AAIntro1 Lectures 2013

Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics - 1
IUCAA-NCRA Graduate School 2013
Instructor: Dipankar Bhattacharya

IUCAA
August - September 2013
IUCAAAAIntro12013DB
Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics - 1 IUCAA-NCRA Graduate School 2013 Instructor: Dipankar Bhattacharya
Coordinate Systems, Units

and the Solar System
Locating Objects
• Angular position can be measured accurately; distance difficult
• Spherical Polar Coordinate System:
latitude = Declination (δ)

Pole
longitude = Right Ascension (α)
Earth’s
Time Equatorial
Orbital
plane
plane of
Solar Day = 24 h
Earth’s
(time between successive
rotation
solar transits) Origin of α
Earth’s Spin Period: 23h56m

(time between successive
stellar transits)
24h “Sidereal Time” α is expressed in units of time
= 23h56m Solar Time Transit time of a given α = Local Sidereal Time
Different coordinate systems

Convention: Latitude: (π/2 − θ) ; Longitude: Φ
• Equatorial: Poles: extension of the earth’s spin axis
• Ecliptic: Poles: Normal to the earth’s orbit around the sun
• Galactic: Poles: Normal to the plane of the Galaxy
θ
For Equatorial and Ecliptic: same longitude
reference (ascending node - vernal equinox)
Φ
For Galactic coordinates: longitude reference is
the direction to the Galactic Centre
Equatorial coordinates: larger Φ, later rise: RA (α)
latitude = Declination (δ)

Rise and Set

Horizon: tangent plane to the earth’s surface at observer’s location
geographic latitude λ
zenith
OP = sin δ ; QP = cos δ = PB
Q
AP = OP tan λ = sin δ tan λ
∠APB = cos-1 (AP/PB) = cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}
90 o
-δ P
Total angle spent by the source above the horizon
= 360o − 2 cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}

horizon C
λ
O A
Time spent by the source above the horizon
B
= ([360o − 2 cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}]/15) sidereal hours
= (1436/1440) ([360o − 2 cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}]/15)
hours by solar clock

Earth-Moon system
• Tidally locked. Moon’s spin Period = Period of revolution around the Earth
• Mearth = 5.97722 x 1024 kg ; Mmoon = 7.3477 x 1022 kg
• Orbital eccentricity = 0.0549
• Semi-major axis = 384,399 km, increasing by 38 mm/y (1ppb/y)
Earth’s spin angular momentum being pumped into the orbit
• Origin of the moon possibly in a giant impact on earth by a mars-sized body;

moon has been receding since formation.
• At present the interval between two new moons = 29.53 days
• Moon’s orbital plane inclined at 5.14 deg w.r.t. the ecliptic
• Earth around the sun, Moon around the earth: same sense of revolution
• Moon is responsible for total solar eclipse as angular size of the sun and the
moon are roughly similar as seen from the earth.
Bodies in The Solar System
A. Feild (STSCI)
Measuring Distance
• Inside solar system: Radio and Laser Ranging
Earth-Sun distance: 1 Astronomical Unit = 149597871km
• Nearby stars: Parallax
Parsec = distance at which 1 AU subtends 1 sec arc
= 3.086 x 1013 km = 3.26 light yr
• Distant Objects: Standard Candles
‣ Cepheid and RR Lyrae stars
‣ Type Ia Supernovae
• Cosmological distance: Redshift
Linear size = angular size x distance

Measure of Intensity
1 Jansky = 10-26 W/m2/Hz
Optical Magnitude Scale

Logarithmic Scale of Intensity: m = −2.5 log (I/I0) apparent magnitude
Absolute Magnitude (measure of luminosity):
M = −2.5 log (I10pc /I0)
The scale factor I0 depends on the waveband, for example:
Band I0
Johnson U 1920 Jy
B 4130
V 3690
R 3170
I 2550
References
• The Physical Universe : Frank H. Shu

• An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics : B.W. Carroll & D.A. Ostlie
• Astrophysical Quantities: C.W. Allen
• Astrophysical Formulae: K.R. Lang

Orbits
Kepler Orbit
1. Elliptical orbit with Sun at one focus Conserved Energy E

2. Areal velocity = constant and Angular Momentum

J
3. T2 ∝R3
1
Dynamical time scale in gravity: ⌧⇡p
G⇢
CM M
Two body problem: M1 M2 μ
r r
2
 2 1/2
l J 2EJ M = M1 + M2
r=
1 + e cos
; l=
GM µ 2 ; e= 1+
G2 M 2 µ 3 M1 M2
µ=
M1 + M2
E < 0 =) e < 1 ; bound elliptical orbit:
GM µ p
a=
2|E|
; J =µ GM a(1 e2 )
Motion in a Central Force Field

1 2 J2 2
Energy E = µṙ + 2
+ U (r) ; 2
ṙ = [E Ue↵ (r)]
2 2µr µ
Z Ue↵ (r)
Intersections of Ueff (r) with E
(J/r2 )dr give turning points in the orbit
= 1/2
+ const.
[2µ {E Ue↵ (r)}] 30
Effective potential for U(r) ∝-r -1
GM µ 20 Newtonian Gravity
Newtonian Gravity: U (r) =
r E>0
10
Setting Ueff = E gives turning points:

" s # Ueff (r) 0
1 GM µ2 2J 2 E E<0
= 2
1± 1+ 2 2 3 -10
rmin
J GM µ
G
max
-20
and for E < 0 (rmax does not exist for E > 0)
-30
= 2 [ (rmax ) (rmin )] = 2⇡ 0.1 1 10 100
r
precession of
i.e. orbit is closed. Departure from 1/r or r2 potential give 6= 2⇡ periastron
Departure from 1/r2 gravity
Common causes of departure from
1/r form of gravitational potential:

↵
U= + 2 = 2⇡ µ/J 2
r r per orbit
• Distributed mass
↵
• Tidal forces
U= + 3 = 6⇡↵ µ2 /J 4
r r per orbit
• Relativistic effects
✓ ◆✓ ◆ 1/2 Ē = E/mc2
In relativity, effective potential
1 ā 2
near a point mass Ē = 1 1+ 2 ā = J/mcrg
(including rest energy)
r̄ r̄
rg = 2GM/c2
Newtonian approximation
r̄ 1
ā2
Next order correction, upon expanding the square root:
2r̄3
6⇡GM
Gives = Precession of perihelion of Mercury
per orbit a(1 e2 )c2
Schwarzschild Gravity: Equation of Motion &

Effective Potential
✓ ◆✓ ◆2 
1 dr̄ 1 1 ā2 ā2 Effective potential by
= 2 Ē 2 1+ + 3
1 1/r̄ d⌧ Ē r̄ r̄ 2 r̄ setting LHS = 0
✓ ◆✓ ◆2 1.2
1 d ā2 Schwarzschild
Newtonian
= 2 4
1 1/r̄ d⌧ Ē r̄ 1.15 6.0
1.1 6.0
A binary orbit decays due to
E (in units of rest energy)
Gravitational Wave radiation 1.05
dE 32 G4 2 2
= M M 1
dt 5 c 5 a5 1 2
⇥(M1 + M2 )f (e) 0.95 4.0
da 2a2 dE
= 0.9 3.0
dt GM1 M2 dt 0.0
0.85 numbers on curves indicate the square

of the normalised angular momentum
de 1 da
= (1 e)
dt a dt 0.8
1 10 100
r (in units of gravitational radius)
Photon Orbit in Schwarzschild Gravity

ā b
setting m = 0, Ē ! 1, ā ! 1, ! ⌘ b̄ b = impact parameter at 1
Ē rg
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2
1 dr̄ b̄2 b̄2 photon orbits in Schwarzschild spacetime
=1 + 10
1 1/r̄ d⌧ r̄2 r̄3

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆2
1 d b̄2
= 4 5
1 1/r̄ d⌧ r̄
hence
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆
y/r_g
4 2 2
dr r b b 0
= 2 1 2
+ rg 3
d b r r
integrate to get orbit.
-5
3rd term on RHS causes impact parameter l/r_g =
2.0, 2.5981, 3.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0
curvature of light path
from innermost to
outermost trajectory
Gravitational Lensing -10

-10 -5 0 5 10
x/r_g
References
• Classical Mechanics : H. Goldstein

• Relativistic Astrophysics : Ya B. Zeldovich & I.D. Novikov
• Gravitation : C. Misner, K.S. Thorne & J.A. Wheeler

• Classical Theory of Fields : L.D. Landau & E.M. Lifshitz
Tidal forces and Roche Potential

Tidal effect
Gradient of external gravitational force across an extended body tends to

deform the object - responsible for tides on Earth
R m 2GM m
d Tidal Force: FT = 3
l
A B d
Self gravity
Gm2
M l of object B: Fg = 2
l
Object B would not remain intact if FT > Fg

m l ⇣ q ⌘ 1/3 m
∴ condition for stability: l3 < d3 , or < , q⌘
2M d 2 M
3
✓ ◆✓ ◆ 1
3 l 3 M m
Disruption would occur if d < 2 M = 2R 3 /3 3 /3
✓ ◆1/3 m 4⇡R 8 ⇥ 4⇡(l/2)
4/3 ⇢M
i.e. for d < 2 R : Roche limit
⇢m
Roche Potential in a binary system

The surface of a fluid body is an equipotential
⊥r to orbital plane
In
corotating axis of revolution
frame
P
In orbital plane
r3 P
r2
r1 r3 r2
r1
C.M.
M1 M2
M1 C.M. M2
Roche Potential in the equatorial plane
M2
M1
M2
q⌘ = 0.5
M1
Lagrangian points and the Roche Lobe
A star
overfilling
L4
its Roche
Lobe
In orbital plane would
transfer
matter to
L3 L1 L2 its
M1 M2
companion
L5
M2
q⌘ = 0.5
M1
References
• Theoretical Astrophysics, vol. 1 sec. 2.3 : T. Padmanabhan

• Close Binary Systems : Z. Kopal
• Hydrodynamic and Hydromagnetic Stability: S. Chandrasekhar

• Astrophysical Journal vol. 55, p. 551 (1984) ; S.W. Mochnacki
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
Equations of Fluid Mechanics

@⇢ ~ The fluid is described
Continuity Equation: + r · (⇢~v ) = 0
@t by the quantities

@~v ⇢, P, ~v
Euler Equation: ⇢ ~ v =
+ (~v · r)~ ~ + ⇢~g
rP
@t
that are functions of
space and time.
Equation of State: P = P (⇢)
Viscosity is ignored
@
Stationarity follows by setting time derivatives to zero
@t
@
Hydrostatic equilibrium follows by setting both and ~v to zero:
@t
~ = ⇢~g
rP
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
~ = ⇢~g
rP
In spherical symmetry:
In relativity: (Tolman, Oppenheimer, Volkoff)
h ih i
dP GM (r)⇢(r) dP G M (r) + 4⇡r3 Pc(r)
2 ⇢(r) + P (r)
c2
= = ⇣ ⌘
dr r2 dr 2
r 1 2GM (r)
c2 r
dM (r)
= 4⇡r2 ⇢(r)
dr
Supplement with appropriate equation of state and solve for the structure of
self-gravitating configurations such as stars, planets etc
Virial Theorem
dP GM (r)⇢(r)
= (hydrostatic equilibrium)
dr r2
3
Multiply both sides by 4⇡r and integrate over the full configuration: r = 0 ! R
Z R Z R 
3 2 2 GM (r)⇢(r)
4⇡R P (R) 4⇡r · 3P dr = 4⇡r dr
0 0 r
RHS = Total gravitational energy of the configuration Eg (<0)

and since P = ( 1)uth , where uth is the Thermal (kinetic) energy density,
the 2nd term in LHS = 3( 1)Eth , Eth being the total thermal (kinetic) energy
Hence Eg + 3( 1)Eth = 4⇡R3 P (R) : Virial Theorem

must be obeyed by all systems in hydrostatic equilibrium
For = 5/3 and P (R) = 0 : Eg + 2Eth = 0
Note: Etot = Eg + Eth = Eg /2 = Eth
A Rough Guide to Stellar Structure

stellar radius R
dP GM (r)⇢(r)
= central pressure Pc
dr r2
total mass M
0 Pc GM M
Using a linear approximation: = 2
· 4⇡ 3
R R 3 R
2
✓ ◆1/3
3 GM 4⇡
Pc = 4
= GM 2/3 ⇢4/3
4⇡ R 3
(“gravitational pressure”Pgrav )
For equilibrium, this pressure needs to be matched by the Equation of State
kT
e.g. Thermal Pressure: P = ⇢
µmp
Thermal pressure support
4/3
2/3 ρ
∝ M
M1 < M2 < M3 P
∝Tc ρ M3
P
T3
log Pc
T2 M2
T1
M1
log ρ
References
• Astrophysics I : Stars : R.L. Bowers

• The Physical Universe : F.H. Shu
• Stellar Structure and Evolution : R. Kippenhahn and A. Weigert

• Physics of Fluids and Plasmas : A. Rai Choudhuri
Stars
Main Sequence
Hydrogen burning star Tc ⇡ TH
2/3 4/3 kTH 2 M

Pc ⇡ GM ⇢ = ⇢ : ⇢/M ; R / M and Tc /
µmp R
Luminosity L = Radiative Energy Content / Radiation Escape Time

✓ ◆2
R l 1 1
Radiation Escape Time = · where l = mean free path = =
l c n ⇢
4 3 opacity
aT R 4
Hence L ⇡ 2
⇡ aclT R In Main Sequence: L / lR / lM
(R /lc)
R3 3
High mass stars: opacity: Thomson scattering  = constant; l / : L MS / M
M
T 3.5 5 LMS / M 4
Low mass stars: l / 2 : MS
L / M On average
⇢
tMS / M 3
Effective Temperature
A typical stellar spectrum is nearly a blackbody
Color Temperature
= Temp. of best-fit
Planck Function
Total Luminosity
4
L = 4⇡ Te↵ R2
Solar Spectrum
Te↵ is defined as
the Effective
Temperature
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram for Stars
A plot of Luminosity vs. Temperature

Near Blackbody spectrum:
(Absolute Magnitude vs. Color) Te↵ ⇡ Tcol
4 4 L
On Main Sequence L / M ; R / M Te↵ / 2 / M2 8
LMS / Te↵ 8
⇠ Tcol
R
-
Horizontal 0 Nearby stars

measured
Branch
ts
by the
an
log Luminosity
Hipparcos
MV (mag)
Gi
satellite
M
5
ai
Sun
n
Se
qu
en
ce
1
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
log Color Temperature B-V (mag)
Theoretical
H-R diagram
Stellar
Stellar evolutionary tracks spectral
by Schaller et al 1992
O B A F G K M classification
Degeneracy Pressure
Momentum space occupation in cold Fermi gas
⇣ g ⌘ 4⇡
3
No. of particles per unit volume n = 3
p F
✓ ◆1/3 h 3
Occupation No.
pF 3 1/3
hence Fp = hn
4⇡g
Pressure P ⇠ n · v · pF / v · n4/3
momentum
Electron degeneracy: v = pF /me (non-relativistic) and v = c (relativistic)

ne = ⇢/(µe mp ) in both regimes
∴ Electron Degeneracy Pressure Pdeg / ⇢5/3 (non-relativistic)

/ ⇢4/3 (relativistic)
Stellar Equilibrium
av
gr g
P P de
log Pc
Pth
T3
TH
T1 Excluded Zone
cr
M 3 M M2 M1
log ρ
Stellar Mass Function
The mass distribution

is typically a power-
law.
In the Milky Way

↵
the index dN/dM M
↵ ⇡ 2.35
Salpeter (1966)
M
References
• Astrophysics I : Stars : R.L. Bowers


• Structure and Evolution of the Stars: M. Schwarzcshild
• http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=HIPPARCOS&page=HR_dia
Compact Stars
White Dwarfs
Configurations supported by Electron Degeneracy Pressure
Pdeg = K1 me 1 (⇢/µe mp )5/3 (non-relativistic)
Pdeg = K2 (⇢/µe mp )4/3 >m c > 106

(relativistic) : when pF ⇠ e ( ⇠
⇢ g cm-3 )
Equilibrium condition: Pdeg ⇡ GM 2/3 ⇢4/3
1 5/3 1/3
Non-relativistic: R / me µe M ( R ~ 104 km for M ~ 1 Msun )
✓ ◆3/2
K2
: Limiting Mass
2
Relativistic: M ⇠ (µe mp )
G (Chandrasekhar Mass)
MCh = 5.76µe 2 M
Limiting Mass of White Dwarf
g
de
P
log Pc
Ch
M
log ρ
Chandrasekhar 1931, 1935

Neutron Stars
Supported by Neutron degeneracy pressure and repulsive strong interaction
TOV equation + nuclear EOS required for description

Beta equilibrium : > 90% neutrons, < 10% protons and electrons
Uncertainty in the knowledge of nuclear EOS leads to uncertainty in the

prediction of Mass-radius relation and limiting mass of neutron stars
(upon exceeding the max. NS mass a Black Hole would result)
Inter-nucleon distance ~ 1 fm n ~ 1039 , ρ ~ 1015 g cm-3
R ~ 10 km for M ~ 1 Msun
Neutron stars spin fast: P ~ ms - mins
and have strong magnetic field: Bsurface ~ 108 - 1015 G
Exotic phenomena: Pulsar, Magnetar activity

Demorest et al 2010
References

• An Introduction to the Study of Stellar Structure: S. Chandrasekhar
• White Dwarfs, Neutron Stars and Black Holes : S.A. Shapiro and S.L.
Stellar Evolution
Schönberg-Chandrasekhar limit
Core-envelope configuration: Inert core surrounded by burning shell
2Eth + Eg Mc T c Mc2
Core surface pressure Pc = 3
= c1 c2 4
4⇡Rc Rc3 Rc
Pe ,Te
Rc Te4
Mc T c Envelope base pressure Pe = c3 2
M
Pc
R
For mechanical and thermal balance Te = Tc and Pe = Pc
M
But Pc has a maximum as a function of Rc
Tc4
Pc,max = c4 2
Mc
So balance is possible only if Pe  Pc,max
r ✓ ◆2
Mc c4 µenv
i.e. q0 ⌘  ⌘ qsc ⇡ 0.37
M c3 µcore
if core mass grows beyond this, then
core collapse would occur.
contraction until degeneracy support

Post Main Sequence Evolution

Low mass star (< 1.4 M⦿):
gradual shrinkage of the core to
degenerate configuration
He ign at Mc = 0.45 M⦿ : L=100 L⦿
varied mass loss; horizontal branch

later AGB WD+planetary nebula
High mass star:

sudden collapse of the core from
thermal to degenerate branch
quick progress to giant
Multiple burning stages
If final degen. support at Mc < Mch ,
WD+PN will result
Else burning all the way to Fe core.
Once Mch exceeded : collapse,
neutronization, supernova
Nuclear burning stages

Stellar
Evolutionary
Tracks
Star Cluster Studies
• Spectroscopic
Parallax: distance
• Turnoff mass: age
Schaller et al 1992
A star’s journey to a supernova
Woosley et al
Core-collapse Supernovae:
Etot ~ 1053 erg; Ekin ~ 1051 erg; Erad ~ 1049 erg
Massive, fast spinning stars jets GRB
r-process nucleosynthesis heavy elements

Supernovae of Type Ia
Occur due to mass transfer in double WD binary followed by complete explosion.
No core collapse
WD composition: C+O
Accretion increases WD mass Mch approached rapid contraction heating
degenerate C-ignition thermal runaway explosion
Etot ~ 1051 erg ; Generates radioactive Ni which powers light curve
Standard conditions, standard appearance Distance Indicators

References

• Stars: Their Birth, Life and Death : I.S. Shklovskii
• An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution : D. Prialnik
• An Invitation to Astrophysics : T. Padmanabhan
Radiation
Radiative Transfer
Radiation is modified while propagating through matter I⌫ : Specific Intensity
(energy/area/s/Hz/sr)
dI⇥ dI
= ⇥ I⇥ + j⇥ = I +S ⌧⌫ : Optical Depth
ds d⇥
absorption coef emission coef
I⌫ = S⌫ + (I⌫0 S⌫ )e ⌧⌫ S⌫ : Source Function
2h⌫3 1 = 2⌫2 kT/c2

For a thermal source S⌫ = Planck function B⌫ = 2
(blackbody) c exp(h⌫/kT) 1 (h⌫ ⌧ kT)
⌧⌫ 1 Blackbody radiation
(optically thick) Blackbody function B⌫ (T) h⌫max = 2.82 kT
A source can be optically thick at some
frequencies and optically thin at others Emitted bolometric flux:
F = T4 !4 T1
⌧⌫ ⌧ 1 I⌫ = I⌫0 + (S⌫ I⌫0 )⌧⌫
log intensity
kT
= 1034
(optically thin) 1 keV T2
Tsrc > Tbg : emission erg/s/km2
T3
Tsrc < Tbg : absorption T4
For non-thermal distribution of particle T1 > T2 > T3 > T4
energies, S⌫ , B⌫ log frequency
Bremsstrahlung
(free-free process)
Radiation
Emission coefficient :
38
✏↵⌫ = 6.8 ⇥ 10 Z2 ne ni T 1/2
e h⌫/kT
ḡ↵ erg s-1 Hz-1 cm-3
all n values in
27 cm-3
Bolometric: ✏↵ = 1.4 ⇥ 10 Z2 ne ni T1/2 ḡ↵ erg s-1 cm-3
Free-free absorption coefficient:
⇣ ⌘ Compare Thomson:
↵↵⌫ = 3.7 ⇥ 108 Z2 ne ni T 1/2 ⌫ 3 1 e h⌫/kT
ḡ↵ cm-1 ↵T = ne T
25 2 3/2 2 25
⇡ 4.5 ⇥ 10 ( )
Z ne ni kT keV ⌫MHz ḡ↵ cm-1 = 6.65 ⇥ 10 ne cm-1
Synchrotron
(relativistically moving charged particle in a magnetic field)
Particle acceleration process often

generates non-thermal, power-law
Ra
B Ze
qB energy distribution of the relativistic
di
a
Gyration frequency: !H = charged particles: N( ) / p
tio
mc
n
Single Particle Spectrum:
lorentz factor The radiation spectrum generated by
such a distribution is also a power-law:
Opt. thin synchrotron
x= pitch angle spectrum from power-
c law particle energy
⇤c = ⇥3 ⇤H sin distribution
log intensity
I⌫ /
⌫ (p
1)/2
✓ ◆
!c 2 B Zme
⌫peak = 0.29 ⇡ 0.81 MHz
2⇡ 1G m
2
!2
4 2 2 Z me log frequency
Power = Tc UB
3 m !2 (p 1)/2
✓
B
◆2 2
Z me erg / s j⌫ / ⌫ S⌫ / ⌫5/2
14 2 (p+4)/2
= 2.0 ⇥ 10 ↵⌫ / ⌫
1G m per particle
Compton scattering
In the frame where the electron is initially
high-energy
photon at rest,
h
sc in = (1 cos ✓)
in =c c
me c
/⌫ ✓ c / ⌫ s
in = and cross section: Klein-Nishina
sc
KN ⇡ T (h⌫in ⌧ me c2 )
/ ⌫in1 (h⌫in me c 2 )
2
In the observer’s frame, where the electron
me c
is moving with a lorentz factor ,
⌫sc ⇡ 2 ⌫in for h⌫in ⌧ me c2 /
(inverse compton scattering)
4 2 2
Inverse compton power emitted per electron: Tc Uph ; Uph = photon energy density
3
Non-thermal comptonization spectral shape akin to synchrotron process
Thermal comptonization number conserving photon diffusion in energy space

power-law, modified blackbody or Wien spectrum
(for different limiting cases of opt. depth and y-parameter)
Compton y parameter = (av. no. of scatterings) x (mean fractional energy change per scattering)
References
• Radiative Processes in Astrophysics : G.B. Rybicki and A.P. Lightman

• High Energy Astrophysics : M. Longair
• The Physics of Astrophysics vol. I: Radiation : F.H. Shu
• Theoretical Astrophysics vol. 1 : T. Padmanabhan
Diffuse Matter
Diffuse matter between stars: the ISM

Interstellar matter exists in a number of phases, of different temperatures and
densities. Average density of Interstellar medium is ~ 1 atom / cm3
At such low densities heat transfer between different phases is very slow.
So phases at multiple temperatures coexist at pressure equilibrium.
Cooling: free-free/free-bound continuum, atomic and molecular lines, dust radn.

Heating: Cosmic Rays, Supernova Explosions, Stellar Winds, Photoionization
2
!3/2
x 2gi 2⇡me kT
Ionization fraction x : = e /kT
(Saha equation)
1 x g0 n h2
Hydrogen is fully ionized at T > 104 K

Ionization states are denoted by roman numeral: I: neutral, II: singly ionized.......
Gas around hot stars are photoionized by the stellar UV photons.
Ionization balance: Recombination rate = Rate of supply of ionizing photons
!1/3
4⇡ 3 3ṄUV
Strömgren sphere: R ne ni ↵ = ṄUV R= 2
(singly ionized: HII region)
3 4⇡ne ↵
recombination coef
ISM phases and constituents

H217: Aug-Dec 2003 4
at gas and Coronal

stars in the galactic
Gas: •disk
T rotate
~ 10 about
6 K the galactic centre, with Cosmic rays, diffuse starlight,
e angular speed Ω a function of the galactocentric radius R. It turns out
Warm
at the circular velocityIonized •
(vc = RΩ) Medium: T ~at8000
is nearly constant, about 220Kkm/s, magnetic field: ~ 1eV/cm3 each
om R ∼ 2 kpc outwards, much beyond the solar circle (orbit of the Sun,
•
Warm Neutral Medium: T ~ 6000 K
∼ 8 kpc). The inferred mass included in an orbit of galactocentric radius
Cold
given by M(R) = Rv Neutral
2
• Medium:
c /G, then continues T ~ linearly
to increase 80 Kwith (HIR clouds)
well Dust: solid particles - graphite,
yond most of the “visible” matter. This is a property shared by all disk
Molecular •
Clouds: Ta<large20amount
K of matter that silicates, PAHs etc.
laxies. These galaxies presumably contain
ves out almost no light. This is called the “missing mass” or the “dark
atter” problem, and this non-luminous mass is assumed to lie in a dark
lo. In Distributed HI gas
our galaxy the luminous produces
component adds up1420
to aboutMHz
1011 M(21-cm)
⊙,
hyperfine transition line.
hile the dark halo contributes several times this amount.
vital probe of density, temperature, kinematics (e.g. rotation curve)
Rotation Curve of the Milky Way
300 Molecular regions can be studied through

mm-wave rotational transitions, e.g. of CO
250
circular speed (km/s)
200
Dust causes extinction and reddening,
150
Rvc2 (R) re-radiates energy in Infrared, polarizes
M (R) = starlight, provides catalysis for molecule
100
G
evidence for dark matter formation, shields molecular clouds from
50
radiation damage, depletes the diffuse gas
0
of some elements.
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
R/R0
Centres of
main seq
stars
IGM
ionised
Interplanetary 90%
medium
at 1 AU
50%
ISM
DLAs
Air
neutral on
HI clouds Earth
Giant
Molecular
Clouds
Star Formation
Stars form by gravitational collapse and fragmentation of dense molecular clouds
Gravitational Instability occurs at masses larger than the Jeans’ scale MJ ⇠ ⇢0 L3J
" #1/2 " #3/2
GMJ kT0 kT0 1
where µmp = kT0 LJ = MJ =
LJ Gµmp ⇢0 Gµmp ⇢1/2
0
Collapse can proceed only in presence of cooling. Hence star formation rate is
strongly dependent on cooling. Cooling is provided by atomic and molecular
transitions. More molecules faster cooling.
Dust aids the formation and survival of molecules.
Formation of dust needs heavy elements
In early epochs, star formation was slow; fewer, very massive stars formed
With enrichment, star formation rate (SFR) increased, many small stars produced
Infrared emission from hot dust is tracer of star formation activity
Ultra-Luminous Infra Red Galaxies (ULIRGs): example of high SFR
High SFR → High SN rate → More CR → stronger Sychrotron emission (radio)
Radio - FIR correlation
Free Electrons
3
Ionization provides free electrons in the ISM: hne i ⇠ 0.03 cm
Propagation through this plasma causes Dispersion of e.m. radiation,

measurable at radio wavelengths. Can be used to infer distances of, e.g. pulsars.
Plasma frequency of the ISM !p ⇠ 6 kHz
Magnetic Field permeates the Interstellar Medium.

Polarized radio waves undergo Faraday Rotation while propagating through
the magnetized plasma. key probe of distributed magnetic field
Typical interstellar field strength: ⇠ 1 µG
Cyclotron resonance: !c ⇠ 20 Hz Dispersion
Z L Measure:
Dispersion relation of circularly polarized eigenmodes: DM = ne ds
2 3 0
2 ✓ ◆
! 666 !p !c 777
kr,l = 641 1 ⌥ 7
5 for ! !p , !c Rotation
Z Measure:
c 2! 2 ! L
RM = ne Bk ds
0
Intergalactic Medium
ISM of line-of-sight galaxies, gas clouds and the diffuse intergalactic medium
can show up in absorption against the radiation of distant galaxies and QSOs
Lyman Alpha provides a strong absorption at 1216 Å in the rest frame of the
absorbing
PH217: gas. Due to cosmological redshift, absorption
Aug-Dec 2003 24 by different gas clouds
in the line of sight occur at different wavelengths Lyman Alpha Forest
Spectrum of QSO0913+072 (z=2.785)
1200
QSO spectrum showing Clouds with large Hydrogen

1000 Lyman Alpha Forest content (e.g. galaxies) produce
deep absorption with damping
800
wings: Damped Lyman Alpha
Intensity (arbitrary units)
600
DLA systems (DLAs)
400
Diffuse Intercloud Medium is
200 almost fully ionized. If not, then
radiation shortward of emitted
0
Ly-α would have been completely
-200
Bechtold 1994
absorbed: Gunn-Peterson effect
3700 3800 3900 4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4600 4700
Wavelength (Angstrom)
References
• Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium : L. Spitzer Jr.

• The Physical Universe: F.H. Shu
Galaxies
Hubble Classification
Galaxies are the basic
building blocks of the
universe
Various shapes and

sizes:
- flattened spirals with
high net ang. mom.
- ellipticals with lower
net ang. mom.
- early galaxies mainly
irregular
Baryon content
~106 M⦿ (dwarfs) to
~1012 M⦿ (giant ellipt.)
Dark Matter
skyserver.sdss.org ~10-100 x Baryons
Properties of Galaxies
- Disk galaxies and irregulars are gas-rich, Ellipticals gas poor
- Star formation more prevalent in spirals/irregulars, more old stars in Ellipticals
- More Ellipticals found in galaxy clusters
- Ellipticals grow by merger: giants (cDs) found at centres of rich clusters
- Every galaxy appears to contain a central supermassive black hole
- Correlations: R : size
1.4±0.15 0.9±0.1
Ellipticals: Fundamental Plane: R / I : velocity dispersion
↵
I : surface brightness
Spirals: Tully-Fisher relation: L / W L : luminosity
↵ ⇠ 3 4 depending on wavelength
W : rotation velocity
5
Central Black Hole Mass: MBH / , = velocity dispersion of elliptical galaxy or of
central bulge in a spiral galaxy
- If central BH is fed by copious accretion, Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN)

results: High nuclear luminosity, relativistic jets, non-thermal emission
> Broad Line Region, Narrow Line Region, Disk, Torus
> Diversity of appearance depending on viewing angle & jet strength:
Seyferts, Radio Galaxies, QSOs, Blazars, LINERs......
- Emission is variable
- Reverberation mapping of BLR allows measurement of BH mass:
light echo → R ; spectrum → v ; MBH = Rv2/G
Urry & Padovani
heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov
Superluminal Motion
Proof of relativistic bulk motion in AGNs
dA
B t2
~
~
tB
observer
v (tB tA ) sin
tA
A t1
~
~
v (tB tA ) cos
dB

(dA dB ) v cos ✓
(t2 t1 ) = (tB tA ) = (tB tA ) 1
c c
!
sin ✓
vapp =c max. vapp = c at cos ✓ =
1 sin ✓
faster than light
for β ≥ 0.71
Galaxy Populations
Luminosity Function Analytical fit: Schechter Function
Smith 2012
(L)dL = ⇤ (L/L⇤ )↵ e (L/L⇤ ) (dL/L⇤ ) , ↵ ⇠ 1.25
L⇤ depends on galaxy type and redshift
Luminosity and spectrum of a galaxy would
1993ApJ...405..538B
change with time as stellar population evolves
Multiple starburst
Bruzual & Charlot 1993
episodes may be
required to t (Gy)
characterize a =
galaxy
Large fraction of galaxies are found in groups and clusters.

Interaction with other galaxies and with the cluster gas can
strip a galaxy of gas and terminate star formation
Galaxy Clusters
- A rich cluster can contain thousands of galaxies bound to a large dark matter halo.
- Diffuse gas in clusters fall into the deep potential well, get heated and emit X-rays.
- Hot gas Compton scatters the cosmic microwave background: Sunyaev-Zeldovich.
- Gravitational lensing can be used to measure cluster mass, revealing dark matter.
- Groups and Clusters grow via collision and mergers.
h i
2
Density profile of a DM halo: ⇢(r) = ⇢0 / x(1 + x) , x ⌘ r/Rs (NFW: from simulations)
¯ vir ) = 200⇢c (z). If hot gas at cluster core has time to cool then it will
Virial radius: ⇢(r
condense and flow inwards: Cooling Flow. Found to be rare: energization by AGN?
Abell 2218 Bullet Cluster

Fruchter et al HST Markevich et al
Clowe et al
arcs caused by weak lensing help estimate mass blue: dark matter; pink: x-ray gas. colliding clusters
References
• Galactic Astronomy : J. Binney & M. Merrifield

• www.astr.ua.edu/keel/galaxies/
Cosmology
Hubble Expansion
Over large scales, the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic, and it is expanding.
Scale factor a(t) multiplies every coordinate grid.
Let object A receive radiation from object B. The coordinate (comoving) distance
between them is dc , which remains constant, and the proper distance is d = a(t)dc . Due
to cosmological expansion, the proper distance between these two points increases
at a rate v = ȧ(t)dc . This is an apparent relative velocity which causes a Doppler shift:
!
⌫ ȧ(t)dc ȧ d ȧ a em aem
= = = t= , giving ⌫(t)a(t) = constant =
⌫ c a c a a obs aobs
aobs
obs em aobs a0 subscript 0 denotes a
Thus redshift z = = 1 , or 1 + z = =
em aem aem a(z) quantity at present epoch
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
ȧ ȧ
and v = d = Hd ; H ⌘ = Hubble parameter. Present value: H0 ' 67 km/s/Mpc
a a
a 1
Hubble Time tH = = ~ age of the universe. Present value: tH,0 ⇡ 14.5 Gy
ȧ H(t)
Dynamics of the Universe

Dynamical equations for cosmology follow from a fully relativistic framework.
However a Newtonian analogy may be drawn to mimic the basic equations:
✓ ◆
1 2 4⇡ 3 1 1
per unit mass K.E.+P.E. = const. : ȧ G ⇢a = const. = k
2 3 a 2
✓ ◆2
ȧ k 8⇡G 2 k 8⇡G ⌦(t) ⌘ ⇢(t)/⇢c (t)
hence + 2 = ⇢(t) or H + 2 = ⇢(t)
a a 3 a 3 ⌦(t) = 1 + k/a2= 1 for k = 0
3H2 29
In our Universe k ⇡ 0, i.e. ⇢ = ⇢c ⌘ . At present ⇢c,0 ⇡ 0.84 ⇥ 10 g/cm3
(flat geometry) 8⇡G
Solution of the dynamical equation requires knowledge of ⇢(a) : Equation of State
Adiabatic evolution: P / V /a 3
while P = ( 1)u = ( 1)⇢c2 . Thus ⇢ / a 3
2
Using this the dynamical equation yields the solution a / t 3 ( , 0) flat universe
3 2
For non-relativistic matter P / ukin ⌧ ⇢c2 , so ⇡ 1. ⇢/a a/t 3 matter dominated
4 1
For relativistic matter or radiation = 4/3 ⇢/a a/t 2 radiation dominated
For “Dark Energy” ⇢c2 ⇡ const., i.e. ⇡0 ⇢ / a0 a / et acceleration, inflation
In cosmology the EoS is usually labelled by the parameter w ⌘ ( 1)

5
Present day universe: ⌦tot ⇡ 1, ⌦m ⇡ 0.3, ⌦DE ⇡ 0.7, ⌦b ⇡ 0.048, ⌦rad ⇡ 5 ⇥ 10
Distance measures in Cosmology

Coordinate system: origin at the observer. Comoving (coordinate) distance to a source: rc
Proper distance now: d = a0 rc , Redshift: z Light leaves source at tc , received at t0
Z 0 Z t0
dt
Propagation from r = rc to r = 0 : a dr = c dt i.e. dr = c
rc tc a(t)
Z 0 Z z Z z
1 dt da c a dz
Hence rc = c dz = dz and d = a0 rc = c = c⌧; ⌧ = lookback
Z time
z a da dz a0 0 ȧ 0 H(z) z
dz
=
0 H
Luminosity distance dL : Luminosity

✓ ◆✓ ◆ Z z
L L 1 1 dz
Received Flux F ⌘ = ∴ dL = d(1 + z) = c(1 + z) H
4⇡dL2 4⇡d2 1 + z 1 + z 0
Reduction of
Reduction of
photon energy photon arrival rate
Angular Diameter distance dA :

Transverse Z z
l linear size l a0 rc c dz
Angular size ✓ = ; dA ⌘ = a(tc )rc = =
rc a(tc ) ✓ 1+z 1+z 0 H
Supernova Ia Hubble Diagram

46
44
42
Distance Modulus
40
Flat Universe Models:
with Dark Energy
38 without Dark Energy
36
34 Data from Supernova Cosmology Project

Kowalski et al (2008) Ap J: Union Compilation
32
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Redshift z
Cosmological Expansion History

1e+20
20
6 000
z=0
15
1e+15 z ⇠
0. 3
10
log(⇢/⇢c,0 )
1e+10
z⇠
5
100000
⇢m
⇢rad
0
1
⇢DE
-5
1e-05
-10
1e-10 log(a/a0 )
1e-05 -4
0.0001 -3
0.001 -2
0.01 -1
0.1 01 10
log a
Acceleration
Radiation
Matter dominated era era
dominated
era
t
e
t2/3
t1/2
log t
Thermal History of the Universe

Radiation and matter in thermal equilibrium in early universe, at a common temperature
4
Radiation is Planckian, with blackbody spectrum and energy density ⇢rad / T
4
In cosmological evolution ⇢rad / a , thus T / a 1 ; or T = 2.73(1 + z) K
Seen today at microwave bands: Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
If kT > 2mc2 for any particle species, relativistic pairs of the species can be freely
created. All relativistic particle species behave similar to radiation in the evolution of
2 4
their energy density. Total ⇢rel c = ḡaR T where ḡ = total stat wt of all rel. particle species
2 1/2
In the Early, radiation-dominated universe a / t1/2 . So t = 1 s (kT/1MeV) ḡ
[ ḡ ⇠ 100 at kT > 1 GeV, ~10 at 1-100 MeV, ~ 3 at < 0.1 MeV ]
Expansion → cooling → pair annihilation of relevant species → energy added to radiation

At kT ⇠< 1 GeV, nucleon-antinucleon annihilation → small no. of baryons survived
n
⌘= ⇠ 109 : “entropy per baryon”, photon-to-baryon ratio. “Baryon asymmetry” ~10-9
nb
kT ⇠< 1 MeV: e± annihilation → ~10-9 of the pop. left as electrons → charge neutrality
Contents at this stage: neutrons, protons, electrons, neutrinos, dark matter and photons
Primordial Nucleosynthesis
At kT > 0.5 MeV neutrons and protons are in beta equilibrium: nn /np = exp( 1.3 MeV/kT)
kT ≈ 0.5 MeV: beta reactions become inefficient, n-p freeze at nn /(nn + np ) ⇡ 15%
( no n-decay yet as tH << tdecay )
Neutrons will then undergo decay with lifetime of 881 s until locked up in nuclei
Nucleosynthesis begins in earnest only after kT drops to ~0.07 MeV
(decided by the rate of first stage synthesis: that of Deuterium. Most of this 2D then converts to 4He)
Neutron fraction drops to ~11% at this

point, giving primordial mass fraction:
4He : ~22%; 1H : ~78%
Synthesis does not progress beyond

this stage due to expansion and cooling
The entire nucleosynthesis takes place
within approx. the first three minutes

after Big Bang: z ~ 3x108
http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBNS.html
Recombination, CMB, Reionization

After nucleosynthesis the universe has ionized H and He, and electrons. Material is
very optically thick due to electron scattering. Cooling continues as T / a 1. There
are also neutrinos, and leptonic Dark matter which do not interact with photons.
Once Dark Matter becomes non-relativistic, gravitational instability develops and self-
gravitating collapsed halos start to form. Baryonic matter cannot collapse yet because
of strong coupling with radiation.
As temperature drops to ~3x103 K, electrons and ions recombine to form atoms.

Universe becomes transparent to the Cosmic Background radiation. The CMB we see
today comes from this “surface of last scattering” at z~1100. Diffuse gas is now neutral.
Decoupled from radiation, baryons now fall into the potential wells already created by
Dark Matter, Luminous structures begin to form by z~20.
UV radiation from the luminous structures starts ionizing diffuse gas again. These
“Stromgren sphere”s grow and overlap, completely reionizing the diffuse intergalactic
medium by z~10.
Cosmic Background radiation temperature continues to fall as 1/a, reaching 2.73 K at

present epoch.
CMB spectrum
120
As measured by COBE satellite

100 Blackbody T=2.726 K
Data from Mather et al 1994
Intensity (10-6 erg cm-2 s-1 sr-1 cm)
80
60
40
Error bars enlarged 100x
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (cm-1)
CMB sky distribution
COBE Satellite Maps

Bennett et al 1996
Monopole
Dipole
caused by our peculiar velocity
~ 370 km/s w.r.t. the Hubble flow
Higher order anisotropies

Planck Collaboration: The Planck mission
CMB sky distribution
Ade et al 2013
Fig. 14. The SMICA CMB map (with 3 % of the sky replaced by a constrained Gaussian realization).
CMB high-order anisotropy map from Planck Satellite
CMB Anisotropies
Epoch of Decoupling:
It follows from Saha equation that the universe recombines when the radiation
temperature drops to ~3000 K. This corresponds to a redshift zdec ' 1100
Defines the last scattering surface (LSS)
h i1/2
In a flat universe H(z) = H0 ⌦rad,0 (1 + z)4 + ⌦m,0 (1 + z)3 + ⌦DE,0 H(zdec ) ⇡ 22000 H0
!
2 1
Age of the universe at decoupling tdec ⇡ ⇡ 4 ⇥ 105 y
3 H(zdec )
CMB anisotropies developed until tdec : Primary Anisotropy. Later: Secondary Anisotropy
Sources of Primary Anisotropy:
• Intrinsic, from primordial perturbations

• Gravitational Redshift from fluctuating potential at LSS (Sachs-Wolfe effect)
• Doppler shifts due to scattering from moving gas
• Acoustic oscillations of the photon-baryon fluid
Modified by:
• Finite width of LSS

• Photon Diffusion (Silk Damping)
Secondary Anisotropies from: Integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect, Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect,
Gravitational Lensing etc
Acoustic Horizon Anisotropy Scale

c
l = cs tdec = p tdec
3
last
c
sc
de
att ctlook back (zdec )

cs t
eri
ng dA =
1 + zdec
l=
su
rfa
ct0
ce
⇡
: zd
1 + zdec
ec =
Δθ
1100
✓ = l/dA
✓ ◆
1 + zdec tdec
) ✓= p
3 t0
⇡1
Anisotropy spectrum of the CMB

Planck Collaboration: The Planck mission
Angular scale
90 18 1 0.2 0.1 0.07
6000 Planck 2013 results
Ade et al
5000
4000
D [µK2]
3000
2000
1000
0
2 10 50 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Multipole moment,
Fig. 19. The temperature angular power spectrum of the primary CMB from Planck, showing a precise measurement of seven acoustic peaks, that
are well fit by a simple six-parameter ⇤CDM theoretical model (the model plotted is the one labelled [Planck+WP+highL] in Planck Collaboration
Formation of Structures
Gravitational Instability leads to growth of density perturbations of Dark Matter.
- overdense [⇢ = (1 + )⇢bg ] regions expand less slowly than Hubble flow, eventually
stop expanding, turn around and collapse to form halos.
- “critical overdensity”
c ⇡ 1.68
- Halo mass distribution at a redshift z : fraction of bound objects with mass > M :
2 3
66 c (1 + z) 77
f (> M, z) = erfc 664 p 77
5 (Press-Schechter Formula)
2 0 (M)
where 0 (M) is the linearly extrapolated rms at mass scale M at present epoch
Typical density contrast today at scale 8 (100/H0 ) Mpc is 8 ⇡ (0.5 0.8)
Initial density perturbations result from quantum fluctuations.
- However perturbations seen today would require scales much larger than horizon
size in the early universe.
- Made possible by accelerated (exponential) growth of a(t) for a brief period: inflation
- Energy provided by a decaying quantum field, which also generates fluctuations
References
• An Introduction to Cosmology : J.V. Narlikar

• Theoretical Astrophysics vol. 3 : T. Padmanabhan
• Cosmological Physics : J.A. Peacock
• The First Three Minutes : S. Weinberg
• C.L. Bennett et al 1996 ApJ 464, L1
• P.A.R. Ade et al arXiv 1303.5602 (2013)
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Introduction to Astronomy and Astrophysics - 1

IUCAA-NCRA Graduate School 2013

Instructor: Dipankar Bhattacharya

August - September 2013

Coordinate Systems, Units

• Angular position can be measured accurately; distance diﬃcult

• Spherical Polar Coordinate System:

latitude = Declination (δ)

Earth’s Spin Period: 23h56m

Different coordinate systems

• Ecliptic: Poles: Normal to the earth’s orbit around the sun

• Galactic: Poles: Normal to the plane of the Galaxy

Equatorial coordinates: larger Φ, later rise: RA (α)

latitude = Declination (δ)

Rise and Set

∠APB = cos-1 (AP/PB) = cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}

= 360o − 2 cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}

= (1436/1440) ([360o − 2 cos-1 {tan δ tan λ}]/15)

hours by solar clock

• Mearth = 5.97722 x 1024 kg ; Mmoon = 7.3477 x 1022 kg

• Orbital eccentricity = 0.0549

• Semi-major axis = 384,399 km, increasing by 38 mm/y (1ppb/y)

Earth’s spin angular momentum being pumped into the orbit

• Origin of the moon possibly in a giant impact on earth by a mars-sized body;

• At present the interval between two new moons = 29.53 days

• Moon’s orbital plane inclined at 5.14 deg w.r.t. the ecliptic

Bodies in The Solar System

• Inside solar system: Radio and Laser Ranging

Earth-Sun distance: 1 Astronomical Unit = 149597871km

• Nearby stars: Parallax

Parsec = distance at which 1 AU subtends 1 sec arc

= 3.086 x 1013 km = 3.26 light yr

• Distant Objects: Standard Candles

‣ Cepheid and RR Lyrae stars

• Cosmological distance: Redshift

Linear size = angular size x distance

1 Jansky = 10-26 W/m2/Hz

Optical Magnitude Scale

The scale factor I0 depends on the waveband, for example:

• The Physical Universe : Frank H. Shu

• Astrophysical Quantities: C.W. Allen

• Astrophysical Formulae: K.R. Lang

1. Elliptical orbit with Sun at one focus Conserved Energy E

2. Areal velocity = constant and Angular Momentum

Motion in a Central Force Field

Setting Ueff = E gives turning points:

Departure from 1/r2 gravity

Common causes of departure from

1/r form of gravitational potential:

Schwarzschild Gravity: Equation of Motion &

Gravitational Wave radiation 1.05

0.85 numbers on curves indicate the square

Photon Orbit in Schwarzschild Gravity

1 1/r̄ d⌧ r̄2 r̄3

Gravitational Lensing -10

• Classical Mechanics : H. Goldstein

• Gravitation : C. Misner, K.S. Thorne & J.A. Wheeler

Tidal forces and Roche Potential

Gradient of external gravitational force across an extended body tends to

Object B would not remain intact if FT > Fg

Roche Potential in a binary system

Roche Potential in the equatorial plane

Lagrangian points and the Roche Lobe

• Theoretical Astrophysics, vol. 1 sec. 2.3 : T. Padmanabhan