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Up to this point all combination of chemical species in a chemical reaction involved only
a breaking of bonds within the molecules that were reaction to form new bonds and new
molecules. The identity of the atoms participating in the reaction remained the same - so
in balancing the reaction we always made sure that the number of atoms of each element
on both sides of the eqn. was the same and the charge was equal as well.
In chemical rxns., only the outer electrons of the atoms are disturbed. Remember the
electrons are the species involved in bonding . In nuclear reactions, nuclear changes
occurs. If the element is changing elemental identity, then the # of protons in the nucleus
must change. If the mass # changes, but the # of protons stays the same, the number of
neutrons must change.
2) Example of a nuclear bombardment reaction is the fusion that goes on in the sun which
is essentially four protons and electrons combining to make He.
Nuclide symbols:
Alpha 4
2 or 4
2 He
Beta Particle 0
-1 0
-1 e-
Positron e+ 0
1 + 0
1e
Gamma Rays 0
0
Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity exhibits 1st order kinetics, but it is really a special case. Here the half life is
independent of Temperature and Pressure and all other conditions. No one has yet
figured out a way to speed up or slow down radioactive decay. It is a property of the
particular isotope only and it even doesn’t depend on what kind of other atoms surround
the particular nucleus, that is what type of molecule the nucleus is part of.
Note that in theory it would take an infinite amount of time for the sample to completely
decay, but after 10 half lives, less than 0.1% radioactivity remains.
Half life eqns. for 1st order kinetics still apply: t1/2 = 0.693/k
1) The fact that radioactive Carbon-14 is present in the atmosphere and decays by the
14 14 0
beta decay. The process is: 6C -> 7N + -1 e This has a half-life of 5730 yr.
2) To use this for dating fact that living plants use atmospheric carbon dioxide and
maintain a constant C-14 level, but when they die, there is no more exchange so the
concentration of the C-14 isotope, and the decay radiation decreases according to 1st
order kinetics.
Example
A piece of charcoal from the time of the formation of Crater Lake gave 7.0 disintigration
of carbon-14 nuclei per minute per gram of C. Present day living plant matter gives 15.3
disintegrations per minute per gram of total carbon. Determine the age of Crater Lake.
TO BE STABLE
Lighter elements -
Even Odd
Odd Odd
If neutron to proton ratio is such that the nucleus is not stable, the nucleus emits radiation
(Overhead)
Beta Emission!
In Beta emission, the Beta particles are emitted from the nucleus, and the proton stays in
it.
Conversion of a neutron to a proton and emitted electron changes the identity of the
atom! Why?
Emission of Beta particle - b decay - results in nucleus with same mass # but different
atomic # which has increased by 1.
2) Sum of "Atomic #" on both sides of the eqn. must be the same.
particle
particle
positron
emission
Another Example:
What nucleus could undergo decay to the only stable nucleus of gold?
Alpha emission can occur as well!
Or positron emission?
r electron capture
40
K + 0 -1 e -> 4 0 18 Ar (Usually emits X-ray or ray too, since the outer electron fills
19
the void left by the inner electron
Puzzling fact that the mass of an atom is always less than the sum of the masses of its
constituent particles.
The binding energy is the energy required to break a nucleus into its individual protons
and neutrons.
Example
The 1 9 9 F isotopes has an atomic mass of 18.9984 amu
Nucleus has 9 protons and 10 neutrons, 19 nucleons
Fusion
At its conception only the lightest element, hydrogen was around but later as the universe
expanded, stars were born when the hydrogen clouds collapsed under gravitational forces
Figure
Hydrogen fused together in the star and formed helium. This liberates a massive amount
of energy as photons.
4 1 1p -> 4
2He + 0 0
The elements are typically prepared by bombarding heavy nuclei with light ones
252 10
Cf +
98 5 B -> 2 5 7 103Lr + 51 0n
the new element element - 268 was prepared by bombarding Bismuth wih Cobalt.
209 59 268 1
83 Bi + 27 Co -> 110 Und + 0n Und is Unnildecinnium
Thes transuranium elements are unstable, and most have very short half lives -
235
92 U + 1 0 n -> 139
56 Ba + 94
36 Kr + 3 1 0 n + 0 0
In this fission reaction the 2 3 5 U is broken down to smaller particles and energy called
atomic energy.
Note that each fission of Uranium-235 produces 3 neutrons which in turn generate more
fission by colliding with other Uranium-23
See figure:
If even one of these produces new fission, then the process is self propagating. If all
there neutrons are allowed to produce new fission, then the rate of reaction increases
constantly and eventually one gets a nuclear explosion.
Rate of fission can be controlled by putting boron control rods in the reactor to absorb
neutrons!
The energy released can be used to heat water to make steam and drive turbines to get
electricity - nuclear power plants
Waste - Fission products are highly radioactive themselves, with long half lives.
Need to be stored for a long time. No way to speed up or slow down radioactive decay.
Nuclear binding energy - energy required to break up a nucleus into its component
neutrons and protons
Organic Chemistry
Chemistry of compounds containing carbon:
Several million have been described so far and thousands of new ones discovered every
year. What is it about carbon that makes it so unusual?
1s2 2s2 2p2 - Know it can make compounds like methane (CH4) and CCl4 - what shape?
Lewis Structures, VSEPR
or in H2CO
or in H2C2
Classification of Organic Compounds is described by the diagram in this figure:
A series of compounds in which one compound differs from the preceding one by a -CH2
Group is called a homologous series. The alkanes constitute a homologous series.
Members of a homologous series have similar chemical properties and often physical
properties change in a regular way.
Straight chain alkanes have a single bond connecting the carbon atom backbone
surrounded by hydrogen atoms. They are of formula CnH2n+2
straight chain, or normal alkanes have all carbon atoms bonded to one another to give a
single chain with hydrogen filling out the four valences of each carbon atom
isobutane
has the same molecular formula (formula unit) as n-butane, C4H10, but a different
structural formula
Butane and isobutane are said to be structural or constitutional isomers.
Nomenclature of Alkanes
Higher members of the series are named from the Greek words indicating the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule with the suffix “ane” added.
C5H12 - straight chain called pentane
C6H14 - hexane
C7H16 - heptane
C8H18 - octane
C9H20 - nonane
C10H22 - decane
2) Any chin branching off the longest chain is named as an alkyl group. An alkyl group is
an alkane less one hydrogen atom. When a hydrogen atom is removed from an end
carbon atom of a straight alkane, the resulting alkyl group is named by changing “ane” to
“yl”.
3) To completely name the branch off the main chain, we must use a number that locates
that branch on the longest chain. For this purpose, you number each carbon atom on the
longest chain in whichever direction gives the smaller number for the locations of all
branches.
Branch name and base name are written as a single word with a hyphen following the
number
4) When there are more than one alkyl branch of the same kind, say two methyl groups,
then this number is indicated by a Greek prefix, such as di-, tri-, or tetra- used with the
name of the alkyl group. The position of each group on the longest chain is given by
numbers. Note the position numbers are separated by commas and followed by a hyphen.
When there are two or more different alkyl branches, the name of each branch, with its
position number, precedes the base name. the branch names are placed in alphabetical
order.
Examples
2,3 dimethylbutane
3-ethyl-2-methylhexane
2,2-dimethylhexane
3,3 dimethyloctane
Unsaturated hydrocarbons - Similar naming rules for them, except longest chain with
double or triple bond
Numbering occurs from the end nearest the multiple bond number - 1st carbon in double
bond
1 2 3 4 5
CH2 = CH - CH2 - CH - CH3
CH3
4-methyl-1-pentene
Example
Write the condensed structure for 2,5-dimethyl-2-heptene
Alkenes give rise to another type of isomerization called Geometric Isomers. These are
isomers where the atoms are joined to one another but because there is no free rotation
about the double bond. Called cis and trans isomers
cis-2-butene trans-2-butene
The simplest organic compounds are the hydrocarbons compounds containing only
carbon and hydrogen! All other organic compounds are considered, for classification
purposes to be derived from the hydrocarbons.
1. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- hydrocarbons containing benzene rings or similar strucures
Alkanes, also called paraffins - are saturated hydrocarbons with general formula CnH2n+2.
For n=1 you get the formula CH4, n=2 you get C2H6 etc.
Derivatives of Hydrocarbons
Certain groups of atoms in organic molecules are particularly reactive and have
characteristic properties.
These are the functional groups, a reactive part of the molecule that reacts readily and
predictably.
C=C bond is a functional group for example. Many functional groups include atoms with
lone pairs. C=O is a functional group.
Looked at hydrocarbons and their reactions, and all other organic compounds are
considered to be derivatives of hydrocarbons where one or more hydrogen atoms of a
hydrocarbon have been replaced by noncarbon atoms to give a functional group.
Organic Halide
Alcohol
Ether
Aldehyde
Ketone
Carboxylic Acid
Ester
Amine
Amide
Alcohols and Ethers are named by IUPAC rules similarly to those for hydrocarbons,
except the stem name is determined from the longest chain containing the carbon atom to
which the OH is attached. the suffix for the stem name is “ol”. the position of the OH
group is indicated by a number preceding the stem name.
alcohols are classified by the number of ca atoms attached to the carbon atom to which
the -OH group is attached.
Common names for ethers are formed from the hydrocarbon groups plus the word ether.
CH3OCH2CH2CH3
methyl propyl ether
Or by IUPAC rules, the ethers are named as “oxy” derivatives based on the longest
hydrocarbon chain.
1-methoxypropane
IUPAC rules for naming aldehydes and ketones are similar to the rules of naming for
alcohols. Find the longest carbon chain containing the carbonyl group to get the stem
hydrocarbon name. Then change the “e” at the end of the hydrocarbon name to al for
aldehydes or one for ketones. In the case of the aldehydes, the carbon atom of the -CHO
group is always the number 1 carbon. In ketones the carbonyl group may occur in
various positions in the chain, and the position of the carbonyl group is given by a
number be for the stem name, like the position of the hydroxyl group in alcohols.
Carboxylic Acid
Contain the carboxyl group -COOH
The carbonyl group attached to the OH makes the proton weakly acidic.
Common names here as well since these types of compounds have been known for a long
time.
IUPAC rules name these carboxylic acids like for aldehydes except that “oic” is added
with the word acid on the stem name of the longest carbon chain containing the carbonyl
of the carboxyl group.
Ester
Made from carboxylic acid and alcohol have carbonyl group with oxygen, similar to
carboxylic acid, but with hydrocarbon on the end instead of a proton.
Nitrogen Containing
Amines
Organic bases that are derived by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms of ammonia
withy hydrocarbon groups.