’s future
demand for employees.
• Human Resource Inventory: Describes the skills that are available within the
com-pany.
• Human Resource Planning: The process of getting the right number of
qualified people into the right job at the right time.
• In-basket: A method where the trainee is required to examine a basket full of
papers and files relating to this area and make recommendations on problems
contained therein.
• Inducements: Positive features and benefits offered by an Organization to
attract job applicants.
• Internal Advertising: Informing employees of vacancies internally. Interview:
It is the oral examination of candidates for employment.
• Job Analysis: A systematic investigation into the tasks, duties and
responsibilities of a job.
• Job Cycles: The time required to complete every task in the job.
• Job Description: A written statement of what the job holder does (duties and
respon-sibilities), how the job is done, under what conditions and why.
• Job Design: The way the tasks are combined to form a complete- job.
• Job Enlargement: Involves increasing the number of tasks performed by each
em-ployee and having jobs that are somewhat less specialised.
• Job Enrichment: The conscious upgrading of responsibility, scope and
‘challenge in the contents of a job handled by an employee.
• Job Instruction Training: Training received directly on the job.
• Job Posting: It is a method of publicising job openings on bulletin boards,
electronic media and similar outlets by a company.
• Job Rotation: Moving a trainee from job to job to provide on multiply jobs
training. Job Sharing: This occurs when one full-time job is assigned to two
persons who then divide the work according to agreements made between
themselves and with the employer.
• Job Simplification:
(a) Here a complete job is broken down into small parts, normally covering a
few operations.
(b) A profile of the human characteristics (knowledge, skills and abilities)
needed by a person doing a job.
• Media Advertising: Inviting applications by placing advertisement in media.
• Mentoring: An experienced employee offering guidance and support to a
junior em-ployee so that the later learns and advances in the Organization.
• Mission: The reason and justification for the existence of a firm, it tells about
what a company does to meet customers’ expectations.
• Modelling: Copying someone else’s behaviour.
• MPDQ: Management position description questionnaire is a standardised
form de-signed to analyze managerial jobs.
• Obsolescence: A condition that results when an employee loses the knowledge
or I abilities to perform successfully due to changes in the field.
• On-the-job Training: Any training technique that involves allowing the person
to learn the job by actually performing it on the job.
• Outplacement: The process of helping unwanted present employees find new
jobs with other firms.
• PAQ: Position analysis questionnaire is a standardised form used to collect

specific information about job tasks and worker traits.
• Person-Analysis: Assessment of employee performance and the knowledge
and skill necessary to reach that level of performance.
• Personnel Management: Deals with people at work and their relationships
with each other.
• Personnel Policies: A set of proposals and actions that act as a reference point
for managers in their dealings. with employees.
• Personnel Procedure: Action guidelines governing the behaviour of employees
at work.
• Policy: Standing answer to a recurring problem.
• Promotion: Movement of an employee from a lower level position to a higher
level position with increase in salary.
• Punishment: Reinforcement that is aimed at reducing undesirable behaviour
by associating that behaviour with a painful consequence.
• Realistic job Preview: It .s a process of providing a job applicant with an
accurate picture of the job.
• Recruitment: The discovering of potential applicants for actual or anticipated
Organizational vacancies.
• Reengineering: Radical, quantum change in an Organization.
• Reinforcement: It is positive or negative consequence of some behaviour that
is aimed at changing that behaviour.
• Reliability: The ability of a selection tool to measure an attribute consistently.
• Replacement Charts: A portrayal of who will replace whom in the event of a
job opening.
• Role Playing: A training method that compels trainees to assume different
identities.
• Selection: Picking up suitable candidates by rejecting the unsuitable.
• Selection: The process of picking individuals who have relevant qualifications
to fill jobs in an Organization.
• Simulations: Any artificial environment that tries to closely mirror an actual
condition. These include case studies, decision games, role plays, etc.
• Skills Inventories: Summaries of the skills and abilities of non-managerial

employ-ees used in forecasting supply.
• Staffing Table: A chart showing future employment needs for each type of
job.
• Structure: Framework of an Organization.
• Succession Planning: An executive inventory report showing which
individuals are ready to move into higher positions in the company.
• Task Analysis: A process undertaken to determine the knowledge, skills and
abilities needed to complete the various tasks involved in a total job.
• Technology: Refers to how an Organization transfers its inputs into outputs.
• Temporary Employees: Employees hired for a limited time to perform a
specific job
• Test: A test is a standardised, objective measure of a sample of behaviour.
• TOM: A way of creating an Organizational culture committed to the
continuous im-provement of skills, teamwork, processes, product and service
quality and customer satisfaction.
• Training: Activities that teach employees how to perform their current jobs.
• Transfer: A lateral movement within the same grade, from one job to another.
• Validity: The relationship between scores on a selection tool and a relevant
criterion such as job performance.
• Vestibule Training: A training method involving the creation .of training
facilities sepa-rate from the regular production area but with the same
equipment.
• Weighted Application Blank: It is a written form completed by candidates
in which each item is weighed and scored based on its importance as a
determinant of job success.
• Yield Ratio: Indicates the number of contacts required to generate a given
number of hires at a point of time.

P-4 Training Methodology

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CHAPTER – I

Overview of Types of Learning

1.1 LOGIC OF LEARNING

Unconscious Reasons for Learning

Conscious Reasons for Learning

• Experiences – Each experience is a big source and if analyzed from various

1.2 TYPES OF LEARNING

Informal, if the learning happens as a result of interpersonal interactions in

1.3 TYPE OF LEARNING BASED ON THEORY

1.4 TWO PRACTICALLY EMPLOYED TYPES OF LEARNING

1.5 TYPES OF LEARNING CURVES

1.6 HOW TO MAKE THE LEARNING HAPPEN AT THE WORKPLACE

There is one other trap. When a specialist in organizational renewal becomes

In summary, effective learning methods assume that knowledge, skill and

1.7 FACTORS ASSISTING LEARNING

2.1 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF LEARNING PROCESS

confidence. Too often there is pressure to “pack the programme” to utilise

training proqrammes in which a change of long-standing cultural or ethnic

2.2 LEARNING STRATEGIES AND STYLES

• Reflective Observation (RO): A preference to learn by watching and

Kolb identified four learning styles

2.3 LEARNING PROCESSES BASED ON THEORY

(a) Classical Conditioning: Working in Russia, in 1902, Ivan Pavlov discovered

Figure: Oprand Conditioning—Behaviour is conditioned by the Consequences

Reinforcement: Reinforcement theory has been developed by E.L. Jhorndike

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT STRATEGIES

2.4 LEARNING PROCESSES BASED ON LEARNING THEMES

Graphic representation of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

According to expectancy theory by Vroom, employees will not be motivated to

their thoughts on obstacles and shortcomings, and as a result, reduce their

2.5 DYNAMICS OF EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

(a) Internalising the observations and reactions

(b) Sharing with others

(c) Understanding the dynamics of the process

(d) Evaluating and analysing the outcomes

(e) Data I Information warehousing

(f) Application of the stored experience

already stored could be recalled and applied in a sequential manner. Some of

2.6 ADULT LEARNING

information about the condition and strategies that promoted behavioural

Motivating the Adults to Learn

was voluntary), low motivation and poor performance. As opposed to this,

Stage to Stage Transition for Career Development as a Learning Source

Clear Planning and Development as an iterative process

programme to impart/develop the same competencies.

Summary about Andragogy

Jane Vella (2002) sets out 12 principles for adult learning:

2.6 SET OF PRACTICAL DECISIONS

(i) Climate setting

• Do the policy statements of the organization convey a commitment to HRDI

(ii) Retention of what is learned

(iii) Primary Decisions to be Taken for Training

(a) Learning Site

(b) Grouping Arrangement

(c) Learning Training Methods

(d) Training Aids

magnetic board, self-administered instruments, tests and quizzes; case studies

(e) Resource Persons

(f) Transfer of Learning

2.7 ESTABLISHING PERMANENT RESPONSE PATTERNS

Maximizing Workplace Learning

3.1 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

3.2 METHODS TO MAKE LEARNING INTERESTING

3.3 FACTORS THAT ASSIST LEARNING