2018

TOPIC 3 – GENETICS

SUMMARY NOTES BASED ON THE SPECIFICATION

PRODUCED BY ADAM KHAN-QURESHI

IB SL BIOLOGY
3.1 Genes
A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific characteristic
• A gene is a PARTICULAR section of a DNA stand, that when transcribed and translated, forms a
SPECIFIC polypeptide. In other words, it is a HERITABLE factor that influences a specific
CHARACTER.

A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome

• Genes are found on chromosomes.

• Each gene occupies a specific location on a

chromosome; therefore, each eukaryotic chromosome
is a linear series of genes.

• The gene for eye colour, for example, is always found

on the same gene at the same position, this is called
locus.

The various specific forms of a gene are alleles

• Different forms of the same gene are known as alleles.

• Homologous chromosomes resemble each other in structure and they contain the same
sequence of genes.

Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases

New alleles are formed by mutation
¡ A genetic mutation involves a change in the base sequence of a particular gene

Application: The causes of sickle cell anaemia: a base substitution mutation (glutamic acid to be
substituted by valine as the sixth amino acid); a change to the base sequence of mRNA transcribed
from it; a change to the sequence of a polypeptide in hemoglobin
• Anaemia is a disease typically due to a deficiency in healthy red blood cells in the blood.

• Haemoglobin occurs in red blood cells; each molecule contains about 280 million molecules of
haemoglobin. A molecule consists of two alpha haemoglobin and two beta haemoglobin
subunits, making a quaternary protein

• The mutation that produces sickle cell haemoglobin (HgS) is the gene for beta haemoglobin. It
results from the substitution of bases that make up the codons for beta haemoglobin.

• This makes Hb less soluble, so they stick together, and fibres are formed (which can’t carry much
Oxygen).

Symptoms of Sickle Cell Anaemia:

• Severe pain: sickle cells block tiny
vessels

• Anaemia: damaged cells can’t

be replaced fast enough by the
spleen

• Tiredness: shortage of Oxygen

Sickle cell anaemia is a genetically
transmitted disease of the blood caused
by an abnormal form of haemoglobin. Red
cells with ‘sickle’ haemoglobin do not carry
oxygen and can cause blockage of
arterioles. Normally, sickle cell anaemia
confers a disadvantage, but the malarial
parasite is unable to complete its lifecycle
in red blood cells with haemoglobin S, so
the gene for sickle cell is selected in regions
of the world where malaria occurs.

The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism

• Terminology: Distinguish between genome size (total amount of DNA) and the number of genes
in a species

• The knowledge of the genome allows for:

o Physical mapping of chromosomes
o Used to screen for genetic diseases
o Leads to a better understanding of genetic diseases
o May lead to the development of better drugs to fight diseases
o May be used for comparison of genomes with other species

The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human Genome Project
• Outcomes of the Human Genome Project
1. Improved knowledge of how human genes function
2. Improved diagnosis of genetic disease
3. Increased potential for gene therapy
4. Increased potential to design drugs to combat genetic malfunctions

Application: Comparison of the number of genes in humans with other species (should include: at
least one plant and one bacterium; at least one species with more genes and one with fewer genes
than a human)

Skill: Use of a database to determine differences in the base sequence of a gene in two species
(use the Genbank® database to search for DNA base sequences; the cytochrome C gene
sequence is available for many different organisms)
3.2 Chromosomes
Application: Cairns’ technique for measuring the length of DNA molecules by autoradiography
• Autoradiography produces images of DNA molecules from E.coli. This technique was first
developed by British Biologist John Cairns.

• Methodology: Incubating cultures of E.Coli. With radioactive thymine so that after two
generations the bacteria was radioactive. Digesting the cell walls with lysozyme, so that DNA
present was released onto the surface of a membrane. Applying a film of photographic
emulsion to the surface of the membrane and holding it there for weeks. Examine the
developed film microscopically to locate where the radioactive atoms had decayed and
caused darkening of the photographic negative.

• The human genome is the information contained in one set of human chromosomes, which are
built up of about 3 million base pairs (bp) of DNA in 46 chromosomes (22 autosome pairs + 2 sex
chromosomes).
o Total length of DNA = (length of 1bp) x (# of base pairs per cell) x (# of cells in body)

Application: Comparison of genome size in T2 phage, Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster,

Homo sapiens and Paris japonica

Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule

Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not
• Plasmids are small extra DNA molecules found in prokaryotes. Usually circular and is ‘naked’.
Contains a few genes that are not essential to cell function but may be useful to the cell (i.e.
genes for antibiotic resistance). Not replicated at same time as the chromosome, so a cell may
contain many copies of the plasmid – easily transferable.

Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins

In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry different genes
• Chromosomes within a cell are different in: size/number of base pairs, which genes they carry,
sequence of nitrogenous bases, location of centromere and banding pattern when stained

Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the same alleles
of those genes

Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes

• Two of each chromosome type (and so two copies of each gene). In humans’ haploid cells
contain 46 chromosomes.
Haploid sperm and egg fuse
in fertilisation to form a
diploid zygote which divides
by mitosis to form an
embryo. Diploid cells are
somatic cells.

Haploid nuclei have one

chromosome of each pair
• Haploid cells are one of
each chromosome type. In
humans haploid cells
contain 23 chromosomes.
Haploid cells are sex chromosomes (gametes) that fuse together during sexual reproduction.
The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a species
• Chromosome number is a
characteristic feature of
members of a particular
species. Organisms with
different diploid numbers are
unlikely to be able to
interbreed (cannot form
homologous pairs in zygotes).
In cases where different
species do interbreed,
offspring are usually infertile
(cannot form functional
gametes). For instance, a horse (diploid = 64) and a donkey (diploid = 62) may produce an
infertile mule (non-diploid = 63)

Application: Comparison of diploid chromosome numbers of Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Canis
familiaris, Oryza sativa and Parascaris equorum

Sex is determined by sex chromosomes; autosomes are chromosomes that do not determine sex
A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing length
• Terminology: Distinguish between karyotype and karyogram (karyotype is the number and type
of chromosomes present in the nucleus; karyogram is a photograph or diagram of these
chromosomes)

Application: Use of karyograms to deduce sex and diagnose Down syndrome in humans

Skill: Use of databases to identify the locus of a human gene and its polypeptide product
Gene Description Chromosome
Name
DRD4 Gene codes for a Dopamine receptor implicated in a variety of 11
neurological conditions (i.e. bipolar disorder, Parkinson’s, anorexia)
CFTR Gene that codes for the chloride channel membrane protein. A mutated 7
allele of this gene causes Cystic Fibrosis
HBB Gene codes for the beta globin subunit of haemoglobin. A mutated 11
allele of this gene cause Sickle Cell Anaemia
F8 Gene codes for blood clotting factor VII. A mutated allele of this gene X
causes haemophilia.
TDF Testis determining factor – gene that codes for a foetus to develop as a Y
male.
3.3. Meiosis
One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid
nuclei
• Meiosis is a reduction division of nuclei to form haploid
gamete cells.

The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes

DNA is replicated before meiosis in interphase so that all chromosomes consist of two sister
chromatids
• During early parts of meiosis, the chromosomes gradually shorten by supercoiling – each
chromosome consists of two chromatids because all DNA in the nucleus is replicated before
meiosis. The two chromatids are genetically identical.

Skill: Drawing diagrams to show the stages of meiosis resulting in the formation of four haploid cells

Meiosis I Meiosis II
P •Nuclear envelope breaks up •Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
•Crossing over of the chromatids may occur disappears
•Homologous chromosomes pair up to form a •Centrioles replicate and move to
bivalent [pairs of chromosomes] opposite poles of the cell
M •Bivalents line up across equator of spindle and are •Chromosomes line up separately
attached to centromeres along equator of spindle
•Spindle formed as in mitosis
A •Centromeres do not divide unlike mitosis
•Whole chromosomes move towards opposite ends
of spindle, centromeres first pulled by microtubules
T •Nuclear envelope and nucleolus reforms
•Cytokinesis happens
•Chromosomes reached poles of spindle
•Centromeres divide, and spindle
microtubules pull the chromatids to
opposite poles
•Four haploid daughter cells are
formed

The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed
by condensation

Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation

• Crossing over of segments of individual maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes.
These events result in new combinations of genes on the chromosomes of the haploid cells
produced (Prophase I)
• Independent assortment (random orientation) of maternal and paternal homologous
chromosomes. This happens because the way bivalents line up at the equator of the spindle in
Meiosis I is random (Metaphase I)

Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random (random

assortment)
• Spindle fibres are growing from the poles of the cell. After the nuclear envelope has broken
down the spindle microtubules attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes. The attachment
of spindle microtubules is different from mitosis by:
o Each chromosome is attached to one pole only, not to both
 o The two homologous chromosomes in a bivalent are attached to different poles
o The pole to which each chromosome is attached depends on which way the pair of
chromosomes is facing (called orientation)
o The orientation of bivalents is random, so each chromosome has an equal chance of
attaching to each pole, and eventually of being pulled to it
o The orientation of one bivalent does not affect other bivalents. The consequences of the
random orientation of bivalents.

Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the
chromosome number

Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation.

• The fusion of gametes to produce a zygote is significant because
o It is the start of a new life
o It allows for allele from two different individuals to combine to form a new individual
o Fusion of alleles is unlikely to have ever been existed before
o Fusion of gametes promotes genetic variation in a species
o Genetic variation is essential for evolution.

Application: Description of methods used to obtain cells for karyotype analysis, e.g. chorionic villus
sampling and amniocentesis, and the associated risks
Application: Non-disjunction can cause Down syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities
• For example; chromosomes that should separate and move to opposite poles during meiosis
fail to do so. Thus, the whole chromosome is moved. This type of error in meiosis is called non-
disjunction. It results when gametes with more than and less than haploid number of
chromosomes. [Trisomy]

Application: Studies showing how age of parents influences chances of non-disjunction

3.4 Inheritance
Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in
which large numbers of pea plants were crossed
• Nature of science: Making quantitative measurements with
replicates to ensure reliability. Mendel’s genetic crosses with pea
plants generated numerical data
• He discovered the principles of hereditary by studying the
inheritance of seven contrasting characteristics of the garden
pea plant. He concluded that hereditary factors determine these
characteristics, that these factors occur in duplicate in parents
and that the two copies of factors segregate away from each
other in the formation of gametes (formed the laws of genetics )

Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene

Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene that may be the same
allele or different alleles
Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co- dominant alleles have joint effects

Skill: Construction of Punnett grids for predicting the outcomes of monohybrid genetic crosses
• Alleles are different versions of a particular gene
• The appearance of an organism is called its phenotype; these are characteristics
produced by its alleles
• The genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism, which is a not of all the alleles that
are present on the chromosomes
• An allele is either recessive or dominant. Even if there is just a single copy of the dominant
allele in a genotype, then it will be expressed in the phenotype. Only is there is no
dominant allele in an organisms genotype will the recessive allele be shown in its
phenotype
• Heterozygous means the alleles are different (i.e. Aa)
• Homozygous means they’re the same (AA or aa)
• Pure Breed means plants have a homozygous pair of genes (AA or aa)

• Worked Question: Pure breeding long-winged flies are crossed with short winged flies and all the
offspring are long winged. Long wings is dominant. When these offspring are test crossed (testing
a phenotypically dominant phenotype to determine if it is heterozygous or homozygous)
approximately half of the offspring are short winged. Explain why.
Application: Inheritance of ABO blood groups
• Usually within a population there are multiple
alleles of a gene and this is called multiple genes.
However, any one individual can only have two
of these alleles because it has only one pair of
loci for any given gene (i.e. ABO blood groups).
• There are three alleles for blood type IA, IB and i.
It also shows codominance (AB blood group IAIB)
resulting in four different phenotypes.

• Worked Question: Claire is blood group A and her husband Clive is blood group O. Celine is
blood group AB and her husband is blood group B. At the hospital Claire and Celine’s baby girls
were born at the same time and Claire feels the staff have accidently muddled them up. Baby
Melissa is given to Celine is blood group O. Explain how this could solve the confusion.

Skill: Comparison of predicted and actual outcomes of genetic crosses using real data
Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although some
genetic diseases are due to dominant or codominant alleles
• An autosomal recessive genetic disease will only occur if both alleles are faulty.
• An autosomal dominant genetic disease only requires one copy of a faulty allele to cause the
disorder.
• If a genetic disease is caused by co-dominant alleles it will also only require one copy of the
faulty allele to occur

Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most are very rare
• There are over 4,000 identified single gene defects that lead to genetic disease, but most are
very rare. Any allele that adversely affects survival and hence the capacity to reproduce is
unlikely to be passed on to offspring.
• Recessive conditions tend to be more common, as the faulty allele can be present in carriers
without causing disease. Dominant conditions may often have a late onset, as this does not
prevent reproduction and the transfer of the faulty allele

Application: Inheritance of cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease

• Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by a mutation to the CFTR gene on
chromosome 7. Individuals with cystic fibrosis produce mucus which is unusually thick and sticky.
This mucus clogs the airways and secretory ducts of the digestive system, leading to respiratory
failure and pancreatic cysts
• Huntington’s disease is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by a mutation to the Huntingtin
(HTT) gene on chromosome 4. The HTT gene possesses a repeating trinucleotide sequence
(CAG) that is usually present in low amounts (10 – 25 repeats). More than 28 CAG repeats are
unstable and causes the sequence to amplify. When the number of repeats exceeds ~40, the
huntingtin protein will misfold and cause neurodegeneration

Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate and can cause genetic diseases
and cancer
• DNA can be damaged by certain chemicals and by certain types of radiation. These are said
to be mutagenic, meaning they can cause mutations in DNA. Some mutations might become
new alleles that could produce a genetic variation or disease, other mutations are capable of
causing cancer. Chemicals that can cause cancer are called carcinogens. The impact on DNA
depends on length of exposure and concentration per exposure.
Application: Consequences of radiation after the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and nuclear
accident at Chernobyl
• Hiroshima and Nagasaki – nuclear bombs were detonated over these Japanese cities in August
1945. Early in 1948 studies begun to determine the after-effects of radiation using a city 29km
south of Hiroshima as the control. It was found that birth defects were not significantly higher.
However, 200 cases of leukaemia and 1700 cases of solid cancers could be attributed to
radiation damage.

• Chernobyl – In April 1986 nuclear reactor No.4 at Chernobyl exploded and caught fire. Several
tons of radioactive material were released into the atmosphere, made worse by being carried
up in the heat from the fire. 400x more radioactive material was released than from the
Hiroshima bomb. This spread across huge parts of the land. Workers died in the plant and rescue
and firefighters were either killed quickly or died within a few weeks from high dosage of
radiation. Millions of people received increased doses of radiation. Groundwater became
contaminated and the radiation accumulated in food chains. Thyroid cancer in children due
to ioidine-131 rose to over 6000 by 2005. A report stated that there had been no increase in the
rate of human birth defects or solid cancers. However, it raised the possibility of long-term
genetic defects due to a large increase in tandem repeats amongst children.

Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked genes
due to their location on sex chromosomes
Application: Red–green colour blindness and hemophilia as examples of sex-linked inheritance
• Red-green colour blindness and haemophilia are both examples of X-linked recessive conditions
o Haemophilia: XH = unaffected (normal blood clotting); Xh = affected (haemophilia)
o Colour blindness: XA = unaffected (normal vision); Xa = affected (colour blindness)

• Haemophilia is a genetic disorder whereby the body’s ability to control blood clotting is impaired
o The formation of a blood clot is controlled by a cascade of coagulation factors whose genes
are located on the X chromosome
o When one of these factors becomes defective, fibrin formation is prevented - meaning
bleeding continues for a long time
o Different forms of haemophilia can occur, based on which specific coagulation factor is
mutated (e.g. haemophilia A = factor VIII)

• Red-green colour blindness is a genetic disorder whereby an individual fails to discriminate

between red and green hues
o This condition is caused by a mutation to the red or green retinal photoreceptors, which are
located on the X chromosome

• Worked Question: Ethan has haemophilia but Sasha, his wife, was normal and not a carrier. Their
daughter Karen married Jacob who also had haemophilia. Determine the phenotypes of their
sons and daughter.

Skill: Analysis of pedigree charts to deduce the pattern of inheritance of genetic diseases
3.5 Genetic modification and biotechnology
Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA according to size
• During gel electrophoresis, proteins or nucleic acid fragments are separated due to: size and
charge
o Differential migration of these molecules
through a supporting medium (agarose gel is
used for large quantities whilst SDS-page are
used for small quantities). In these media tiny
ports of the gel act as a molecular sieve, small
particles can move more quickly whilst larger
ones can’t.
o Electrical charge the molecules carry
(isoelectronic point) – it is the phosphate
groups that give the overall negative charge.
They migrate to the anode.
• After separation the fragments become are not immediately
visible, they can be identified by gene probes and DNA stains:
• Gene probes - single-stranded DNA with a base sequence that
is complementary to that of a particular fragment or gene whose
position or presence is sought. It is radioactive so that when
exposed to X-ray film it becomes visible. Alternatively, fluorescent
stain can be attached.
• Stains – these immediately locate the position of all DNA
fragments once applied
• Ethidium bromide – DNA fragments fluoresce in short wave UV
radiation
• Methylene blue – stains gel and DNA but colour fades quickly

Model Answer: Gel electrophoresis uses a gel of agar within a chamber where a current is
applied. A DNA sample is digested or cleaved using restriction enzymes; a dyeing solution is
added and then the samples are inserted into the gel. The fragments separate based on their
negative charge and size, creating visible bands – the smaller fragments are able to go faster
and further than the larger fragments. Fragments have to move through he porous structure of
the gel towards the anode. The buffer maintains the pH of the solution and allows the electrical
current to flow between the anode and cathode. The power supply provides a continual
electrical current, allowing the negatively charged DNA fragments to move to the anode.

PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA

• In PCR double stranded DNA is amplified meaning more
copies are made.
• In PCR, DNA is copied in an in vitro process
• The heat resistant polymerase enzyme (Taq polymerase)
used in PCR can be obtained from bacteria in hot springs.
DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA
• DNA profiling is a technique by which individuals can be identified and compared via their
respective DNA profiles. Within the non-coding regions of an individual’s genome there exists
satellite DNA – long stretches of DNA made up of repeating elements called short tandem
repeats (STRs). As individuals will likely have different numbers of repeats at a given satellite DNA
locus, they will generate unique DNA profiles

Application: Use of DNA profiling in paternity and forensic investigations

• Forensic Investigations: Suspects should be a complete match with the DNA sample taken from
the crime scene if a conviction is to occur. The number of loci used to generate a unique profile
depends on the size of the population being compared

• Paternity Testing: Children inherit half their chromosomes from each parent and thus should
possess a combination of parental fragments

Skill: Analysis of examples of DNA profiles

Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species

• A gene determines a particular trait by
encoding for a specific polypeptide in
a given organism Because the genetic
code is (almost) universal, an organism
can potentially express a new trait if the
appropriate gene is introduced into its
genome The transfer of genes between
species is called gene modification,
and the new organism created is called a transgenic

Application: Gene transfer to bacteria using plasmids makes use of restriction endonucleases and
DNA ligase
Application: Assessment of the potential risks and benefits associated with genetic modification of
crops
• Nature of science: Assessing risks associated with scientific research – scientists attempt to assess
the risks associated with genetically modified crops or livestock
Benefits
Environmental • Pest-resistant crop varieties can
be produced – less insecticide
has to be sprayed (less harm to
beneficial insects and bees)
• Reduce the need for spraying
crops – less fuel needed
• Shelf life of fruit and vegetables
can be improved – reducing
wastage and area of land
needed to grow the plants
Health • Nutritional value of crops can be
improved (i.e. vitamin content)
• Varieties of crops could be
produced lacking toxins that are
normally found within them
• GM crops could be engineered
to produce vaccines (immunity)
Agricultural • Resistant to drought, cold and •
salinity conditions – expending
the range over which crops can
be produced (increase yield)
• Crop varieties can be produced •
that are resistant to viruses
• A gene for herbicide resistance
can be transferred to crop plants •
– allows all other plants to be
killed in the growing crop by
spraying with herbicide
Risks
• Non-target organisms can be
affected by toxins that are intended
to control pests in GM crops
• Gene transferred to crop plants to
make them herbicide resistance can
spread to other plants
(uncontrollable super weeds)
• Biodiversity can reduce
• Proteins produced by transcription
and translation could be toxic/cause
adverse side effects in humans etc
• Antibiotic resistance genes used as
markers during genetic transfer can
spread to pathogenic bacteria
• Transferred genes can mutate and
cause unexpected problems
Some seeds from crop is spilt and
germinated to become unwanted
volunteer plants – difficult to control if
herbicide resistant genes
Widespread use of GM crops
containing toxin that kills insect pests
will leads to spread of resistance
Farmers are not permitted by patent
law to save and re-sow GM crops
they have grown – so strains adapted
to local conditions cannot be
developed
Skill: Analysis of data on risks to monarch butterflies of Bt crops
• Previously, farmers would protect crops from pests by
spraying with chemical pesticides. Today, may crops
are genetically-modified with a gene from the
bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that produces a
protein toxic to insects
• The Bt toxin kills targeted pest like the corn-borer
worm, but also kills non-target insects
• Monarch butterflies feed on milkweed which often
grow near Bt crops. When pollen from the Bt crops
ends up dusting milkweed plants, butterflies
consume the toxin and die

Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms derived from a single original parent cell
• A clone is an organism or a group of cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell they
came from. Cloning occurs when there is no mixing of genes and DNA (asexual reproduction)

Many plant species and some animal species have natural methods of cloning
Animals Plants Humans
• Binary Fission - The parent organism divides • Vegetative • Identical twins
equally in two, so as to produce two propagation - (monozygotic)
genetically identical daughter organisms whereby small pieces are created
• Budding - Cells split off the parent organism, can be induced to when a
generating a smaller daughter organism grow independently fertilised egg
which eventually separates from the parent because adult plants (zygote) splits
• Fragmentation - New organisms grow from a possess meristematic into two
separated fragment of the parent organism tissue capable of identical cells,
• Parthenogenesis - Embryos are formed from cellular each forming
unfertilised ova (via the production of a differentiation an embryo
diploid egg cells by the female) (totipotent)

Skill: Design of an experiment to assess one factor affecting the rooting of stem-cuttings
• Equipment list: wide-necked conical flasks 50cm3, glass tubing 20cm, plastic tubing, aquarium
pump, non-absorbent cotton wool, liquid media, distilled water and aluminium foil

Method:
1. Place the cutting in the flask so that the cut end is immersed in the
culture medium.
2. Insert the glass tube in to the medium and hold the cutting and tube
with non-absorbent cotton wool.
3. Attach the glass tube to an aquarium pump using glass tubing. Adjust
the height of tube in the flask, it should be under the surface of the
liquid but not touching the bottom. Adjust the aquarium pump so
there is a steady flow of air to aerate the liquid.
4. Cover the flask in aluminium foil. This stops light entering the flask, so
algae will not grow in it.
5. Leave the plants in a cool, humid environment out of direct sunlight.

Possible factors to study:

Cutting above or below node, length of cutting, whether end is left in air
or compost/water, how many leaves are left on, use of hormone root powder, type of compost
and temperature
Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the embryo into more than one group
of cells

Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using differentiated cells
• This method of using differentiated cells to generate cloned embryos can be used for two main
purposes:
1. Reproductive cloning: If the embryo is implanted into the uterus of a surrogate, a new cloned
organism will develop
2. Therapeutic cloning: Embryonic cells can be induced to differentiate to create specific
tissues or organs for transplantation

Application: Production of cloned embryos produced by somatic- cell nuclear transfer

1. A somatic cell (non-gamete cell) from the udder of the original donor sheep to be cloned was
collected and cultured. The nucleus was removed from the cultured cell
2. An unfertilized oocyte was collected from another sheep and its nucleus was removed
(enucleated)
3. Using an electrical current, the egg cell and the nucleus from the cultured somatic cell were
fused together. This sets the cell cycle back to G0
4. The new cell developed in vitro in a similar way to a zygote and started to form an embryo.
5. The embryo was placed in the womb of a surrogate mother sheep.
6. The embryo developed normally.
7. Dolly was born and was presented to the world as a clone of the original donor sheep. One
thing set her apart from her genetic mother: only the nuclear genome was copied, not the
mitochondrial DNA. The mitochondrial DNA in Dolly’s cells came from the surrogate mother.