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Unit-1
Chapter1 Usability of Interactive Systems
INTRODUCTION
The interface should have inherent quality like usability, universality and usefulness.
Following are the functional purposes put forward by US Military standards for Human
Engineering Design criteria.
USABILITY MEASURES
USABILITY MOTIVATIONS
1. Life-critical systems
o Air traffic control, nuclear reactors, power utilities, police & fire dispatch
systems
o High costs, reliability and effectiveness are expected
o Length training periods are acceptable to provide error-free performance
o Subject satisfaction is less an issue due to well motivated users.
o Retention via frequent use of common functions and practice sessions for
emergency actions.
2. Industrial and commercial uses
o Banking, insurance, order entry, inventory management, reservation,
billing, and point-of-sales systems
o Lower cost may sacrifice reliability. Costs shape many judgments.
o Operator training time is expensive, learning must be easy
o Translation to multiple languages & adaptations to local cultures are
necessary due to international business market.
o Speed and error rates are relative to cost, however speed of performance is
the supreme concern.
o Subjective satisfaction is of modest importance, retention via frequent use.
3. Office, home, and entertainment applications
o Personal computing applications like word processing, e-mail, search
engines, educational packages, computer conferencing, video games, cell
phones & mobile devices.
o Ease of learning, low error rates, subjective satisfaction is important.
o Competition is fierce hence clear easy-to-remember procedures needed.
o Choosing functionality is difficult because the population has a wide range
of both novice and expert users.
o One approach is usage of Layered or level-structured design which
evolves from novice to expert usage.(basic or advanced interface)
o Another approach is to trim the features to make a simple interface for
novice users.
o Competition leads to the need for low cost.
4. Exploratory, creative, and collaborative interfaces
o Exploratory applications like WWW browsing, search engines, scientific
simulation etc.
o Creative applications include writing workbenches, architectural design
systems, artists, programmer workstations etc.
o Collaborative applications like video conferencing, email, groupware,
remote logins etc.
o Benchmark tasks are hard to describe due to the wide range of application
tasks
o With these applications, design should be such that the computer should
"vanish" so that the user can be absorbed in their task domain.
o Computer to provide direct-manipulation representation with keyboard
shortcuts, immediate feedbacks and new set of choices.
o User to focus on their tasks with minimal distractions in operating the
interface.
5. Sociotechnical systems
o Complex systems involving many people over long time periods like
Voting systems, health support, identity verification, crime reporting etc
o Such interfaces need to deal with trust, privacy, responsibility, limiting
malicious tampering, deception, and incorrect information.
o Users need access to verifiable sources, adequate feedback, status checks.
o Users with diverse level of expertise (novice and experts) need to be
supported.
o Ease of learning for novice users is required , provide feedback that builds
trust
o Professional administrators and investigators should be provided with
rapid performance of complex procedures with visualization tools to
detect unusual patterns and fraud in usage logs.
UNIVERSAL USABILITY
Human ability to interpret sensory input rapidly and initiate actions makes
modern computer systems possible. Below is the classification of human
cognitive process.
cognitive process
o short-term and working memory
o long-term and semantic memory
o problem solving and reasoning
o decision making and risk assessment
o Language communication and comprehension
o Search, imagery and sensory memory
o Learning, skill development, knowledge acquisition
factors affecting perceptual and motor performance
o arousal and vigilance
o fatigue and sleep deprivation
o perceptual (mental) load
o knowledge of results and feedback
o monotony and boredom
o sensory deprivation
o nutrition and diet
o Fear, anxiety, mood and emotion
o drugs, smoking and alcohol
o Physiological rhythms
3. Personality differences
Clear understanding of personality and cognitive styles help in designing the user
interface.
There is no set taxonomy for identifying user personality types
Designers must be aware that populations are subdivided and that these
subdivisions have various responses to different stimuli.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Carl Jung’s theories of
personality types. It defines the relationship between professions and personality
types and between people of different personality types. Four important theories
o extroversion versus introversion : Extroverts focus on external stimuli
and like variety & action. Introverts prefer familiar patterns, rely on their
inner ideas and work alone.
o sensing versus intuition : Sensing types like established routines, applies
known skills, and good at precise work. Intuitive types like solving new
problems, discovering new relations but dislikes taking time for precision.
o perceptive versus judging : Perceptive types like to learn new situations,
but trouble in making decisions. Judging types like to make careful plan
and execution of plan even if new facts change the goal.
o feeling versus thinking : Feeling types are aware of other people’s
feelings, try to please others, relate well to most people. Thinking types
are unemotional, treats people impersonally, prefer logically ordering of
things.
MBTI approach is adopted in many other techniques like Big Five Test, OCEAN
model.
Another approach to personality assessment is by studying of user behavior.
The user interface design also deeply depends on cultural, ethnic, racial or
linguistic background.
Customized local versions of user interface should be emphasized.
User-Interface design for internationalization includes the following:
o characters, numerals, special characters, and diacriticals
o Left-to-right versus right-to-left versus vertical input and reading
o Date and time formats
o Numeric and currency formats
o Weights and measures
o Telephone numbers and addresses
o Names and titles (Mr., Ms., Mme.)
o Social-security, national identification, and passport numbers
o Capitalization and punctuation
o Sorting sequences
o Icons, buttons, colors
o Pluralization, grammar, spelling
o Etiquette, policies, tone, formality, metaphors
Designers must plan early to accommodate users with disabilities like visual,
hearing and motor disabilities.
Screen magnification, text-to-speech conversion, spatial information to spoken
text conversion, telecommunication devices for the deaf (TDD) are some of the
techniques that can be used to support users with disabilities.
Businesses must comply with the "Americans With Disabilities" Act for
applications.
Making the interfaces adapted to old adult user’s usage helps to share their
experience and make profit from their participation.
Interfaces can be designed with control over font sizes, color, brightness, display
contrast and audio levels.
Redesigning with easier-to-use pointing devices, clearer navigation paths,
consistent layouts, simpler command languages to improve access for older
adults.
Reducing anxiety and fear of computer usage: Test can be run to determine the
effectiveness of redesigned interfaces and of improved training procedures.
Graceful Evolution: Design should be able to support both novice and expert
users in the field of prompting, error messages, online assistance, display
complexity, informative feedback, control panels etc.
Specification and implementation of interaction: Use of User-interface building
tools can reduce the implementation time when compared to extensive coding in
programming languages.
Direct manipulation: Visual languages, information visualization, telepresence
and virtual reality are some of the means of direct manipulation.
Input devices: Support for high – precision touchscreen, mouse, stylus, voice
input devices for various speed, accuracy, fatigue, error correction, subjective
satisfaction.
Online help: Online aids for novices, knowledgeable users and experts.
Information exploration: User need to filter, select , explore, restructure
information (text, images, graphics, sound) rapidly with minimum effort.
Many novice users are fearful to use computers due to experience with poor
product design which displays SYNTAX ERROR, complex sequence of actions.
Good designs help novices come out of these fears by being clear, competent, and
nonthreatening computer interfaces which provides user competence and
satisfaction.
Unit-1
Chapter 2: Theories, Principles, and Guidelines
INTRODUCTION
GUIDELINES
Providing clear rules is helpful for navigation. Sample of the National Cancer
Institutes guidelines:
W3C adapted the guidelines to promote accessibility for users with disabilities.
Few of the accessibility guidelines are:
Below are the five high level goals as a part of display design guidelines given by Smith
and Mosier. Or What the display design guidelines
Smith and Moiser offer 5 high level guidelines for data entry.
PRINCIPLES
“Know thy user” is the first principle in Hansen’s user engineering principles. All design
should begin with understanding intended users and their profiles.
User characteristics
Age
Gender
Physical abilities
Education
Cultural or ethnic background , communities , countries
Training
Motivation
Goals
Personality
High level tasks can be decomposed into multiple middle-level task actions,
which are refined into atomic actions.
These atomic actions are executed with single command or menu selection.
Measuring the relative task frequencies of use is important. Frequent tasks are
simple, quick to carry.
Matrix of users and tasks is helpful. Frequencies of the task done is plotted in this
matrix
Direct manipulation
o Visual représentation of objects and action is modified directly by user.
o This approach is simple, tasks can be performed rapidly and results can be
viewed immediately.
o Pointing devices are used instead of keyboard entry or menu choices.
o It is appealing to novice users, easy to remember to intermittent users and
rapid for frequent users.
o Example : desktop metaphor, air-traffic-control systems , games.
Menu selection
o User to read a list of items, select the choice appropriate to their task and
observe the effect.
o Little learning, easy to remember, good for novice and intermittent users.
o Clear structure to decision making
Form filling or Fill in the blanks
o Used when data entry is needed.
o User presented with display of related fields to enter the desired data.
o Appropriate for knowledgeable intermittent users or frequent users.
o Modest training is needed
Command language
o Frequent users can get control over the interface with command language
o Complex possibilities with syntax can be presented by users.
o Simple macro creation and easy history keeping.
o Error rate is high, training is necessary, retention is poor.
Natural language
o Meant for users with task domain knowledge.
o Eliminates the need to learn the language syntax.
4. Use the Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design
5. Prevent Errors
To reduce of productivity due to errors, better error messages which are specific,
constructive, positive tone should be provided by the interface.
Errors can be avoided by organizing screens and menus functionally, designing
commands or menu choices distinctive.
Correct actions:
o Prevent incorrect use of the interface
o Gray out inappropriate menu items (actions)
o Selection rather than freestyle typing , example, date selection on a
calendar.
o Automatic completion of the command to reduce error rate.
Complete sequences
o Single abstract commands, example a single command to revise all section
titles consistently.
o Macros and subroutines to support users to define their own sequence of
actions to complete the task
o Designers to gather information about potential complete sequences by
studying the users and the sequence of complete commands issued by
them.
Universal usability will also reduce errors.
THEORIES
• Aim for discipline of human-computer interaction is to go beyond the specifics of
guidelines.
• Principles are used to develop theories
• Descriptions/explanatory theories: Develop consistent terminology for objects and
actions.
• Observing behavior
• Describing activity
• Conceiving of designs
• Comparing high-level concepts of two designs
• Training
• Predictive theories: Enable designers to compare proposed designs for execution
times or error rates.
• Motor task performance theories: It involves actions like pointing with a mouse
and helps in predicting key stroking or pointing time.
• Perceptual activities theories: It involves actions like finding an item on a display
and helps in predicting the reading times for free text, list, display etc.
• Cognitive aspects theories: It involves actions like boldfaced character conversion to
italic style. It focuses on short-term, working, long-term memory central to problem
solving and productivity depended on response time.
• Web designers use information architecture models with navigation as key to user
success. Information foraging theory is important.
Another approach to form theories is to portray the stages of actions that users go through
using interactive products.
Norman's seven stages of action, arranged in cyclic pattern.
Goals, operators, methods, and selection rules (GOMS) model (CMN Card,
Moran, Newell)
It is a model for different level analysis which is achieved by decomposing user
actions into small measurable steps.
GOMS model postulated
User begins by formulating goals (edit document) and subgoals (insert word).
User then thinks in terms of operators (elementary perceptual, motor, cognitive
acts).
User achieves goals by using methods. Selection rules are the control structures
for choosing between several methods for achieving the goals.
GOMS helps in decision making while carrying out interaction tasks like text
editing in a manuscript.
Extending GOMS with if-then rules describes conditions & actions.
Keystroke-level model
Simplified version of GOMS
Predicts performance times for error-free expert performance of tasks (keystroke,
pointing, drawing, thinking waiting for system response )
Transition diagrams : Helpful during design ,for instruction, as a predictor of
learning time, performance time and errors.
Natural GOMS Language (NGOMSL) : An analysis method for writing down
GOMS model. It helps in making judgment call, user assumptions, bypassing a
complex task, consistency check.
CPM-GOMS(cognitive, perceptual, motor and critical path method) models the
overlapping (multitasking) behavior displayed by extremely skilled users.
Several alternative methods to delete fields, e.g.
o Method 1 to accomplish the goal of deleting the field:
1. Decide: If necessary, then accomplish the goal of selecting the
field
2. Accomplish the goal of using a specific field delete method
3. Report goal accomplished
o Method 2 to accomplish the goal of deleting the field:
1. Decide: If necessary, then use the Browse tool to go to the card
with the field
2. Choose the field tool in the Tools menu
3. Note that the fields on the card background are displayed
4. Click on the field to be selected
5. Report goal accomplished
o Selection rule set for goal of using a specific field-delete method:
If you want to past the field somewhere else, then choose "Cut
Field" from the Edit menu.
If you want to delete the field permanently, then choose "Clear
Field" from the Edit menu.
Report goal accomplished.
Dictionary of tasks:
move-cursor-one-character-forward [Direction=forward,Unit=char]
move-cursor-one-character-backward [Direction=backward,Unit=char]
move-cursor-one-word-forward [Direction=forward,Unit=word]
move-cursor-one-word-backward [Direction=backward,Unit=word]
5. Widget-level theories
o Monitor stock prices, blood pressures etc and give alert when normal
ranges are exceeded.
o Gather information from meetings or rescue team and spread the action
plan or current status.
o Participate in a large group activity by voting and relate to specific
individuals by sending private messages
o Locate the nearest landmarks and identify the details of current location
o Capture information or photos left by others and share yours with future
visitors.
Object-action design:
3. Designer makes interface actions visible to users, so that users can decompose
their plans into a series of intermediate actions like opening a dialog box, to
details of keystrokes, clicks etc.
• Interface includes hierarchies of objects and actions at high and low levels
Interface Objects
o directory
name
length
date of creation
owner
access control
o files of information
lines
fields
characters
fonts
pointers
binary numbers
Interface Actions
o load a text data file
o insert into the data file
o save the data file
save the file
save a backup of the file
apply access-control rights
overwrite previous version
assign a name
Designers’ craft interface objects and actions based on familiar examples, then
tune those objects and actions to fit the task.
Users learn interface objects and actions by:
o seeing a demonstration
o hearing an explanation of features
o conducting trial-and-error sessions
OAI model can be applied to systematize designers work.
Where possible, task objects should be made explicit, and users task action should
be laid out clearly.
It provides comprehensibility to users and independence from specific hardware.
Design is inherently creative and unpredictable. Interactive system designers must blend
knowledge of technical feasibility with a mystical esthetic sense of what attracts users.
Each project has different needs, but guidelines should be considered for:
Screen-layout issues
Action sequences
Training
Customers and users may not have a clear idea of what the system will
look like when it is done
Web designers recognize they must carry out many small and some large
pilot tests of components before release to the customer
Ethnographic Observation
User Interface (UI) designers employ ethnographic methods for observing
interface users in the workspace
Ethnographic observation helps to collect necessary data, learn the complexities
of the organization firsthand, increase trustworthiness.
Personal presence of the designers at workplace helps in developing the
relationship with interface users.
Users will be active participants in the design of their new interface.
1. UI designers not only understand the subject but also focus on interfaces for
the purpose of changing and improving those interfaces.
2. Traditional ethnographers may take weeks or months but UI designers that a
period of days or even hours.
Preparation
Analysis
Reporting
Participatory Design
Participatory design strategy is controversial.
Druin’s model shows four levels of user participation. It involves testers for trying out
novel designs, informants to provide comments to designers through interview and focus
groups, design partners are active members of design team.
Scenario Development
When current interface is redesigned or automation of manual system is done,
reliable information about user task frequencies and sequenced is important for
UI design.
Day-in-the-life scenarios:
Legal Issues
1. Privacy protection in user-interface mechanism involves controlling password
access, identify checking, data verification.
2. UI for real time systems like aircraft, automobiles, medical and military systems
should be safe and reliable and should not display confused results.
3. Copyright or patent protection for software. Open source initiative enforces on
read, redistribute, modification of source code, so that software evolves.
4. Copyright protection for online information, images, music.
5. Freedom of speech in electronic environment is a serious issue.
Potential Controversies
INTRODUCTION
Designers can become so entranced with their creations that they may fail to
evaluate them adequately.
Experienced designers have attained the wisdom and humility to know that
extensive testing is a necessity.
If Feedback is “breakfast of champions”, then Testing is the “dinner of the gods”.
Correct choices should be selected to form a balanced evaluation plan.
The factors determining the evaluation plan include:
o stage of design (early, middle, late)
o novelty of project (well defined vs. exploratory)
o number of expected users
o criticality of the interface (life-critical medical system vs. museum exhibit
support)
o costs of product and finances allocated for testing
o time available
o experience of the design and evaluation team
The range of evaluation plans might be from an ambitious two-year test for an air-
traffic-control-system to a few days test for an internal website.
The range of costs might be from 20% of a project down to 5%.
Usability testing and document testing is critical for any project involving
interface designs.
Troubling aspects of testing for user interface include:
o Uncertainty about the perfection and quality of the product even after
execution of exhaustive multiple tests.
o Timeline setting for prototype testing completion.
o Performance testing for air-traffic –controller, nuclear-reactor-controllers
is difficult.
o Stress testing and partial-equipment testing for life-critical applications.
EXPERT REVIEWS
Moreover, even experienced expert reviewers have great difficulty knowing how
typical users, especially first-time users will really behave.
The emergence of usability testing and laboratories since the early 1980s is an
indicator of the profound shift in attention to user needs.
The remarkable surprise was that usability testing not only speeds up many
projects but that it produced dramatic cost savings.
The movement towards usability testing stimulated the construction of usability
laboratories.
USABILITY LABORATORIES
o A typical modest usability lab would have two 10 by 10 foot areas, one for
the participants to do their work and another, separated by a half-silvered
mirror, for the testers and observers (designers, managers, and customers).
o Usability laboratories staff should be expert in testing and UI design,
serving 10-15 projects per year.
o Laboratory staffs meet UI architect or manager at start of project to make
test plan with schedules and budget.
o They participate in early task analysis; provide information on software
tools, references to develop usability tests.
o 2-6 weeks before usability test, test plan is created.
o Pilot test of procedures, tasks, questionnaires with 1-3 participants is
conducted a week ahead to incorporate changes.
o After changes are approved, participants should be chosen to represent the
intended user communities, with attention to background in computing,
experience with the task, motivation, education, and ability with the
natural language used in the interface.
o Participation should always be voluntary, and informed consent should be
obtained. Professional practice is to ask all subjects to read and sign a
statement like this one:
I have freely volunteered to participate in this experiment.
I have been informed in advance what my task(s) will be and what
procedures will be followed.
I have been given the opportunity to ask questions, and have had
my questions answered to my satisfaction.
I am aware that I have the right to withdraw consent and to
discontinue participation at any time, without prejudice to my
future treatment.
My signature below may be taken as affirmation of all the above
statements; it was given prior to my participation in this study.
Videotaping participants performing tasks is often valuable for later review and
for showing designers or managers the problems that users encounter.
Field tests attempt to put new interfaces to work in realistic environments for a
fixed trial period. Field tests can be made more fruitful if logging software is used
to capture error, command, and help frequencies plus productivity measures.
Variant forms of usability testing
o Paper mockups: Paper mockups of screen displays to assess user
reactions to wording, layout, sequencing. Test administrator acts the role
of computer by flipping the pages while participants carry out task. This
testing is inexpensive, rapid and productive.
o Discount usability testing: This is a quick and dirty approach which can
be used as formative evaluation. It lowers the barriers to newcomers. More
extensive usability testing can be used summative evaluation. Formative
evaluation can guide redesign while summative evaluation can be used for
product announcements and trainings needs.
o Competitive usability testing: It compares a new interface to previous
versions or similar products of competitors. It is like controlled
experimental study and staff must construct parallel sets of task. Fewer
participants are needed but for longer timer.
o Universal usability testing: It tests interfaces with highly diverse users,
hardware, software platforms, and networks. Trials with small and large
displays, slow/fast networks, various OS, browsers will help in increasing
customer success.
o Field tests and portable labs: This testing approach puts new interfaces
to work in realistic environment for a fixed period of time. Portable
usability labs with videotaping and logging facilities are developed.
Supplying users with test versions (beta versions) of new software or
consumer products for comments.
o Remote usability testing: Usability tests for Web-based applications can
be conducted online, avoiding the need to bring participants to lab. Large
number of participants with diverse background is included in this test.
Less control over user behavior and less chance to observe their reactions.
o Can you break this tests: Game designers pioneered the can-you-break-
this approach to usability testing by providing energetic teenagers with the
challenge of trying to beat new games. This destructive testing approach,
in which the users try to find fatal flaws in the system, or otherwise to
destroy it, have been used in other projects and should be considered
seriously.
For all its success, usability testing does have at least two serious limitations: it
emphasizes first-time usage and has limited coverage of the interface features.
These and other concerns have led design teams to supplement usability testing
with the varied forms of expert reviews.
SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
ACCEPTANCE TESTS
For large implementation projects, the customer or manager usually sets objective
and measurable goals for hardware and software performance.
If the completed product fails to meet acceptance criteria like response time
requirements, meantime between failures then the system must be reworked until
success is demonstrated.
Rather than the vague and misleading criterion of "user friendly," measurable
criteria for the user interface can be established for the following:
o Time to learn specific functions
o Speed of task performance
o Rate of errors by users
o Human retention of commands over time
o Subjective user satisfaction
In a large system, there may be eight or 10 such tests to carry out on different
components of the interface and with different user communities.
System response time, installation procedures, documents, output is considered in
acceptance tests of complete product.
Goal of acceptance testing is not to detect flaws but to verify adherence to
requirements.
Once acceptance testing has been successful, there may be a period of field testing
before national or international distribution.
The goal of early expert reviews, usability testing, surveys, acceptance testing,
and field testing is to force as much of the evolutionary development as possible
into the prerelease phase, when change is relatively easy and inexpensive to
accomplish.
INTRODUCTION
New software tools must support the software for greater plasticity, flexible control over
window size, fonts, colors, background, text to foreign language conversion, universal
usability and device-independent programming.
SPECIFICATION METHODS
First asset in making designs is a good notation to record and discuss alternate
possibilities:
default language for specifications in any field is the designer's natural language
like English
Initial specifications are drawn up on sketchpad, or blackboard
Formal and semiformal languages like grammars are employed. For graphical user
interface design (GUI), a grammar is used to describe sequences of actions. These
grammars tend to be short making transition diagrams and graphical specifications more
appealing.
1. Grammars
2. Menu Selection and dialog-box trees
3. Transition diagrams
4. State charts
5. User-action notation (UAN)
1. Grammars
Grammars are useful to specify textual commands or expressions that a
program should understand. They are used in verifying the validity of
spreadsheet calculators, telephone-book entries.
Backus-Naur Form (a.k.a. Backus Normal Form or BNF) is used to
describe programming languages. High-level components are described as
nonterminals and specific strings are described as terminals.
Grammars Example for telephone-book entry
The square brackets indicate that zero or more options can be included, and
the -rR indicates that one of these options for recursive copying is required for
copying directories.
Multiparty grammars
“go from Paris to Bangkok and Singapore” is specified using JSpeech grammar
import <com.acme.cities.*>
Public <travel> = go from <city> ( to <city> )+;
3. Transition Diagram
4. State Charts
file-! Indicates dehighlight the file, outline(file) > ~ means that the outline is dragged by
the cursor.
INTERFACE-BUILDING TOOLS
Rapid Prototyping
Software Support
o Increase productivity
o Offer some constraint & consistency checks
o Facilitate team approaches
o Ease maintenance
• User-Interface mockups can be created with paper and pencil, word processors,
presentation software, multimedia construction tools like Macromedia Director,
Flash MX, Dreamweaver.
• Prototypes aid to design discussions and effective in winning contracts.
• Visual development tools like Microsoft Visual Studio.NET, Borland Jbuilder
have easy-to-use design tools for dragging buttons, labels, data-entry fields,
combo boxes onto a workspace to assemble visual interface.
• Reduction in design time for user interfaces if supplied widgets like labels, data-
entry boxes, scrollbars, text areas are used.
• Jbuilder has huge library of widgets for sale, good access to database, faster code
interpreters can be used.
2. Software-engineering tools
Four software layers available to build a user interface, related visual tools,
examples of popular tools at each level.
Layer4: The higher-level tools are interface generators, called user-interface
management systems or model-based building tools. Most of the applications can
be built quickly using these visual tools.
1. Part of the application built using the tool: some tools support building
presentation part , low-level interaction part, interaction to other parts of
the application
2. Learning time
3. Building time
4. Methodology imposed or advised : top down or bottom up (front end and
then backend development)
5. Communication with other subsystems: Communication with database,
files located on web, other resources
6. Extensibility and modularity: Reusability of the software application
Some platforms are too new to offer high-level building tools, forcing software
engineer to work at a low level.
Interfaces for mobile devices should be done at windowing –system level.
Programming at this level is required when no higher-level tool exists or memory
or performance is critical.
Higher-level tool all rely on this level but provide programming abstractions and
interactive tools to simplify the programming.
Since no visual tools exists at this level, designers use drawing programs to
express graphical intents to software engineers.
All programs have below form:
GUI toolkits are user-interface program libraries that offer common widgets like
windows, scroll bars, pull-down, pop-up menus, data-entry fields, buttons and
dialog boxes.
Programmers have extensive control, flexibility in creating interfaces using
toolkits.
Toolkits without interactive support like Microsoft Windows Forms, Apple
Macintosh toolkit, Unix X Toolkit require extensive training and is ideal for
experienced programmers.
Cross-platform toolkits like ILOG Views, GTK, Qt emulate GUIs on Macintosh,
Windows and other platforms. They provide rich object-oriented libraries, tools
for managing network services, file directories, rich visual-editors.
Sun Microsystem (Oracle now) developed Java which is based on Java Runtime
environment (JRE),portable virtual machine and low-level libraries.
Java supports ‘Write once, run everywhere’.
Applet are java program fragments which can be stored on a web server ,
downloaded from a web page and executed on user’s machine. It is used for
dynamic web page.
Java provided Abstract Widget Toolkit (AWT) which is not consistent with style
guides of platform. Swing supports portability across windows application,
X/Motif application or macintosh applications.
IBM Standard widget toolkit (SWT) is an abstraction layer between java and
standard GUI toolkits, has smaller memory footprint, faster than swing, richer
than AWT.
Microsoft .NET includes compilers for C++,C#,Visual Basic supporting network-
aware languages and standard GUI toolkit.
Gtk,Qt toolkits, Gnu compiler suite providing compilers for languages like
C,C++,Java,Fortran,Java,Ada. These compilers are portable across a wide range
of platforms.
WIMP toolkits manage windows, icons, menus, a pointer. Post-WIMP toolkits are
diverse exploring new visual or interaction paradigm. Examples include Jazz,
Piccolo for building zoomable user interfaces, SATIN for building informal ink-
based applications.
1. Application framework
2. Specialized languages
on mouseUp
play "boing"
wait for 3 seconds
visual effect wipe left very fast to black
click at 150,100
type "goodbye"
end mouseUp
#Now make the menu, and add the lines one at a time
menu.menu1.m
.menu1.m add command -label "List Files" -command {ls}
.menu1.m add command -label "Get Date" -command {date}
.menu1.m add command -label "Start Calendar" -command {xcalendar}
pack.menu1
}
}
Software engineering tools - JavaScript
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return i * i
}
document.write("The function returned ", square(5),".")
// end hiding contents from old browsers -->
</SCRIPT>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<BR> All Done. </BODY>
Upon loading the web page it produces this output:
The call passed 5 to the function.
The function returned 25.
All Done.
Simple metrics that report number of displays, widgets, and links between
displays capture the size of UI projects are required.
Run-time logging software captures the user’s patterns of activity. Report on
frequency of each error message, menu-item selection, dialog-box appearance,
help invocation, form-field usage, webpage access should be captured.
Performance data for alternative designs to guide decision making is required.
Tullis' Display Analysis Program, Version 4.0: Takes alphanumeric screen
designs and produces display-complexity metrics plus some advice:
Task-independent measurement and evaluation tools are applied at low cost early
in development process. Number of widgets per dialog box, widget density,
aspect ratio are computed.
Webpage analyzer tools like HTML Tidy, WebCAT.
Standardization of web formats and languages has led to improvements in
automated evaluation and critiquing tools. Extensible Markup Language (XML),
UML (Use Interface Markup Language), XUL XML User Interface Language are
some initiatives.
Unit 5
Chapter 8: Command and Natural Languages
Introduction
Precision
Compactness
Ease in writing and reading
Speed in learning
Simplicity to reduce errors
Ease of retention over time
Constraints on a Language
text editing
electronic mail
financial management
airline or hotel reservations
inventory
manufacturing process control
gaming
Designer should
Command-Organization Strategies
– Each command is chosen to carry out a single task. The number of commands match
the number of tasks.
– For small number of tasks, this can produce a system easy to learn and use.
– MUD commands are simple like look, go, who, quit etc but large number of
commands creates confusion.
– E.g. the vi editor of Unix. Vi Commands employ single letters , shifted single letters,
CTRL key plus single letters.
0 got to start of line
H go to home position
L go to last line
M go to middle line
+ next line
- previous line
$ go to end of line
Labels require extra typing and thus increase chances of a typo, but readability is
improved, order dependence is eliminated.
• The set of command is organized into a tree structure, like a menu tree.
• First level can be command action, second can be object argument, third might be
a destination argument.
•Hierarchical structure imposes a meaningful structure to a large number of
commands. 5x3x4 = 60 tasks with 5 command names and 1 rule of formation
• Command-menu approach can be developed to aid the novice or intermittent user.
Action Object Destination
CREATE File File
DISPLAY Process Local printer
REMOVE Directory Screen
COPY Remote printer
MOVE
• There are benefits associated with using a consistent order for arguments.
• Users perform faster with consistent argument ordering.
TRIM message id, segment size TRIM message id, segment size
• Command Names are important for learning, problem solving and retention over
time.
• Specificity versus generality: Specific terms can be more descriptive than
general ones are, and if they are more distinctive, they may be more memorable.
General terms may be more familiar and therefore easier to accept.
• Below table, 2 commands: for inserting and deleting text are shown in 7 versions.
“Infrequent, discriminating” command set resulted in faster learning and superior
recall. General words were correlated with least performance, nonsense words did
well.
• Command names should be in harmony with the mechanism for expressing the
commands to the computer.
• Brevity of commands is preferred for speed and error rate reduction.
• Abbreviations are preferred by experienced users compared to novice users.
• Six potential abbreviation strategies are employed:
1. Simple truncation: The first, second, third, etc. letters of each command
are used. This strategy requires that each command be distinguishable by
the leading string of characters. Abbreviations can be of same length or
different.
2. Vowel drop with simple truncation: Eliminate vowels and use some of
what remains. If first letter is a vowel, it may or may not be retained.
H,Y,W may/may not be considered as vowels.
3. First and last letter: Since the first and last letters are highly visible, use
them. Example, ST for SORT
4. First letter of each word in a phrase: Use the popular acronym
technique, for example: with a hierarchical design plan.
5. Standard abbreviations from other contexts: Use familiar
abbreviations. For example: QTY for QUANTITY, XTALK for
CROSSTALK,PRT for PRINT.
6. Phonics: Focus attention on the sound. For example: ZQT for execute.
3. Guidelines for using abbreviations
Natural-language interaction
Text-database searching
QWERTY layout
Dvorak layout
In 1920
reduces finger travel distances by at least one order of magnitude
Increases the typing rate of expert typists form 150 to more than 200 words per
minute, while reducing errors.
Acceptance has been slow despite the dedicated efforts.
it takes about 1 week of regular typing to make the switch with Dvorak layout, but
most users have been unwilling to invest the effort.
ABCDE style
In this style, 26 letters of the alphabet are laid out in alphabetical order.
Non-typists will find it easier to locate the keys
Not much advantageous compared to QWERTY style.
KEYS
Function keys
Pointing Devices
Pointing devices are mainly used in direct manipulation approaches. The main
advantages include
1. Select:
3. Orient:
4. Path:
5. Quantify:
6. Text:
Pointing devices are grouped into Direct and Indirect pointing devices.
o Direct control devices
direct control on screen surface
Easy to learn and use, but hand may obscure display
Lightpen, Touchscreen, stylus
o Indirect control devices
indirect control away from screen surfaces
It eliminates the hand-fatigue and hand-obscuring-the-screen
problems.
However, they require the hand to locate the device and demand
more cognitive processing, hand/eye coordination to bring the
onscreen cursor to the desired target.
Takes time to learn
mouse, trackball,joystick,trackpoint, graphics tablet, touchpad
o Novel devices and strategies (Special purpose)
Foot controls, Eye tracking, 3D trackers, Data gloves, Boom
Chameleon, Haptic feedback ,Bimanual input, Tangible user
interfaces, Digital paper
o Criteria for success
Speed and accuracy
Efficiency for task
Learning time
Cost and reliability
Size and weight
1. Lightpen
– enabled users to point to a spot on a screen and the press a button to
perform a select, position, or other task
– Lightpen has three disadvantages
• users' hands obscured part of the screen
• users had to remove their hands from the keyboard to pick up the
Lightpen
• Lightpen was too fragile for public-access environments.
2. TouchScreen
– It is robust and does not require picking up an external device.
– It allows users to make direct-control touches on the screen with a finger.
– Arm fatigue problem can be addressed with good kiosk design by tilting
the screen , providing surface to rest the arm.
– Early touch screen were implemented based on land-on strategy which had
low precision, imprecise pointing.
– Later implementations are based on lift-off strategy that enables users to
point at a single pixel.
– Lift-off strategy has 3 steps: User touch the surface, then see a cursor that
they can drag to adjust its position; when satisfied, they lift their fingers
off the display to activate.
– Touch Screen can produce varied displays to suit the task and can be
fabricated integrally with display surfaces .
– Touch screen are good for novice users, highly durable in high-use
environments, easy for disabled and aged people.
– Multiple-touch touch screens that allows users to use both hands, multiple
users to work together on a shared surface are the future.
3. Stylus
– Tablet PCs and Mobile Devices make it natural to point on the LCD
surface, which can be held in arm or hand, placed on desk, rested on lap.
– Stylus is a familiar device and comfortable for users to select the desired
location.
– Stylus keeps the context in view.
– However, user needs to pick up & put down stylus
– Stylus interfaces (pen based interfaces) support gestures and handwriting
recognition.
– Popular mobile devices like Palm Pilot, Pocket PC employ stylus for pull-
down-menu and direct manipulation strategies.
Mouse
Trackball
Upside-down mouse
usually implemented as a rotating ball 1 to 15cm in diameter that moves a cursor
on the screen as it is moved.
Trackball is wear resistant, can be firmly mounted in a desk to allow users to hit
the ball vigorously and to make it spin.
Trackballs are embedded in control panels for air-traffic-control or video-game
controllers.
Joystick
Trackpoint
Graphics tablet
a touch-sensitive surface separate from the screen ,usually laid flat on the table or
the user’s lap.
It is appealing s users hands can remain with the device for long periods without
switching to a keyboard.
Useful for novice users with its larger surface support to print all available
choices to users.
Limited data entry can be done with graphics tablet.
Operated by placement of a finger, pencil, puck or stylus, using acoustic,
electronic, contact position sensing.
Wireless pens allow a higher freedom and is used for drawing programs.
Touchpad
Human-factors variables
speed of motion for short and long distances
accuracy of positioning
error rates
learning time
user satisfaction
Other variables
cost
durability
space requirements
weight
left- versus right-hand use
likelihood to cause repetitive-strain injury
compatibility with other systems
Some results
Direct pointing devices like lightpen , touch-screen are faster, but less accurate.
Mouse is appealing due to its speed and accuracy and faster than track point. But
cant be useful for vision impaired users.
Trackballs and touchpad fall in between. They are durable in public-access,shop-
floor, lab applications.
Graphics tablets are appealing when user can remain with device for long periods
without switching to keyboard
Isometric joystick mounted on a mouse improves the performance for web
browsing tasks which involves both scrolling and pointing tasks.
for tasks that mix typing and pointing, cursor keys a faster and are preferred by
users to a mouse
muscular strain is low for cursor keys
Joysticks and trackballs are preferred over mice by motor disabled users.
Touch-sensitive devices are useful when applying forces is a problem.
Mouse, trackball, trackpoint, graphictablets, touchpad are effective in pixel-level
pointing.
Pens are appreciated fro drawing and handwriting.
Indirect –control pointing devices require more learning than direct-control
devices but offer many useful options.
Fitts's Law
Fitts’s law is a predictive model of time for the human hand movement,
developed by Paul Fitts in 1954 and has found its great application in user
interface design.
Fitts’s law would help to decide the location and size of the buttons and other
elements when laying out screens and would indicate which pointing devices are
best suited to perform common tasks.
Paul Fitts noticed that the time for hand movements was dependent on the
distance users had to move D, the target size, W. Farther away and smaller targets
take longer to point to. Hence
Index of difficulty = log2 (2D / W)
where Index of difficulty is a unitless number but traditionally measured in bits.
Several version of Fitt’s law are used due to differences in direction of motion
(horizontal or vertical), device weight (heavier devices are harder to move),
device grasp, shape of targets, arm position (on a table or in the air).
Fitt’s law is well established for adult users. It models children well for the first
time they enter the target used in performing point and click, but can’t model for
the time of final selection.
Novel Devices
The quest for new ways to engage diverse users for diverse tasks has led to many
innovations. The main aim is to match the task and device, refine the input plus feedback
strategies.
1. Foot controls (foot mouse): Computer users can get benefit from foot mouse for
activating switches and pedals and when the hands are busy with keyboards.
2. Eye-tracking: Gaze-detecting controllers use video-camera image recognition of
the pupil position to give 1 or 2 degree accuracy. It is useful for motor disabled
people.
3. Multiple-degrees-of-freedom devices: Devices can sense multiple dimensions of
spatial position and orientation. Support for virtual reality required 3d input or 6
degrees of freedom to indicate a position and an orientation. Commercial tracking
devices include Logitech 3Dconnexion SpaceBall, Space Mouse, Isotrack etc.
4. DataGlove: The displayed feedback shows the relative placement of each finger,
commands like closed fist, open hand, index-finger pointing, thumbs-up gesture
can be recognized. Combined with hand-tracker complete 3d placement and
orientation can be recorded. Used in games, cyberspace adventures, virtual-
reality. They are made of sleek black spandex with attached fiber-optic sensors to
measure angles of finger joints.
5. Haptic feedback: These technologies enable the user to feel the haptic feedback
of sound and vibrations to feel resistance. It is used mainly in training surgeons
for heart surgery.
6. Bimanual input: It enables multitasking or compound tasks. Theory suggest that
the non dominant hand sets a frame of reference in which the dominant hand
operates in a more precise fashion. An application of bimanual operation for
desktop applications is that the non dominant hands selects actions (fill command
of a paint program) while dominant hand precisely selects the objects of the
operation.
7. Ubiquitous computing and tangible user interfaces: It involves embedding
sensing technologies into the environment. Example Active badges can sense
when a user enters a room which can trigger the loading of personal files into the
room’s computer. Positioning of physical objects can specify modes or trigger
actions.
8. Handheld devices: Mobile devices can be used to communicate with personal
computers, other home appliances, automobiles, etc. Mobile devices can act as
intelligent universal remote controls. Measurand’s ShapeTape, which provides
bend, twist information along a meter tape, allowing the shape of the tape to be
reconstructed in 3d for creating or manipulating curves or for tracking angles of
arms and legs in motion capture applications.
Speech recognition still does not match the fantasy of science fiction:
demands of user's working memory : Need to support users need to work rapidly
with low cognitive load and low error rates. Speech requires limited resource
usage compared to eye/hand coordination which requires more parallel processing
by brain.
background noise problematic for speech recognition.
variations in user speech performance impacts effectiveness for speech
recognition
most useful in specific applications, such as to benefit handicapped users
1. Speech System
Opportunities
Technologies
recognize individual words spoken by a specific person; can work with 90 to 98%
reliability for 20 to 200 word vocabularies
Speaker-dependent training, in which the user repeats the full vocabulary once or
twice. It is highly accurate system.
Speaker-independent systems are beginning to be reliable enough for certain
commercial applications due to elimination of training.
been successful in enabling bedridden, paralyzed, or otherwise disabled people to
broaden the horizons of their life
also useful in applications with at least one of the following conditions:
o speaker's hands are occupied
o mobility is required
o speaker's eyes are occupied
o harsh or cramped conditions preclude use of keyboard
voice-controlled editor versus keyboard editor
o lower task-completion rate
o lower error rate
use can disrupt problem solving
3. Continuous-speech recognition
5. Speech Generation
Apart from speech, auditory outputs, individual audio tones and more complex
information presentation by combinations of sound and music are available.
Warning or audio alerts to warn the users. Auditory icons like door opening,
liquid pouring etc help reinforce the visual metaphors in GUI.
Earcons are the abstract sounds such as rising set of tones or sharp loud sound to
draw attention are effective for mobile devices or in control rooms.
Other sound usage categories include “cartoonified” sounds that exaggerate
aspects of familiar sounds are used in novel ways.
Auditory web browsers for blind users or telephonic usage have been developed.
Users can hear text and link labels and make selections by key entry.
Adding music to the user interfaces to heighten drama, draw attention etc.
Music composition expanded as musical-instrument digital-interface (MIDI)
hardware and software are widely available.
The display has become the primary source of feedback to the user from the
computer.The display has many important features, including:
• Physical dimensions (usually the diagonal dimension and depth)
• Resolution (the number of pixels available)
• Number of available colors, color correctness
• Luminance, contrast, and glare
• Power consumption
• Refresh rates (sufficient to allow animation and video)
• Cost
• Reliability
1. Display technology
1. Monochrome displays: They are adequate and are attractive because of their lower
cost.
2. RGB shadow-mask displays: These display system consist of small dots of red,
green, and blue phosphors packed closely.
3. Raster-scan cathode-ray tube (CRT): These devices have an electron beam sweeping
out lines of dots to form letters and graphics. They are similar to television monitor.CRT
display have size ranging from 2 inches to 30 inches, refresh rates 30 to 70 per
second.CRT are bulky and are less portable.
4. Liquid-crystal displays (LCDs): In LCDs, voltage changes influence the polarization
of tiny capsules of liquid crystals, turning some spots darker when viewed by reflected
light. LCDs are flicker-free, light weight, thin form and low electricity consumption.
5. Plasma display panels (PDPs): In PDPs, rows of horizontal wires are slightly
separated from vertical wires by small glass-enclosed capsules of neon-based gases.
When horizontal and vertical wires on either side of the capsule receive high voltage, the
gas glows. They have flat profile, consumes more electricity, very bright, visible from
side locations. Hence they are used for wall mounted displays, public displays etc.
6. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): In LEDs, certain diodes emit light when a voltage is
applied. In this approach, arrays of these small diodes can be assembled to display
characters. Organic LEDs are actively being developed and are energy efficient, can be
laid on flexible plastic or metallic foil.
7. Electronic ink: It has paper like resolution of 80 dots per inch (dpi).It uses tiny
capsules containing negatively charged black particles and positively charged white
particles that can be selectively made visible. Display rate allows animation but no video
displays.
8. Braille displays: These refreshable displays for blind users provide up 80 cells, each
displaying a character. A couple of cells can be mounted on mouse and small displays
can fit above the keyboard.
Health concern
1. Visual fatigue
2. Stress
3. Radiation exposure
2. Large displays
Mobile devices are usually used for brief, routine tasks except for video games.
Hence it is critical to optimize the design of repetitive tasks like hiding or
eliminating less important tasks.
Five important actions
o Monitor the dynamic information sources and alert when appropriate
o Gather information from many sources and then spread out information to
many destinations
o Participate in a group and relate to individuals
o Locate services or items that are visible and identify objects that are seen
o Capture information from local resources and share your information with
future users.
Reading on small screens are improved with rapid serial visual presentation
(RSVP), which displays text dynamically at a constant speed
Modality translation services, can provide remote service to instant translation
from on e presentation mode to another, anywhere, anytime via mobile devices.
This permits text-to-speech, sign-language, international-language, language-level
translation, print recognition, image/video description services.
Printers
These are the important criteria for printers:
Speed
Print quality
Cost
Compactness
Quiet operation
Use of ordinary paper (fanfolded or single sheet)
Character set
Variety of typefaces, fonts, and sizes
Highlighting techniques (boldface, underscore, and so on)
Support for special forms (printed forms, different lengths, and so on)
Reliability
dot-matrix printers
o print more than 200 characters per second, have multiple fonts, can print
boldface, use variable width and size, and have graphics capabilities
inkjet printers
o offer quiet operation and high-quality output
thermal printers or fax machines
o offer quiet, compact, and inexpensive output on specially coated papers. It
is still used in fax machines.
laser printers
o operate at 30,000 lines per minute
color printers
o allow users to produce hardcopy output of color graphics, usually by an
inkjet approach with three colored and black inks
photographic printers
o allow the creation of 35-millimeter or larger slides (transparencies) and
photographic prints
Plotters
o enable output of graphs, barcharts, line drawings, maps on rolls of paper
or sheets up to 100-50cm.
Braille embossers
o allows printing of text documents, while tactile graphics can be produced
by using thermal paper-expansion machines.
3-dimensional printers
o allow custom objects to be printed in 3 dimensions. They have been used
to develop prototypes of new devices, to individually adapt existing
devices to users with physical disabilities, to create custom shapes fro
tangible interface.
Unit 6 Chapter 11: Quality of Service
INTRODUCTION
• In 1960s, user perception of computer speed was determined by response time for
mathematical computations, program compilations, database searches.
• With emergence of World Wide Web, graphics, & network congestion affect
response time. Multiple sources of dropped connections, unavailable web sites,
network outages are the main concerns.
• These complex set of concerns are discussed under Quality of Service (QOS).
• Quality of Service stems from the following basic human value
– Time is precious
– Harmful mistakes should be avoided
– Reduce user frustrations
• Lengthy or unexpected system response time can produce:
– Frustration ,Annoyance, Eventual anger
• Speedy and quickly done work can result in users:
learning less
reading with lower comprehension
making more ill-considered decisions
committing more data-entry errors
Balancing rapid performance with low error rates is required.
Long delays cause user frustrations leading to more mistakes.
Main experience of Quality of Service is computer systems response time.
• Response time is the number of seconds it takes from the moment users initiate
an action (usually by pressing an ENTER key or mouse button) until the computer
begins to presents results on the display, printer, loudspeaker, or mobile device.
When the response is completed, user begin formulating the next action.
• User think time is the number of seconds the users think before initiating the
next action.
• According to the simple stages of action model, users 1) initiate 2) wait for the
computer to respond 3) watch while the results appear 4) think for a while and
initiate again.
Simple stages of action model of system response time &user think time
• According to the realistic model of system response time, users plan while
interpreting results, while typing/clicking, and while the computer is generating
results or retrieving information across the network.
Realistic model of system response time, user planning time and user think time.
Response-time guidelines
• Related design issues may clarify the question of acceptable response time
– E.g. how long will users wait for the computer to respond before they
become annoyed
• Two-second limit (Miller, 1968) appropriate for many tasks
• But users have adapted a working style and expectation based on responses within
a fraction of a second
• People can detect 8% changes in a 2-4 second response time
• Three main factors influence users’ expectations and attitudes regarding response-
time:
– Previous experiences
– Individual personality differences
– Task complexity
1. First factor that influences acceptable response time is that people have
established expectations based on their past experience of the time required
to complete a given task.
• If a task is completed more quickly than expected, people will be pleased; but
if task is completed much more quickly than expected, they may become
concerned that something is wrong. If the task is completed much more
slowly than expected, users become frustrated.
• A system is slowed down when the load is light and potential performance
high. When load increases, system response time increases and performance
decreases. Response-time choke makes the response time more uniform over
time and across users, avoiding expectations that can’t always be met.
• Variations in response time can be disruptive to users who have developed
expectations and working styles based on a specific response time.
• Rapid start-up and rapid usage is a important tradeoff.
2. Second factor influencing response-time expectations is the individual’s
tolerance for delays.
• Novice computer users may be willing to wait much longer than an
experienced user.
• The waiting time will vary depending on user personality, cost, age, mood,
cultural context, time of day, noise, perceived pressure to complete work.
3. Third factor influencing response time are the task complexity and users
familiarity with the task.
• Response time across web sites varies and may effects user interest and
quality assessment.
USER PRODUCTIVITY
• Shorter response times usually lead to higher productivity, but in certain cases,
users who receive longer response time perform concurrent processing or
shortcuts to reduce effort and time to accomplish a task
• Repetitive tasks: Nature of the task has a strong influence on whether changes
in response time alter user productivity. A repetitive control task involves
monitoring a display and issuing commands in response to changes in the display.
• Shorter response time means users responds more quickly, but decisions may not
be optimal.
• Goodman and Spence (1981) experiments for repetitive tasks proved that reduced
response time lead to more productivity.
• Teal and Rudnecky (1992) proved that slower response time lead to more
accuracy
• Problem solving tasks: Users will adapt their work style to the response time.
Users will change their work habits as the response time changes .
• Error rates are a function of response time for complex telephone-circuit layout
task by Barber and Lucas (1983).
• Error rates were lowest with long response time (12 sec) , productivity increased
with shorter times because the system could detect errors and thus users could
rapidly correct them.
• With shorter response time, workers made hasty decisions; with longer response
times, frustration of waiting burdened short-term memory.
• Number of productive transactions (total minus error) increased almost linearly
with reductions in response time.
• Summary
– Users pick up the pace of the system to work more quickly with shorter
response time
– Higher throughput of work demands more attention must be paid to
minimizing the cost of delay of error recovery
• People are willing to pay substantial amounts of money to reduce the variability
in their life, e.g. insurance
• Unusual fast and slow response of extreme variations in computers should be
prevented or acknowledged by the interface.
FRUSTRATING EXPERIENCES
Error Messages
Specificity
Messages that are too general make it difficult for the novice to know what has gone
wrong.
• Simple, condemning message are frustrating as they don’t provide enough
information about what went wrong nor knowledge to set things right.
• Interfaces that offer an error-code number leading to a paragraph-long explanation
in a manual is annoying because manual may not be available or consulting it may
be disruptive and time-consuming.
• Messages should, where possible, indicate what users should do to correct the
problem
• Unnecessarily hostile messages using violent terminology can disturb non-
technical users:
– FATAL ERROR, RUN ABORTED
– CATASTROPHIC ERROR: LOGGED WITH OPERATOR
– Negative terms such as ILLEGAL, ERROR, INVALID, BAD should be
eliminated or used infrequently
• Inform the users of the possible alternatives and let them decide. Automatic error
correction would make the user dependent on system alternations and they may
fail to learn to learn syntax.
User-centered phrasing
• “User-centered” suggests that the user controls the interface - initializing more
than responding.
• Designers should avoid negative and condemning tone but should be courteous to
users.
• Brevity of display is required but users should also have control over amount of
information system provides e.g. If standard message is just one line, by keying a
? In command-language interface, users should be able to obtain a few lines of
explanation by keying in ??.
• Other controls include a graphical user interface (GUI) for progression of screen
tips; a HELP button for context-sensitive help or an extensive online user manual.
Appropriate physical layout
• Most users find it easier to read mixed uppercase and lowercase messages.
• Designers should use uppercase-only messages for brief, serious warnings.
• Avoid code numbers; if required, include at end of message, enclosed in
parenthesis
• There is debate over best location of messages. E.g. Message could be placed:
– near where problem arose
– placed in consistent position on bottom of screen
– near to the position where problem arose, but not obscuring relevant
information
• Audio signals like ring or bell can be useful to inform the user about the error that
occurred, but can be embarrassing when other people are in room. Hence audio
signals should be placed under user control.
• Designers should provide control over alternatives
Nonanthropomorphic Design
• Effective display designs must provide all the necessary data in the proper
sequence to carry out the task.
• Dense or cluttered displays can provoke anger, inconsistent formats can inhibit
performance.
• Meaningful groupings of items ( with labels suitable to the users knowledge),
consistent sequences of groups, orderly formats all support task performance.
• Groups can be surrounded by blank spaces or boxes.
• Related items can be indicated by highlighting, background shading, color, or
special fonts.
• Within a group, orderly formats can be made by left or right justification.
• Field Layout
• Empirical results
• Display-complexity metrics
Mullet and Sano's 6 categories of principles that reveal the complexity of designer’s task
or design principles:
1. Elegance and Simplicity: unity, refinement and fitness
2. Scale, Contrast, and Proportion: clarity, harmony, activity, and restraint
3. Organization and Visual Structure: grouping, hierarchy, relationship,
and balance
4. Module and Program: focus, flexibility, and consistent application
5. Image and Representation: immediacy, generality, cohesiveness, and
characterization
6. Style: distinctiveness, integrity, comprehensiveness, and appropriateness
1. Field layout
3. Display-complexity metrics
• Although knowledge of the users’ tasks and abilities is key to designing effective
screen displays, objective and automatable metrics of screen complexity are
attractive aids
• Tullis (1997) developed four task-independent metrics for alphanumeric displays:
– Overall Density
– Local Density
– Grouping
– Layout Complexity
2. Image browsing
A two-dimensional cousin of hierarchical browsing enables users to work
with large images, circuit diagrams, photos etc.
Users see the overview in one window (context), detail in another
window(focus).
They can move a field-of-view box in the overview.
Panning in the detail view should change the field of view box
Matched aspect ratios between field of view box and the detail view
should be provided.
The magnification from the overview to the detail view is called the zoom
factor. When zoom factors are from 5-30, coordinated overview and
detail view pair are effective; for larger suggests an intermediate view is
needed.
Side by side placement of overview and detail views is the most common
layout.
Zoom-and-replace approach is simple to implement and provides maximal
screen space for each view; but denies users from viewing overview and
detail view at the same time.
Fisheye view , the focus area is magnified to show detail, while preserving
the context, all in a single display. This approach is visually appealing, but
can be disorienting and the zoom factor may not exceed 5 value.
The design of image browsers should be governed by the users’ tasks,
which can be classified as follows:
• Image generation: Paint a large image.
• Open-ended exploration: Browse to gain understanding of image.
• Diagnostics: Scan for flaws
• Navigation: Knowledge of overview and details along.
• Monitoring: Watch overview, when problem occurs zoom in on
details.
Color
• Color displays are attractive to users and can often improve task performance.
• Color makes video games attractive, conveys more information on power-plant,
necessary for realistic images of people,3-dimensional objects etc.
• Color can
– Soothe or strike the eye
– Add accents to an uninteresting display
– Facilitate subtle discriminations in complex displays
– Emphasize the logical organization of information
– Draw attention to warnings
– Evoke string emotional reactions of joy, excitement, fear, or anger
• Use color conservatively: Use the same color for all menu items, title in second
color, instructions in third color, error messages in 4th color. Another approach is
to use black letters on a white background, with italics or bold for emphasis and to
reserve color for special highlighting.
• Limit the number and amount of colors: It is advised to use only 4 colors in a
single display, and upto 7 colors in the entire sequence of displays. Experienced
users may prefer large number of color codes, but for novice users too many color
codes can cause confusion.
• Recognize the power of color as a coding technique: Color speeds recognition
for many tasks. Example; in air-traffic control, high-flying planes might be coded
differently from low-flying planes to facilitate recognition. In programming
workstations, keywords are color-coded differently from variables.
• Ensure that color coding should support the task: Designers should attempt to
make a close linkage between user’s tasks and color coding, and offer users
control where possible
• Color coding should appear with minimal user effort: Color coding should
appear automatically instead of done manually by user every time they perform
the task.
• Color coding should be under user control: When appropriate, user should be
able to turn off color coding.
• Design for monochrome first: Primary goal of a designers is to layout the
contents in a logical pattern. Related fields can be shown by similar structural
pattern. It is better to design for monochrome because color displays may not be
universally available.
• Consider the needs of color-deficient users: Readability of colors by color
impaired and color blind people. ColorBrewer offers guidelines on color schemes
for color deficient users.
• Color can help in formatting: Similar colors can be used to group related items
and dissimilar colors can be used to distinguish physically close but logically
distinct fields.
• Be consistent in color coding: Use the same color-coding scheme throughout the
system. Users tend to apply meaning to each color change, hence it should be
consistent throughout for similar patterns.
• Be alert to common expectations about color codes: Designers need to talk to
users to determine what color codes are applied in the task domain. Indicate the
color-code interpretations on the display or in a help panel.
• Be alert to problems with color pairings: color pairing like saturated red and
blue display at the same time would be challenging for the users to read. Too little
contrast also is a problem. Careful test for various text and background colors are
necessary.
• Use color changes to indicate status changes: Color acts as a way to get
attention. It is valuable when there are hundreds of values displayed continuously.
• Use color in graphic displays for greater information density: In graphs with
multiple plots, color can be helpful in showing which line segments form the full
graph.
There are many reasons to have online manuals and the advantages include the following:
Physical advantages:
• Information is available whenever the information appliance or computer
is available. No need to locate the correct manual.
• User don’t need to allocate physical workspace to open up manuals.
• Information can be electronically updated rapidly and at low cost.
Navigation features:
• Specific information necessary for a task can be located rapidly if online
manuals offer indexes, table of contents, list of figures etc.
• Searching for one page in 100 pages manuals is easy.
• Linking within texts and to external materials like web resources,
dictionary can help in guiding users.
Interactive services:
• Readers can bookmark and annotate the text, send text by email.
• Authors can use graphics, sound, color, animations that help in explaining
complex action for users.
• Readers can turn to newgroups, listservers, online communities, email,
chat and instant messages fro further help from other users.
• Blind users can use screen readers and listen to instructions.
Economic advantage:
• Online manuals are cheaper to duplicate and distribute than paper
manuals.
• Over past 500 years, paper surface, color, typeface, character width, letter sharpness,
text contrast with the paper , width of the text column etc are explored the most,
related to paper displays.
• Initial CRT tubes (Visual display unit or tube) became alternate medium for
presenting text. Due to its health concerns about CRT radiations led to LCD which
have a compact design, consumes less physical space.
• Visual fatigue and stress from reading computers displays are problems and are active
research areas.
• Numerous studies have found 15% to 30% slower task times for comprehension or
proofreading of text on computer displays, compared to on paper.
• High-resolution, larger displays are recommended if users are to read large amounts
of material online.
• Plasticity of documents is becoming a requirement: small, medium, large display
• Automatic conversion to foreign language, annotation, bookmarks, text-to speech
conversion, highlights for different classes of readers are some of the advanced
features available.
Poor fonts, especially on low resolution displays: Dot composing the letters
may be so large that each is visible, making users difficult to recognize characters.
Inappropriate kerning, interletter, interline spacing, color, monospace fonts may
complicate recognition.
Low contrast between characters and the background and Fuzzy character
boundaries can cause trouble.
Emitted light from displays may be more difficult to read by than reflected light
from paper, Glare may be greater on displays.
Screen flicker can be a problem.
Curved display surface may be problem.
Small displays require more frequent page turning, issuing page-turning
command is disruptive.
Reading distance can be greater than for paper due to fixed in place display
systems. Display placement may be too high for comfortable reading.
Layout and formatting can be problems – improper margins, line width, and
justification. Multicolumn layouts may require constant scrolling up/down, page
breaks may be distracting and waste space.
Reduced hand and body motions with fixed-position displays as compared to
paper may be fatiguing.
Unfamiliarity of displays and the anxiety of navigating the text can increase
stress.
The Object-Action interface (OAI) model offers insight into the learning process and
hence provides guidance to instructional-materials designers.
Introductory tutorial
If users have only partial knowledge of the task objects and actions, then training
in the task is the first step.
Once the users learn the hierarchy of objects, from high level down to the atomic
,recognize the range of high-level intentions down to specific action steps, then
learn about the interface representations
start with familiar objects and actions
link these concepts to high-level interface objects and actions
show syntax needed to accomplish each task
Fig 2. A representation of partial knowledge user. Deeper knowledge of task objects and
actions will give them a framework for learning about the interface.
Conversion manual
users knowledgeable about task domain, but unfamiliar with specific software
need presentation showing relationship between metaphors and already known
plans and the new ones required by the new software
Fig 3. A representation of users who know the task adequately but don’t know the
interface. Educational materials for this community should explain the interface
objects and actions, starting with plans.
Quick reference
Fig 4. A representation of users who are knowledgeable about the task and high
level interface aspects and need to learn only specific visual representation and
syntactic details.
• OAI model help researchers to map the current levels of knowledge in learning
systems.
• Sample sessions extremely helpful in giving portrait of system features and
interaction styles
• Flow diagrams provide a map, visual overview that orients users to transitions
from one activity to another. Flow diagrams representing interface using a
complex model of data objects can depict the details.
3. Organization and writing style
Make the help system easy to access and easy to return from.
Make online help as specific as possible.
Collect data to determine what help is needed.
Give users as much control as possible over the help system.
Supply different help for different types of users
Make help messages accurate and complete.
Do not use help to compensate for poor interface design.
Standard formats like WinHelp and Windows HTML Help have led to
development of sofware tools like RoboHelp and helpMATIC Pro.
a. Online manuals
b. Online help
c. Context-sensitive help
Online Manuals
Online Help
2. System-initiated help:
3. Hybrid approaches
Online Tutorials
Animated demonstrations
Guides
• Guides are audio and video recording of human guides or cartoon figures to lead
users through information.
• Human guides can be marketing manager for the software, famous personality
related to content, a cartoon character for children etc. telling their viewpoint or
stories through video sequences.
• This approach makes computer a medium of communication between the user and
the system.
• GUIDES 3.0 project is an example for this approach
• Audio tours of art galleries at museums.
• Audio or video lectures may be recorded for playback on the computer or a
separate system.
• Video Professor is one such company selling guides software programs.
• These videos are tutorials , meant to be viewed from beginning to end, rather than
a way to get help when problem emerge.
Development process
Start early!