NERVOUS SYSTEM

I. Cells of the nervous system

1. Cells of the nervous system

- Cell body: organelles, nucleus

- Dendrites: highly branched extensions => receive signals from other neurons

- Axon: extension that transmits signals to other cells

- Axon hillock: cone-shaped base of an axon => generate signals to travel down the axon

- Synapse: junction where branched end of an axon transmits information

(neurotransmitters) to another cell

2. Neuron structure

- Neurons: cells which conduct electrical impulses

- Neuroglia (“support cell”): nourish, support, protect, and maintain the neurons

 Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheaths surrounding axons

 In the CNS, myelinated axons form white matter (while dendrites/cell bodies form

gray matter)

 In the PNS, myelinated axons are bundled to form nerves

3. Three types of neurons

- Sensory neurons (afferent neurons): detect external (light, sound, touch, smell) or

internal (blood pressure, muscle tension) – carry impulses to CNS (central)

- Interneurons (association neurons): vast majority of neurons in the brain => provide

more complex reflexes and associative functions (learning and memory)

- Motor neurons (efferent neurons): carry impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles and

glands)
II. Electrical physiology of a neuron

 Membrane potential: a source of energy created by attraction of opposite charges

across the plasma membrane – the charge difference (voltage)

 Resting potential: one that is not sending a signal

1. Resting membrane potential

- Ions are unequally distributed => a potential difference exists across every cell’s plasma

membrane

- When a neuron is not being stimulated, it maintains a resting membrane potential (ranges

from -40 to -90 millivolts, average about -70 mV)

- 2 major forces act in ions in establishing the resting membrane potential:

 Electrical potential produced by unequal distribution of charges: the inside of the

cell is more negatively charged than the outside

o Maintain the voltage difference by ion movement through ion channels –

selective permeability (only allow certain ions to pass)

 Concentration gradient produced by unequal concentrations of molecules from

one side to the other

o Sodium – potassium pump: bring two K+ into cell for every three Na+

pumped out using ATP

o Ion leakage channels: allow more K+ to diffuse out than Na+ to diffuse in

(because a resting neuron has many open potassium channels) => stop

when the excess negative charges inside the cell exert an attractive force
2. Action potentials

 Gated ion channels: open or close in response to stimuli

 Chemically gated: ligands are hormones or neurotransmitters

 Voltage gated

- Hyperpolarization: increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential, making the

inside more negative (opening potassium channels => increase the permeability for K+

=> more K+ out of the cell) / results from the increase of the outflow of positive ions or

the inflow of negative ions

- Depolarization: reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential, making it more

positive; bring a neuron closer to threshold.

- Graded potential: a response to hyper/depolarization by shifting the membrane

potential; move the neuron further from the threshold.

 Small transient changes in membrane potential due to activation of gated ion

channels. Size depends on either the strength of the stimulus or the amount of

ligand available.

 Can reinforce or negate each other. Summation is the ability of graded potentials

to combine.

- Action potential: result when depolarization reaches the threshold potential (-55 mV);

has a constant magnitude + regenerate in adjacent regions => spread along axons

 All-or-none response + positive feedback loop: depolarization opens voltage-

gated sodium channels => this opening causes further depolarization

 Intensity of a stimulus is coded by the frequency, not amplitude, of action

potentials
 Caused by voltage-gated ion channels: voltage-gated Na+ channels, voltage-gated

K+ channels.

o Resting stage: The gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed, some

potassium channels are open

o Depolarization: A stimulus opens some sodium channels. Na+ inflow

through those channels depolarizes the membrane.

o Rising phase of the action potential: Depolarization opens most sodium

channels, while the potassium channels remain closed. Na+ influx makes

the inside of the membrane positive with respect to the outside.

o Falling phase of the action potential: Most sodium channels become

inactivated, blocking Na+ inflow. Most potassium channels open,

permitting K+ outflow, which makes the inside of the cells negative again.

o Undershoot: The sodium channels close, but some potassium channels are

still open. As these potassium channels close and the sodium channels

become unblocked (though still closed), the membrane returns to its

resting state.

 Depolarization => Repolarization (close Na+, open K+)=> Hyperpolarization (by

the end of this phase, ions move through leak channels only) => Resting phase

 Refractory period: the “downtime” when a second action potential cannot be

initiated due to the inactivation of sodium channels, not to a change in the ion

gradients across the plasma membrane.

 Mutations in genes that encode ion channel proteins: mutations affecting sodium

channels in skeletal muscle => periodic muscle spasms or myotonia; in the brain

=> epilepsy

- Propagation of action potentials: Immediately behind the travelling zone of

depolarization caused by Na+ inflow is a zone of repolarization caused by K+ outflow.

Consequently, the inward current that depolarizes the axon membrane ahead of the action

potential cannot produce another action potential behind it.

 Myelin sheath: oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS).

 In myelinated axons, voltage-gated sodium channels are restricted to gaps

called nodes of Ranvier.

 Saltatory conduction: In a myelinated axon, the depolarizing current during an

action potential at one node of Ranvier spreads along the interior if the axon to

the next node, where voltage-gated sodium channels enable reinitiation.

3. Events at synapses

- 2 basis types of synapses:

 Electrical synapses (rare in vertebrates): involve direct cytoplasmic connections

between the two cells formed gap junctions that allow electrical current to flow

directly from one neuron to another; synchronize the activity of neurons

responsible for certain rapid, unvarying behaviors.

 Chemical