CHAPTER - II

Social customs -Change and Continuity

Social customs are not at all a static phenomenon, but it is a dynamic entity. Many
customs have been performed by the people of Jammu region like elsewhere in the world,
but over a period of time several changes have come in the performance of these customs
due to various reasons. These changes may occur through adaptation or integration.
Adaptation occurs when existing institutions readjust to meet new needs. Integration
occurs when a society adopts a new element and make it part of itself.

Culturally, Jammu region appears to have made its first contact with Vedic
culture with the arrival of Madra people in the region. Madra was a section of the famous
Anu tribe one of the five that are referred to in the Rig-Veda and that dwelled in the
central Punjab and adjoining northern region. 1 The (Anu) tribe claimed its descent from
Yayati, one of the sons of Nahusha of legendary fame and the territory occupied by the
Anus was known as the Vahika country. 2 This tribe later on branched off into three
sections known as the Kakayas, Usinaras and the Madras. 3 Among them, Madras seemed
to have further divided themselves into separate groups which were known as the
Northern Madras (Uttar madras), Eastern Madras (Purva madras), and Western Madras
(Apara madras). 4

Panini refers Madra as a part of the Vahika country, with its capital at Sakala,
modern Sialkot. This Vahika country was divided into three parts Kekaya, Usinara and
Madra to which was to be added the fourth division- Savasa. Of these Kekaya and Savasa
may be located between the Jhelum and the Chenab, the first in the south and the second
in the north respectively, and Madra and Usinara between the Chenab and the Ravi in the
north and south respectively. Madra was further divided into Purva- Madra extended
from Ravi to the Chenab and Apara Madra from the Chenab to the Jhelum. 5

In his Ashtadhyayi, Panini refers to another division of Madra due to the marriage
of the Madra princess Savitri with the Salva prince Satyavan. It appears that consequent
to this marriage three new small kingdoms came into existence. These were

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Savitriputrakah, Madrakarah, and Satvasenyah. It is also pointed out Madrakara as the
warrior troops of the Madras. 6

There is also mention in the Nilamata Purana that Madra were famous since
Vedic times. 7 Their country corresponded to the modern Sialkot (ancient Sakala) and the
surrounding regions between the Iravati and the Chandrabhaga. 8

The Madra country, which formed part of the Udichya or northern group of
countries, was once famous for the purity of its speech. People went ‘to the northern
lands to learn speech,’ and that they also liked to listen to those who came from there. 9

The first known inhabitants of Jammu region were believed to be the tribe named
Pishachas. A reference occurs in Puranas quoting Rishi Vashisht that inhabitants of the
area lying between river Ravi (Iravati) and Chenab (Chandrabhaga) were the worshippers
of Phallus. Ultimately, they were defeated by the Aryans who entered this belt from
different sides, most probably via Punjab and Shivalik range of hills. With the advent of
Aryans, local tribes accepted the dominance of the invaders and this way the religion,
culture and way of life of the local tribes was changed. 10

In the early days, Jammu region was inhabited by the low castes like Domb(Dum)
and Megh, Batwal, Koli and their akin people. According to Rigveda, Shambar, the
leader of a people inhabiting the sub- mountainous upper reaches of the Parushini, that is,
the Ravi, had offered tough resistance to the early Aryan adventurers for forty long
years. 11 He belonged to a race of dark skinned people, who worshipped Shishna, the
phallic symbol. Rishi Vashishta called them ‘Shishnadevas’. They had at least hundred
stone castles to destroy which Indra, the battle- god, was invoked many times and again
by the Vedic priests. This probably refers to the ancient inhabitants of the upper Ravi
valley, on both sides, including the kathua belt of Jammu region. 12

The local traditions also postulated that the dark- skinned meghs and Batwals
were the original inhabitants of this region. These were probably the Audumbaras. It is
opined that the Audumbaras were a non- Aryan tribe. Audumbaras were a part of a large
confederacy of Salvas, including Madrakaras or Madras. 13 Madras and Audumbaras

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were thus the most ancient inhabitants of this region and date back 700 B.C., when their
confederacy the Salavas, find mention in the Satapatha Brahmana.14

The Adi Parva of Mahabharata, refers to a king Vyusitashv of the puru family
who had seven sons-four Madras and three Salvas from his wife Bhadra which indicated
that Salvas and Madras belonged to the common stock and there were several branches.
Madri, the wife of Pandu and the mother of two Pandu putras namely Nakula and
Sahadeva, was a Madra princess. 15

It also mentioned that the Madra princess had attended the Svayamvara of
Draupadi along with other princess from North-West. 16

The Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudra Gupta also states that the king
was propitiated with payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court)
by such frontier rulers as those of Samtata, Davaka,Kamarupa, Nepala and Kartripura and
by the Malavas, Arjunayanas, Prarjunas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Sanakanikas, Kakas,
Abhiras, Kharaparikas and others. Among them Madrakas are placed between the Ravi
and the Chenab. 17

The Rajdarshani mentions that madras was an ancient country of madra

tribe,which was situated near the river Jhelum. wit. it has its capital at Sakala (Sagala of
the Buddhist text) near the river Ayuka or Apaga rivulet(modern Ayak nadi) which rises
in the hills of Jammu. It was stated as covered the wider area. Thus, the Uttara Madra
lived beyond the Himavat (Himalaya) and the Southern Madra inhabited the area of
central Punjab, west of the river Ravi, with their capital at Sagala(Sialkot).18 Madri, the
wive of Pandu was a Madra princess. Asvapati, father of Savitri , was a king of the
Madra. The Eastern Madra was to the east of Sialkot, in the neighbourhood of
Trigarta(Kangra). Salya, the maternal uncle of Pandu was the king of Madra who
participated on the side of the Kauravas in the Mahabharata war. 18

Some suppose that Madra was also called Bahika, which appears to be a part of
the kingdom of Madra. Madra was also called Takkadeas and this name for the region
round Sialkot has been mentioned by Hiuen-tsang. Thus, Jammu hills seem to have been
a part of Madra and Takka kingdom. 19

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 Although Jammu region was a part of the great confederacy of the Salva-
Madraka, yet there were several smaller republican tribes in this region. O f these the
names of Darvas, Abhisaras, Khasas, Gurjaras and Durgaras have been preserved in the
written records, from Pre-Christian eras to about tenth C.A.D. 20 Darvas are mentioned in
the Nilamata purana as the inhabitants of Darvas identified with districts of Jammu and
Ballavar. As far as Abhisaras were concerned they were the famous people who helped
the Assakenoi in offering resistance to Alexander, but later on made alliances with
Alexander who confirmed their ruler under the title of satrap. The name Darvabhisara
occurs mostly as the name of one continuous territory. 21 Darvabhisara in its geographical
term has been mentioned in the Rajatarangini as the territory comprising the whole tract
of the lower and middle hills lying between the rivers Vitasta (modern Jhelum) and the
Chandrabhaga (present Chenab). 22

The region between Chenab and Jhelum was known as Darva-Abhisara after the
name of two tribes Dravas and Abhisara. Dravas inhabited Rajouri area while the
Abhisara were residing in Poonch area. The principality Darva–abhisar comprised of
present Poonch, Kotli, Rajour (Rajouri) and some parts of Bhimber upto Dhangalla. It
was an independent principality and the boundary of Darva-Abhisara was touching the
border of the kingdom of Raja Porus. The name of the Raja of Darva-Abhisara at the time
of Alexandra’s invasion was Budh- Hister who remained neutral at the time of war which
took place between Raja Porus and Alexander. 23

Another tribe known as Khasa also finds mention in the Markandeya Purana as
the mountain tribes Parvatasrayinah24 Stein points out that the Khasa occupied ‘the
valley lying immediately to the south and the west of the Pir-pantsal range between the
middle course of the Vitasta in the west and Kastavata in the east. 25 The rulers of
Rajapuri are referred to in the Rajatarangini as Khasa – lord and their soldiers as Khasa 26

In the beginning of seventh century A.D., the Khasa tribes started pouring in
Darva-Abhisara area and ultimately, they over- powered the local tribes and established
their own principalities in this area. Khasa were so brave that they had not only
established their principalities in Darva-Abhisara but also capture Kashmir. With the
entrance of Khasa in Darva-Abhisara, this region was divided into three principalities in

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the beginning of tenth century .A.D., Loharkote (present Punch), Kalanjer (Kotli) and
Rajapuri (Rajouri).

The Naga tribe may also have something to do in the Jammu region where several
Naga legends are current. The Nilamata Purana refers to the migration of some Nagas
from Kashmir to Jammu, in the legend of Sadangula Naga. This Naga used to kidnap the
wives of people so he was exiled by the Naga king Nila from Kashmir and was allotted
Mount Usiraka in the land of Darva. Vishnu, at Nila’s request granted him security at
that place. 27

The mention of Gurjaras (Gujjars) and Durgaras (Duggars or Dogras), two

important tribes of the region, is made during the eighth and tenth centuries. A Rajput
kingdom of the Gurjara-Pratiharas had been established in Antarvedi with its capital at
Kanyakubja (kanauj) on the ruins of Harshavardana’s kingdom after 647A.D. This
extended at least up to Thanesar and Trigarta. Another Gurjara kingdom had been
established in the north-western Punjab which was invaded by King Lalitaditya
Muktapida in 700-736 A.D. According to Rajatarangani the ruler of Gurjara gave up to
him humbly the Takka-land, preserving thereby his own country’’. 28

The Takka –desa or Takkavisaya, has been identified by Cunningham with that of
the kingdom of Tseh-kia, which Hiuen-Tsang reached after travelling to the south –east
of Rajauri. 29 This kingdom is described as bordering in the east on the Bias, and in the
west on the Indus. Its capital was She-Kia-Lo or Sakala. The Tak or the Takshak tribe
once ruled a large territory from their ancient seat at Takshilla. This kingdom was quite
large during the seventh century. As Jammu annals tells, a dynasty of Tuk kings of
Takshilla ruled over Jammu for some centuries, but towards the end of the ninth century
its power must have been considerably reduced. 30

Around sixth century B.C., Buddhism began as a protestant philosophical thought

against the ancient Brahmanical system, but owing to its rational approach towards life,
ultimate faith in the human dignity and potentiality which could take him even to the
highest purification and deliverance without seeking help of any external force or
blessing of unseen entity like God, sense of equality, consideration of deeds as the sole

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criterion of one’s superiority or inferiority in the society etc. Buddhism succeeded in
attracting a large section of the Indian population initially in the regions of Magadha,
Vaishali, Koshala, Avanti, Kuru, Ujjayini, and Mathura etc.

This process continued to bring into its fold more and more people from the
frontier regions of our country and even abroad. Within centuries o f the Buddha’s
mahapariniavana, Buddhism became well established, well recognized and fully vibrant
religious faith of almost the whole central, south,south-east and east-Asia. 31

The Jammu region could not remain isolated from the influence of Buddhism
which can be prove from various ways like the ancient university of Taxila used to be the
most prominent seat of learning at the time of the Buddha, was situated in the north-
western part of India and students from India as well as from foreign, used to flock here
in sizeable number. Jivaka, the royal physician of Magadha emperor Bimbisara and his
successor Ajatasatru and also a devout discipline of the Buddha, Angulimala(originally
Abhimsaka) whom the Buddha brought to his fold and reformed as a saint, had been
students of this great university. 32

The Chinese traveler Hiuen-tsang also mentions the name of Rajouri as Holo-
she-polo and Punch as Pun-Nu- Tso. 33 During the time of Hiuen-tsang, people of these
two areas had firm faith in Buddhism which can be indicated by the fact that he mentions
about many Buddhist monasteries in his work. 34

Regarding the introduction of Buddhism in the region it has been mentioned that
with references to the Buddhism in the western Himalayas and Gandhara, it is to be
observed the King Pukkusati ruled over Gandhara in the middle of sixth century B.C.E.
He was contemporary of Bimbisara of Magadha. There was a friendly relation between
Bimbisara and Pukkusati and he later sent an embassy to the king of Magadha as a token
of cordiality. From Gandhara Jataka, we get information that Kashmir formed a part of
the Gandhara kingdom and this also extended over the regions between rivers Chenab
and Ravi, formely occupied by the Madras.

The introduction of Buddhism in the western Himalayas was an epoch making

event in the cultural life of the indigenous communities and tribes. For the people of

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western Himalayas especially Jammu Shivaliks who were considered as outcast under the
Brahmana dominated religio-political system of Indian mainland, the Buddha had
therefore, emerged as savior and the champion of resurgent hope. Not only Buddhism
was welcome by indigenous communities but also by the disillusioned communities, thus
attracted popular following largely from the substratum of this society. The ancient
traditional oligarchies and republics of north-western region therefore had reason to flock
to it. 35

Some of the prominent disciples of the Buddha like Mahakappina and Khema
(skt.Kshema) and Bhadda Kapilani(skt. Bhadra kapilani) hailed from Madradesa.
Mahakappina belonged to the royal family of Kukkutavati –a principality in the
Madradesa. He had a curiosity to learn something new. One day some merchants from
Sravasti visited his court and informed him about the Buddha and his Dhamma. On
hearing that he renounced the royal life and went to the Buddha to become a recluse. In
course of time, he attained arhathood. He has been mentioned by the Buddha as the chief
of the admonisher of monks (Vadakassa bhikkhunam). 36

Others were the two nuns- Khema and Khadda Kapilani. Khema was the wife of
Bimbisara whom the Buddha converted in the seventh years of his missionary career.
After permitting for the formation of Bhikkhuni sangha at vaishali. She attained the
highest stage of sanctification and was designated by the Buddha as the chief of the
highly wise nuns (mahapannanam bhikkuninam pamukha). Her fame spread all over
Magadha and koshala as a wise, experienced, intelligent and erudite nun (Pandita,
Viyotta, medhavini, bahusuta, kalyanapatibhanati). She had a scholastic debate with the
Koshalan king Prasenjit on the indeterminable problems and the latter got fully satisfied
with her convincing and satisfying arguments.

The conversion of Khema opened up a new chapter in the history of Buddhism. It

contributed not only to the popularity of nunnery but also made easy the path for the
spread of Buddhism in Sagala- the capital of Madda(madra) sprung as she was from the
royal dynasty of the Maddadesha (madradesha).

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 Besides, Bhadda Kapitani, another eminent nun who was referred by the Buddha
as the foremost of nuns attaining the knowledge of their previous births (pubbenivasa
nussarantinam aggatthane thapesi). She was the wife of Mahakassapa. 37

From the above discussion it seems quite probable that Buddhism had already
come to this part of India and Jammu region was familiar with it even during the life time
of the Buddha. 38 Also, there is a possibility that the message of the Budd ha may echoed
in north-western region within a few decades after the mahaparinirvana of the Lord
Buddha.

The Maurya Empire, successor to the Magadhan Empire, absorbed the region of
Darva-Abhisara and at about the same time annexed Kashmir. Under King Asoka’region
(268-232 B.C.E.), Buddhism flourished vigorously in India as well as the western and
north-western part of the vast Maurya Empire. The Kalinga war had converted Asoka
from a military adventure to a champion of non-violence and universal peace. He vowed
to undertake non- violent religious conquest in four quarters and deputized missions to
distant lands for the peaceful conversion of different countries on the advice of his
mentor, Moggaliputta Tissa. 39

He sent nine missions on the direction of Moggaliputta Tissa, of those four were
deputized to the north-western region of his empire and further afield. Those were as
follow:-

A) Majjhantika led the mission to Kashmir and Gandhara territories in the north-
west.

B) Yona Dhammarakkhita (Dhammarakkhita), the Greek Elder was selected by

Moggaliputta Tissa, to convert the Aparantaa country, the western border country
of the Empire.

C) Majjhima and his associates- Kassapagotta, Alakadeva, Dundubhisara and

Sahadeva were sent to the Himalayan region.

D) Maharakkhita proceeded to the country of Yonas (Yavanas), possibly the

Bactrians (Ionian Greeks) in the far north-west.

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 Both Gandhara and Yona regions were the part of the Asokan Empire. Yona was
next to Gandhara where the Bactrians had settled after the departure of Alexander.
Selucus had ceded this territory to Chandragupta Maurya in the fourth century B.C.E. 40

King Asoka was possibly aware of the strategic importance of the north-western
region of his empire as the meeting ground of the three great civilizations of that age- the
Indian, the Chinese and the Roman. It was, therefore, with good reason that he deputed
four missions to the countries in the north-west of his empire and beyond. 41

In this way we can say that there was the great possibility that Majjhantika, o n his
way to Kashmir passed through Jammu region as well. This can be said on the basis of
the fact that any person travelling from eastern India or south to Kashmir has to travel
Jammu region. In fact, there were many routes to Kashmir which pass through Jammu
region. Moreover, any person who travelled to Kashmir through Sialkot region had to
cross Chenab and Chenab could be passed only at two places: One at Akhnoor (Jammu)
and other at Pattal in Sindh, so the person invariably had to come to Akhnoor area to
cross Jammu. Therefore, it would not be wrong to infer that people travelling to Kashmir
including the Buddhist monks passed through Jammu region as well

Milind Panho (questions of king Menander), is a Buddhist canonical work, a

religio-philosophical discussion between the great Buddhist philosopher Nagasena and
Indo-Bactrian king Menander with his capital at Sakala ( the present city of Sialkot in
Pakiatan) who ruled at the end of second C.B.C. It was held at a place only twelve yojans
from Kashmir. It incidentally provides a lot of information about the Indo-Scythian ruler
of Sakala and other socio-religious conditions of the people in the mountain country of
Jammu and Kashmir around second century B.C. 42

Milind Panho contains a graphic account of how Menander’s arguments were

overcome and his doubts resolved one by one and he seeks refuse in the Buddhist faith
and becomes a discipline of the great teacher, who was a thorough- going rationalist.43
After convert to Buddhism he built a monastery named Milinda-Vihara and handed it
over to Nagasena. He also made large donations to the Bhiksu-sangha. The coins of
Menander bear the Buddhist wheel (Dharmacakra) which was an unmistakable sign that

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he was devout Buddhist. 44 He joined the sangha as a monk and finally attained
Arhathood. 45

According to Milindapanho, Nagasena was born in village Kajangala of

Kashtwar, was educated in the Nagseni area of the same region, and undertook his deep
meditation there. Finally it was at Mendhar where he held the historical discussion with
king Menander. 46

Nagasena being acknowledged as a great Buddhist saint, scholar and philosopher,

won acclaim in the whole Buddhist world and his name and fame travelled to far off
places including china and cylone, as their versions of Milindapanho are also available.
Buddhism flourished in cylone and china from where two famous travelers Hiuen-t-sang
(631 A.D) and O’Kang (759 A.D) came to India in pursuit of Buddhist knowledge
through the ancient silk route passing through Kashmir. Nagasena was remembered in
these countries also. 47

The flourishing period of Buddhism in Jammu region seems to have under the
Kushans period, though the process started with Indo-Greeks itself, who preceded them.
This is evident from the extensive discovery of Kushana sites in the region like Gajansu,
Nagbani, Phalora, Tibba Name Shah, Tikri, Damana, Bathur, etc. 48

People inhabited the foot hills of Panchal range were the followers of Hinduism.
During the reign of Ashoka(273 B.C) Buddhism spreaded in Kashmir and it beca me the
centre of Buddhist culture, consequently the people of Poonch –Rajouri also came under
the influence of Buddhism. The inhabitants of Rajouri also accepted Buddhism in this
period because the important entry and exit root to valley were passing through this track.
Moreover in this period the foundation of Sharda School was laid on the bank of
Madhumati river which falls on the last edge of Panchal range near Muzaffarabad. This
Sharda school was later on converted into Sharda Peeth(university) for the Rearch in
Buddhism. The fourth Buddhist council was also summoned in Sharda Peeth during the
reign of king Kanishka(72-161 B.C) in which 500 monks from all over world had taken
part in preceding under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. 49

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 This Buddhist University remained a Research and cultural centre of Buddhism
for centuries together, but after the downfall of Buddhism in Kashmir, Sharda University
was also deserted. In regard to the Buddhist mound constructed by Kanishka, there is
very interesting inscription on the wall of temple Veer Bhadradeshwar which is mention
as under:

The temple was built by the great king Kanishka in 141 A.D. Even at present the
construction of this temple is exactly a Tope shape with certain changes. It appears that
these changes have been done later on. Like the Buddhist monastery it is also build on the
top of the hill.

At present Shivling is installed in this temple but the original status and Idols have
been kept in a building constructed nearby the temple which do not resemble with any
deity of Hindu Devtas. It is fact that these idol could not been identified properly but
these clearly indicates Buddhist style of art. These idols are similar to those found in
Vihara of Kashmir constructed during Kanishka’s time. 50

Today’s Veer Badreshwar temple was a Buddhist monastery is also indicated by

the fact that Kanishka was a follower of Buddhism. He constructed a number of Budh
Viharas. There is no historical reference of his construction of Hindu temple. Moreover,
the population on the foot hills of panchal range was converted into Buddhism from the
period of Ashoka.

Therefore, the question of construction of a Hindu temple in the area which was
dominated by the Buddhist population does not arise. It appears that Kanishka had
constructed it as a Vihara but afterwards when Buddhism disappeared from this whole
belt of Panchal range like other places and people again accepted Hinduism, with the
change of faith they may have reshaped it as a temple but old idol of Kanishka’s time
having Buddhist style of art are still available in the temple. 51

After the Hiuen Tsang period, there is no reference of Buddhism in the foot hills
of Panchal range. It appears that with the emergence of Hinduism in the Northern India,
the people of Rajouri had also re-embraced Hinduism. A inscription has been found
recently near Swami Budha Amar Nath temple Mandi in which main Budha Mantra’Om

70
Mani Padmy Om’ is engraved in Sharda language. Similar type of writing has also been
noticed at Budh Khanari in Darhal block of Thannmandi. All these facts indicate that in
the ancient time Buddhism was prevailing in the foothills of panchal range and it
continued to flourish upto sixth century A.D. 52

Literary evidences do suggest that Buddhism was introduced in the state prior or
in the period of the Mauryan ruler Asoka, but there are hardly any concrete
archaeological evidences which testify this fact. The archaeological s ites in Kashmir I’e
Harwan and ushkar are not older than fifth century A.D., but in Jammu region, some
traces of the archaeological remains slightly hints towards the existence and prevalence
of Buddhsm. Pillars and Megaliths scattered at different places all over Kishtwar seems
to be of Ashoken era when Buddhism was at its peak. 53

In Pochhal, three kilometers away from Kishtwar northwards, a Megalith three

metres in height has been found. It has been carved out of a big stone boulder or rock. It
is 3.21 meters in girth which, however, ascribes to its uniqueness as far as its enormity is
concerned. On the top of the megalith, a shaft of length 66cms and girth 1.44 metres has
been chiseled out of the main pillar. It seems this shaft has been carved out to affix on it a
capital inscribed with some edicts probably those issued by the Great Ashoka whose
message might have reached here through the propounders of Buddhism. The capital,
which is missing today, might have remained unaccomplished due to some reasons
unknown to the posterity. 54

Some megaliths and pillars have been found in Gulabgarh Paddar and Marwa
Bhata also, which were chiseled out in the same pattern as those built during Asokan
period.

Besides this one Ashoka Chakra or Dharma chakra and an image of Lord Buddha
has been found near village Bhattan in Nagseni Pargana of Kishtwar. Ashoka Chakra
made of about two feet diameter stone-wheel with 24 spokes, Dharam Chakra symbols,
inscribed on it with a hole in the centre. A small image of Buddha in stone is also found
at the site. 55

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 The ruins of Saiya Draman, Nagseni, 56 and Bathastal caves near Dachhan are also
very important. According to Kak, the Brahmi script inscription on the ceiling of
Bathastal cave is of third century A.D. 57

Among other important Buddhist sites is Pambarwan at Ambaran near Akhnur on

the right bank of river Chenab, about twenty eight km north- west of Jammu. This site is
famous for earlier yield of so called Akhnur Buddhist terracotta heads which are
preserved in a number of museums throughout the world. Burnt brick structures of
different phases were encountered in almost all the trenches, which were found damaged
mainly due to two reasons- repeated floods in Chenab and unauthorized digging
operations in the areas in the past. The sand, silt, clay deposits at the site were observed
and all these indicate that the site was continuously prone to heavy floods. The site seems
to have been abandoned sometimes around the seventh century A.D., due to flood. 58

The site revealed the cultural sequence of Pre-kushana, Kushana, and Post
kushana and post Guptas period. 59

Amongst the important antiquities, a large number of decorative terracotta

figurines, a broken terracotta mould showing the bust of a lady wearing a beaded hair
ornament, ear pendants necklace and armlace and armlets, two small terracotta grotesque
heads, terracotta skin rubber, beads and gamesmen, iron nails, hooks and rings, a few
copper objects, a glass and a stone bead, parts of a small stone sculpture in Gupta style. 60

Buddhism was prevalent in this area can also be indicated by the names of certain
places such as Udhampur, was known as Buddhapur till about a hundred and twenty five
years ago. Udhampur was known as Buddhapur till Maharaja Gulab Singh named it as
such after his son, Udham Singh. Badwani in Samba is said to be derived from Buddha-
vani.

Buddhism even had travelled farther up from Ambaran (Akhnoor) along the
course of the Chenab. Even now there are villages named Deva, Sanghaldan(derived
from Sanghadan or gift to Sangha) and Dhammakund as someone go from Gool-
Gulabgarh to Ramban on the National highway, though they are no longer Buddhist. 61

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 There was also the Islamic influence on the Jammu region. After conquering the
Sindh, Mohamid bin qasim made an attempt to conquer Kashmir. Two more attempts
were also made to invade Kashmir during the regin of Caliph Hisham and Caliph
Mansur. Mahmud of Ghazni also led an expedition toward Kashmir. Although, he was
unable to conquer Kashmir. He besieged the fort of Loharkot (punch). This might have
influence the local population.

Thus, it can be said that before the establishment of Muslim rule in Kashmir, the
society of Jammu and Kashmir was exposed to Islamic influence. It was but natural that
during the period some Muslims permanently settled in Kashmir. Besides, Hindus
conversion to Islam, a process of synthesisation of two major cultures had set in. 62

Later, there was also the revival of Hinduism which is well depicted in the
monuments in Jammu. At Ambaran in Akhnur tehsil many terracotta found reported to be
of eighth century. These are oldest specimen of sculpture so far discovered in Jammu
region. There are terracotta of many styles. Archaeologists like Daya Ram sahni and Ram
Chandra kalk have contended that these terracotta belong to second to third but Dr. Fabri
had discovered similar terracotta in eighth sculptures. Fabri had discovered similar
terracottas at Ushkar (Harwan) Singharam. Such sculptures have also been traced out in
Afghanistan. 63

A stone statue of lord Vishnu has been discovered in Akhnoor having three faces
and four arms. The two faces depict Narsingh and Vaman avtars. Similar Vishnu statues
have also been found in temples in Kashmir. These statues date back to ninth century. 64

In first category of Billawar temple of lord Shiva can be taken as into account. It
is still the object of worship by the devotees. The temple, now known as Bilkeshwar, was
originally known as the temple of Hari-Hara, dedicated as it was to both. This is one of
the most remarkable temples in the country where both Shiva and Vishnu were
worshipped together. The temple represented a climax in religious and cultural synthesis.
Even today when the temple is visited mainly as Shiva shrine, there are images of both
Shiva and Vishnu. There are the images of Brahma, Bhairava and Ganesh also. 65

73
 According to the local traditions temple dates back to Pandavas, a curious
superstition attached to the temple. According to it, if a brick fell from the structure it
resulted into the death of a king or a calamity for the country, but no historical testimony
of Pandavas, time can be traced to prove the analogy. However, in Kalhana’s
Rajatarangini we find a reference to Vallapura and the Shiva temple. This is a temple of
old- Aryan style of North India. Here Vallapura could be identified with Billawer. 66

About thirty km from Udhampur on the Dhar-Udhampur road is a beautiful

village Manwal which stands the witness to the antiquity of Jammu untill fourteenth
century A.D. This place was called Babbapura (now Babor) remained the capital of
Jammu Raj. No doubt, Jammu remained capital in earlier times also, but around eighth -
ninth century A.D., the capital was shifted to Babbapura, the town named after
Babruvahan, the legendary son of Arjuna.

It was Raja Maldev who shifted back the capital again to Jammu in fourteenth
century A.D. During the period Babbapura remained capital of Jammu, a number of
buildings and temples were built by the rulers and of which ruins of only three complexes
are there.

The remains are to be found in two adjacent villages of Thalora and Babor but
they are now referred to under the common appellation of Babor (manwal) only. The
ruins are structures of great solidity and considerable beauty. Some of the stones and
rafters used in their construction are over a dozen feet long and their sculpture and
carving superb.

The three temples identified so far though not with certainty, are the temples of
the Devi and her lord Shiva and its period is considered around tenth century A.D.
according to ASI sources. 67 This temple complex is also comparable to the one which the
great Kashmir ruler, Lalitaditya, built at Wangat at the foot of Harmukh Mountain in
Kashmir in the eight century A.D. 68

Krimachi is a small village nestled among hills one of which was crowned with a
fort once. Now only part of a wall of this fort is visible. The village stands in a beautiful
valley of the same name with a small stream flowing below it. Krimchi temples dates

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back to about tenth century A.D., according to Archaeologists but the style of
construction reveals that these temples were built around second century A.D. However,
local people believe that Pandavas built these temples during their exile from Hastinapur.

The main temple is copiously decorated with abstract designs and contains some
niches. The temple which is more than seventeen metres high stands on a grand
entablature. The temple porch bears a close resemblance to ancient stone temples of
Kashmir. However, in shape and style these temples resembles the Baijnath and some
other temples in the Kangra valley of Hamachal Pardesh and the Lingraja temples of
Orissa. 69

To whom these temples were dedicated, is not known, but the pieces of sculpture
found in the debris have yielded figures of Ganesh, Shiva-Trimurti, and Vishnu. Local
traditions connect them with the Mahabharata warrior, Kechak, who met his death at the
hands of Bhima, because he made indecent overtures to Dhraupadi, but certainly the
temples cannot be that old. They were not even built by Kanishka (second century A.D),
though there is a tradition that they were got built by the Kushan ruler when he was on
his way to Kashmir. Kanishka might have founded a Buddhist establishment but no trace
of that remains now. 70

Sudhmahadev temple is located twelve miles in the north of Chenani town. This is
an old place of pilgrimage. A fair is held here on every Ashad- purnima. This is
undoubtedly an ancient place but the temples have been built in recent times. A Trisul
with Brahmi inscriptions is lying here which had been interpreted for a long time and
now it has been interpreted by Ved Kumari. 71

The Sudh-Mahadev inscription engraved on a broken iron rod is the oldest

historic record in the whole of state. The inscription is in Brahmi script, the characters of
which belong to third or fourth century A.D.

Unfortunately, the part of the inscription has been erased but, still eleven letters
can be deciphered which indicate that it was built to commemorate marriage of lord
Shiva with Parvati.

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 There are two striking names of Vibhu naga and Bhai naga-probably rulers both
seems to be father and son or two brothers. It shows that region was ruled by the Naga
king in third or fourth century.A.D. 72

Sudh mahadev and Mantalai, eight km from each other, finds mention in ancient
Hindu literature including Shiv purana. Once the capital of Raja Himachal, the father of
Parvati. The spot where Shiva married Parvati is in the shape of a small pond known as
Mantalai. A temple also stands near this pond. 73

From the above discussion we can say that many changes have come in the
history of Jammu region. These changes must have influence the society as well as the
social customs of the region to some extent.

Hiuen Tsang came to India and observed many customs followed by the people of
North India and Jammu being the part of Northern Indian society also had the same
customs Regarding the death customs, that when a person dies, those who attend the
funeral raise lamentable cries and weep together. They rend their garments and loosen
their hair; they strike their heads and beat their breasts. In a house where there has been a
death there is no eating allowed; but after the funeral they resume their usual (habits).
Those who have attended a death they consider unclean; they all bathe outside the town
and then enter their house. 74

People are very particular in their personal cleaniness, and allow no remissness in
this particular. All wash themselves before eating; they never use that which has been left
over (from a formar meal); they do not pass the dishes. Wooden and stone vessels, when
used, must be destroyed; vessels of gold, silver, copper, or iron after each mea l must be
rubbed and polished. After eating they clean their teeth with a willow stick, and wash
their hands and mouth. Until these ablutions are finished they do not touch one another.
Every time they perform the functions of nature they wash their bodies and use perfumes
of sandal- wood or turmeric. 75

As regard to respect paid to others, there are mentioned nine methods. Like by
selecting words of a soothing character in making request, by bowing the head to show
respect, by joining the hands and bowing low, by bending the knee, by a prostration, by a

76
prostration on hands and knees, by touching the ground with the five circles, by
stretching the five parts on the body on the ground.

Among these, the most respectful is to make one prostration on the ground and
then to kneel and laud the virtues to bow; when near, then it is customary to kiss the feet
and rub the ankles. 76 When they sit or rest they all use mats. 77

He also talks about the a river named as Fo-shwui, the river of religious merit,
which can wash away countless sins. Those who are weary of life, if they end their days
in it, are borne to heaven and receive happiness. If a man dies and his bones are cast into
the river, he cannot fall into an evil way; whilst he is carried by its waters and forgotten
by men, his soul is preserved in safety on the other side (in other world). 78

There are always hundreds and thousands of people gathered together here from
distance quarters to bathe and wash in its waters. 79

Alberuni talks about the marriage customs that The people very at a very young
age; therefore the parents arrange the marriage for their children. On that occasion the
Brahmans perform the rites of the sacrifices, and they as well as others receive alms. 80

If a wife loses her husband by death, she cannot marry another man. She has only
to choose between two things–either to remain a widow as long as she lives or to burn
herself; and the latter eventually is considered the preferable, because as a widow she is
81
ill-treated as long as she lives.

He also talks about the customs of garbhadhana, simamtonnayanam. After the

wife has given birth to the child, a third sacrifice is performed between the birth and the
moment when the mother begins to nourish the child. It is called jatakarman. The child
receives a name after the days of the child-bed have elapsed. The sacrifice for the
occasion of the name-giving is called namakarman.82

The body of the dead has the claim upon his heirs that they are to wash, embalm,
wrap it in a shroud, and then to burn it with as much sandal and other wood as they can
get. Part of his burned bones are brought to the Ganges and thrown into it. 83

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 The third Vaisakha is a festival for the women called Gauri-t-r (gauri-tritiya),
holy to Gauri, the daughter of the mountain Himavant, the wife of Mahadeva. They wash
and dress gaily, they worship the image of Gauri and light lamps before it, they offer
perfumes, abstain from eating, and play with swings. 84 They meet in the houses of the
rich among them; They put several statues of the goddess on a throne, and perfumes it
and play with each other the whole day. On the following morning they give alms and
eat. 85

In the month Bhadrapada, when the moon stands in the tenth station, Magha,
people celebrate a festival which they call pitripaksha, i.e the half of the month of the
fathers, because the moon’s entering this station falls near the time of new moon. They
distribute alms during fifteen days in the name of the fathers. 86

After Raja Raj-Inder death his son Raja Narender became the ruler of the people.
Although his action and conduct were commendable, but he had a craze for shikar. He
oftenly indulged in exertions in shikar in season or out of season, day and night. One day
it so happened that in a desert gloomy with dust storm he mistook a cow for a stag, killed
it by his sharp arrow. As killing of cow is considered a great sin and a heinous crime by
Hindu religion, he felt great remorse at this detestable crime and asked for its expiation
from the Brahmans. They advice him according to the Dharma-shastras that he should all
alone go to the river Ganga on foot and take a dip there in manner of the criminals. He
should not carry provisions for journey with him. He should fast one day and on the other
day should beg his food from a few houses, narra ting to each the sin he had committed.
He should act in this manner till his arrival at hardwar. On reaching his destination he
should take bath in the holi Ganga, give food and bread, money and grain to Brahmins
and beggars according to his destination he should take food. 87

The Raja acted likewise on the way and reached his destination. After purifying
himself he celebrated a great Jagya (Yajna) and spent much. On returning to Jammu he
gave away larger amounts of food and gold to the deserving, gave in charity thousands of
cows with hooves covered with silver and horns with gold to the Brahmins. In spite of all
this he reported he did not get any relief from the sense of sin he had done. At last, on the

78
sands of the river Devika at the site of Purmandal, a shrine of Mahadev, he built a big fire
in which he burnt himself alive. 88

Inspite of this, Rajadarshani also tells us about Baba Jitto, how he killed himself
and which is now famous as ‘Chiri- Jitto’and has become a place of pilgrimage. Every
year, on the Puran- masi (full moon) of Kartik a large gathering of high and low comes
together which is called a mela. Also there is a tank where taking of bath is considered
meritorious by men and women. 89

There is also the mention of shrine of Guga Mandlik in the village of Ahalpur
Brahmanan near Chiri where a big fair is held on the Guga Naumi day in the month of
Bhaddron. Crowds of people gather there and usually farmers, men and women, offer
nazars of coins and goats. 90

He also throws light on the origin of the festival of Lohri which is celebrated not
only in Jammu region but also at the pan-Indian level. He tells us that the assertions of
Abu Maashir, a Muslim astronomer inform that seven plants formed conjunction at one
and the same degree and minute, so days and nights became covered with pitch darkness
because the rays of moon and sun were hidden. The entire firmame nt brought down rain
and wind and the regions and countries facing the constellation of Cancer, viz., Yemen,
Greece, Kufa, Babylonia, Arab, Syria, Egypt and Europe were submerged, but the
regions of Kanauj and Hind and the northern mountains remained safe.

Those people who had faith in the prediction of astrologers, left Greece and Paras
(Persia) and sought refuse in Hindustan and saved their lives. It was during the period of
Brahm Prakash that Pasha-Jam and others offspring of Mah-Abad migrated from the
regions of Paras to the hills of Jammu and Punjab, and engaged in worship and made
conformity and obedience to stars their vogue and worshipped fire. 91

On the ninth day of the Sagittarius which falls at the end of the Poh (Indian
month Paush), they lit fire and celebrated a grand festival. Hindus also mixed with them
and adopted some of their customs, so that even to this day in the hills and the Punjab
men and women lit fires on the Salak-e-gaus day (Sankrant) and hold celebrations. In the

79
common dialect it is known as Lohri, and is also called Loh. And it seems to be a ritual of
the fire-worships of Iran and the Parsis and not of the Hindus. 92

Fredric Drew who came to this region also noticed many customs followed by the
people of different sections of the society of region. It was an almost universal custom
among the Mians to destroy every female infant born to them; the custom was not
peculiar to this caste or country; in other parts of India it was, and even is to some extent,
practiced by certain classes; by the Mians, however, it was, probably, as thoroughly
carried out as by any. 93

As soon as the girl- child was born it was taken from its mother, and either buried
alive, or, more rarely, exposed in the forest. He himself, witness the incidence of some
babies having been rescued from this last state by passersby, and taken into their families
and brought up by them. 94

The history and original cause of this custom of female infanticide it is not easy to
trace. Of late, at all events, the practice has been supported on a feeling of dislike to
seeing a daughter of the family led away to another’s house. An impression of disgrace is
attached to this in the minds of people of the Mians caste. One more reason attached to
this practice might be the expense of marriages.

This practice might have been originated from the feeling that the work of the
Rajputs was essentially man’s work as opposed to woman’s ; that all their issue should be
brought up to arms; that girl were out of place in their families. 95

A necessary sequence of female infanticide, carried out so thoroughly as it was by

the Mians, was that the men of that caste had to take a wife from some other caste; thus
arose the custom, that at first seems so contrary to usual Indian caste ways, of the Mians
marrying girls from the castes below them. The classes thus honored are first the working
Rajputs, and then an agricultural caste called Thakars. 96

When the girl is brought home to the house of the Mian as a bride may be of six
or eight years old. She never again enters her former home. 97

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 Sati or burning of widows was another custom prevalent in the region under
study. Though not practiced in the case of everyone who became a widow, yet it was
followed as a general rule by more than one caste, and was, probably, the most strictly
carried out by the Mians. It applied to all the widows of the deceased, but it was not
always practiced willingly. Sometimes force full burning was also there. 98

He mentioned about an incidence of a village near Akhnur where a quite young

widow was brought to her husband’s funeral-pile, and, according to the custom, she was
seated on it with her husband’s head in her lap; but when the flames reached and began to
lick round her, she was unable to endure it, and rushed out to escape from them. This was
the thing that seldom happened, and the disgrace of it was not to be tolerated now; the
people round mostly her husband’s relatives and her own drew their swords, cut her
down, and heaping abuse on her, forced the girl back on to the fire, and completed the
ceremony. 99

People were very particular about their caste customs as regards eating. Drew
himself witness that two girls belonging to one of those tribes, to whom to touch is
pollution for a Hindu, were left orphens at the age of eight and twelve years. Two men of
good caste obtained possession of the girls by satisfying the claim of a creditor of their
father’s, and determined to turn them to good account. So they bro ught them to a village
where nothing was known of the girls, and represented them to be Thakarnis, that is, to
belong to the caste of the Thakars, which the working Rajputs can marry into. They then
offered them in marriage to one of these for his two sons, and in return the men were to
receive four hundred rupees. At the father’s request they themselves sat down and ate
with the girls. After this they received and got away with the money, and the marriage
took place. 100

In a month or two the truth came out; the girl being questioned as to what they
had used to do at home, said they used to attend to the furnaces and they acknowledged
that Thakurs did not eat from their hands. Great dismay spread through the village on this
discovery; not only had the caste of all the people of that house been broken, but also the
caste of all those who since the wedding had eaten or drunk with the m. 101

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 Representation being made to the Maharaja, the matter was referred to Pandits,
and their report was endorsed by him. It was to this effect: The two young men who had
been married to the outcaste (the marriage was, of course, void) were to go to the Ganges,
and the other people of the house to Parmandal, a holy place near Jammu, to wash; and
all were to expiate their uncleanness by fasting from eating for twelve days, or from
eating and drinking for four days; a similar but less severe course was prescribed for
those who had come into the unclean house and eaten there. 102

When a man or women dies at a good old age, the funeral ceremony was
accompanied, not with signs of mourning, but of rejoicing. It was considered that it
should not be as for one who was cut off from this life untimely, that when one dies
whose race was run, who had lived his life, one should rather rejoice at the completeness
of it than mourn. Drew himself observed the procession to the burning of such a one. All
gaily dressed, went along with cheerful music and cries of rejoicing, while sweetmeats or
money were scattered among the bystanders as at a wedding. 103

He also talks about many festivals celebrated by the people of Jammu region like
Diwali was the day for the worship of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth; the characteristic
of it is illumination which is still celebrated in the same way. Lamps are placed in long
regular lines on the cornices of all the public buildings, and hardly a house is left without
its own row of little oil lamps. At this time merchants collect their money in a heap, and
bow down and worship it. 104 Lohri was also celebrated by the people of these hills and
of the Punjab. They offered a burnt sacrifice.

He also talks about the Parmandal, a place of pilgrimage that the people visit for
the purpose of obtaining a moral cleansing by bathing in its waters. It is situated in a nock
among the low hills, far up one of the ravines that drain down to the plain. 105

The whole place was alive with people who had come to bathe and to worship.
They had to dig two or three feet to reach the water; numbers of holes had thus been
made, and the people scooped up enough water to bathe themselves with; the atoning
power of such a ceremony is consider in these hills to be second only to that of a visit to
Haridwar on the Ganges. 106

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 Besides this, he also talk about the about the customs followed by the privileged
class like royal marriages and special darwars.

The culture followed by the native people was different from that of the Aryans.
Then rise of Buddhism posed a mighty challenge to the way of life, beliefs and rituals
based on the Vedas. The revival of Vedic culture combated Buddhism strongly and
asserted again the divine authority of the Vedas. Though the Vedic age could not be
revived, links with the Vedic heritage were brought out prominently. 107

The custom of performing samskaras is decreasing day by day. Earlier during

solar and lunar eclipse the pregnant women were forbidden to do any physical activity.
They were advised by the senior ladies of the house to maintain calm during this period
otherwise the marks of their actions shall be borne by the baby in their womb. 108

As soon as labor pain started, she was taken to the darkest room of the house of
which all the windows and doors were shut. Only the village midwife and one or two
other women remained with her, the main object of closing the doors and windows was to
save the new born and mother from the evil spirits. 109 During the period of sootak ladies
ate “sund” and also drank milk called “kara” and all the ladies from the community came
to see the mother and the new born baby. They took milk with them and also gave some
money called “Shagun” to the child. During the period of sootak the family members and
all other persons related to that kula did not lightened diya and no worship was taken
place. 110 Now a days, all these things are fading away. With the advent of the modern
medical facilities, a pregnant lady is now immediately shifted to a hospital or to a nursing
home for the safety of the child and the mother. This has changed the age- old practice of
the family not only in the urban areas but also in the remote areas. Now the delivery takes
place on hospital beds, hence the superstitions have vanished and instead modern and
scientific thoughts have replaced the old beliefs. 111 The place of sund has been taken by
capsules. 112

In older days, there was the custom of child marriage. Girls were married at a
very small age and remained their parents home till she become able to produce. After the
age of puberty she is taken to her- in-law’s house. Everything from the engagement to

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marriage was decided by the parents the girl and boy had no choice and no interference in
the matter of marriage. They did not meet each other before marriage except accidently.
It was considered highly improper for a young men and women to take the initiative in
the matter of his or her marriage.

The marriage was limited within the caste bonds. Whenever a girl child born to a
parent. They felt very disgraceful to have a girl child, but everything has taken a drastic
change. Girls are brought up like a male child. There is no discrimination between them.
The birth of girls is not considered as disgraceful. There is no caste bar in matter of
marriage. The child marriage has been prohibited. The general tendency is to defer
marriages till boys and girls attain ages between sixteenth and twenty and with the raising
of the marriageable age, educated young men and women age beginning to show an
independent spirit in the matter of their marriages. Now, parent allow, the young people
to meet once only and talk to each others in other peoples presence. So that the
prospective couple may confirm their parent’s decisions. 113

Once the negotiation begins, the horoscope of the boy and the girl are consulted.
The Hindus have always had exaggerated ideas of the influence of planets on the destiny
of individuals and a marriage is believed not to lead to success if the horoscope are not
match. 114

Barat which was consisted of twenty to twenty-five people now has reached to
115
the number of hundreds. In the earlier days barat stayed for three days but now it
remains only for few hours. Many other changes can be seen in today’s marriage system
such as change in the stability of marriage that is introducing divorce in the society,
change in economic aspect of marriage, change in the object of marriage (from dharma to
companionship), change in the process of male selection, (permissibility of inter-caste
marriage) and change in the criteria of selection that is change in family and individual
consideration. 116

The tilak was held one month before the actual wedding day. There was also the
custom of giving a little bit meba (dry fruits) and one rupee to the groom in this
ceremony but with the changing times people have become quite flexible. The da te and

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time of the tilak is decided according to the convenience of both the parties and
thousands of rupees are spend on this. Many new things are connected to it such as in
return of this ceremony many people go to bride’s house and give her ring, clothes and
other items. 117

Hindu marriage has traditionally been viewed as the ‘gift of maiden”

(Kanyadaan) from the bride’s father to the household of the groom. This gift is also
accompanied by many other gifts known as dowry, which generally consists of items
suitable to start a young couple in married life, but in some cases, however, dowries
demanded by grooms and their families have become quite extravagant and some
families appear to regard them as means of enrichment. There are instances, a few of
which have been highly publicized, where in young brides have been treated abusively,
even tortured and murdered in an efforts to extract more wealth from the bride’s father.
The dowry deaths of such young woman have modern urban families. 118

Earlier the match making are identified through family and social relationship.
They are increasingly solicited through advertising because many urban parents no longer
have the social reach that was before the rise of nuclear families. With the advent of the
internet this has led to the rise of match- making website.

The custom of celebrating festivals and keeping fasts has also at its lowest ebb.
There are many reasons behind this as today is the time of much advance technology;
people are much aware, free from superstition, attracted towards other electronic media,
conscious about competitive studies, beauty, health and environment. Migration and lack
of patience, lack of interest on the part of parents to make their children know about these
customs and traditions like girls have no more interest in celebrating the colorful festival
of Raade and Holi.

They have busy schedule of their own competitive studies and other house hold
day to day work which are their priority so they thought it is the wastage of the time in
making colors, coating cowdung, drawing Raade. The place of earthen pot has been taken
by steal utensils. People do not have trust on each other so they do not allow their

85
daughter to go outside to do these things. They want their daughter to do their studies and
focus on the career. Girls themselves are not interested in doing these things.

Today is the time of fashion and style. Some even want to make their career in
fashion world so that they ignore to play with the harmful colors which are made by
chemicals. Today the whole world is suffering from global warming which caused due to
atmospheric pollution. The custom of cracking the fire crackers on Diwali is also
decreasing. 119

After the death of person, women joined their heads with each other, wrapped
their face with their dupatta and cried loudly in a very high sound. They spoke the
“Shabd” with ‘kerans’ and called “Palla Pana”. They sang songs called luhania and beat
their face, breast, and thighs. During mourning period, wo men of that house got up early
in the morning and cried loudly in order to show their grievances towards the dead
person. The relatives and other community members came to house of dead person for
Kalpan and sit together for many hours for ten or thirteen days.

Whenever they went for Kalpana, they have to keep in mind a particular day
called “Thandebaar”. Community members came to sleep at that house in the night. The
person who performs all the religious rituals concerning death gave water to Pipal tree
for one year and also lightened diya in front of that. He did not cut his hair and nail and
also did not take onion, Brinjal, Garlic, non -veg, now, all these customs have vanish
away.

People do not have time for each other to sit for such a long time, no luhania are
sung and pallapana is also no more in practice, people who come for kalpana do not
considered any day and don not joined their head. They simply come and sit for some
time and then go back. Even person wearing pungi does not follow them. 120 Like
marriage death was also a very costly affair especially when an old man died. A lot of
money was spent on wasteful expenditure which is fading away with the passage of
time. 121

In the earlier days, special attention was paid to shradhs of their ancestors. People
would mourn this tenure with full seriousness. Most of the orthodox people would not

86
shave or change their clothes during these days. 122 Now the things have much changed
and these customs hardly exists in younger generations. 123

In earlier days, many types of superstitions were prevalent among the people of
Jammu region one such type of superstition prevalent in the area was Jariyan, the black
magic. Traditionally some jogies from hilly areas of Bengal and Assam brought an herb
powder and the desirous ladies would get it from the jogies under some mysterious
circumstances and serve it to victim usually with sweet dish. It is said that sooner or later
it shows its reaction and victim is caught by the ghost, called Masan by the natives. The
victim is gradually reduces to skeleton with the passage of time and ultimately meets a
faced end. 124

Jogis, Gararis and Dayalas were called to detect out the ghost with an arranged
process called chauki. They sang hymns, and made the victim dance on rhythm of dhol.
The victim was tied to a rope in the middle of room and when the rope revolved due to
curves, the victim moved along with it ultimately after a long spell seven to eight days
the ghost was traced and later cured by jogis etc. This was performed usually during the
rainy season. 125

Today, these legacies are fading away, giving birth to new values of life. The
advancement of science and Technology has removed their fears and suspicions and
people are becoming more and more awakened now. Anyhow, these legacies are still
prevalent in hilly and backward areas of the region. 126

In the earlier days the conditions of women was not so good. There was a custom
among some Rajput communities that the birth of female child was considered as very
disgraceful. When several female children were born in succession, the destruction of the
last born was carried out with the following observance. A piece of gur was placed in the
month of the child, a skin of cotton was laid on her breast, and the following incantation
recited two or three times:-

Gur khaiyn pooni kattin

Apna bhaiya ghalen.

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 So they were placed in the earthen vessels and water pots and buried in the
pachhwarha(backyard). 127 Many folk songs also show inequality between girl and boy
mention in chapter fourth. It clearly shows that girls were discriminated traditionally.
Women were expected to treat their husband as if they were Gods and obedience of
wives to husband has remain a strong social norm. The husband was supposed to be
everything for the wife. He was her lifebreath, the bestower of everything. A woman
could propitiate the god just by being devoted to her husband. She could perform the
worship of the deities only with the permission of her husband, otherwise everything
would be without any fruit. 128

They may eat only after her husband is fed. A woman may not address her
husband by his name. She always referred to her husband as “the child’s father” or by
some other euphemistic term like ‘ji’, 129 but now, many changes have taken place in the
position of women.

The change has also come in ritual practices related to worship of many kuldevtas.
It can be seen in the mode of sacrifice worship where the devotes substitutes it with
offering of other things as people are turning into vegetarian and believe that it is better to
feed to poor or to give alms to the needy than to kill an animal. There are some
communities where such practices are still prevalent but that are not practice in the
original form. Instead people offer halwa to the deity rather than offering goat and ask for
the forgiveness for doing that. This is known as Bakshana in local language. In some
communities people have started the custom of leaving the goat in the shrine or elsewhere
after offering to deity.

Now, a days people from different corner of the country come in this region for
work with their own way of eating and dressing. Migrants settled in this region also
create a sense of competitiveness and also influence the life style of the people of this
region also.

The food habits and dress- up of the people has also influence due to these reason.
Now, people are shading the traditional values and wearing bush-shirts, pants, coat and

88
ties. Some have gone to the extent of wearing hippy dresses, keeping hippy cut hair style
and moustaches. Saaries and pants tops are becoming very popular among the girls.

The place of our typical tradition ediable like Ghicer, Khamire, suchiyaauria,
guchiya, madra, chilay, charoliya, babru, pathrod theekarmande also have been taken by
barger, pizza, kulacha, noodles, momoos, spring rolls, dosa, pabbhaji etc. 130

In spite of many changes that had undergone in the course of their long history,
the customs of Jammu region have maintained their continuity. This continuity can be
easily seen in social institutions, rituals and languages. For instance, the Grhya sutras
which were composed around the sixth century B.C., that is about two thousand five
hundred years ago, lay down that the following rituals were essential for marriage
ceremony. Kanyadana, Agnisthapana, Homa, Panigrahana, Lajjahoma, Agniparinayana,
Saptapadi and Kalashsthapana, etc. These rituals form an integral part of the traditional
marriage ceremony even today. In addition to these cardinal rituals, it is also mention in
the Grhya sutra that lokacara or the customs prevailing in the community should also be
observed and in case there is any doubt about these, old women should be consulted. This
too has been the practice all along. 131

Another instance which brings out the continuity of Indian tradition is that the
word Kuddal which occurs in the Rig-Veda is prevented even now in almost the same
form and in the same meaning. The word Abata has been used in the Rig-Veda to refer
with disdain to women. This word too is current even today in the same meaning. 132

The Jatakarma or birth ceremony is to be performed immediately after birth.

Father smears the child’s tongue with a mixture of butter, honey, curds taken from a
golden vessel or spoon. Same is also performed but in a little bit different form. Only
honey is lick by the child. 133

All the rituals which have been mentioned in the Puranas for the worship are still
followed in the same manner. Even today people followed the same procedure for
worship in the temples and even at home. 134

89
 Plant worship is traced to the Vedas. The Soma plant, which yielded an
intoxicating juice, was an important deity of the Vedic Pantheon, and many hymns of the
Rig-Veda are addressed to the plant. 135 The Pipal tree has been worshipped throughout
India with unbroken continuity from prehistory, long before the Buddha found
enlightment beneath its boughs. 136 It is worshipped in India today is shown on the seals of
Indus valley civilization with its unmistakable leaves hence was a cult –object five
thousand years ago. 137

The worship of Siva in India is of very ancient origin. The Rudra of the Vedas has
developed in the course of ages into the great and powerful god, Siva. Siva worship in
phallic form, however, was probably popularized by the Indus people 138 and these
elements of Indus people like the worship of Siva and the lingam are continue to this
period. 139 The worship of goddess goes back to the time of Indus Valley civilization, 140 is
still performed by the people of Jammu region. Naga worship was also quite popular in
this region from ancient times. 141

The chief characteristic of the Vedic mythology was that it was a worship of
nature in all its aspects. In the Duggar that ancient mythology has disappeared but the
worship of nature was till recently a living force in popular religion. Nature was revered.
Nature’s force were believed to produce good or bad effects on human and animal life,
and it was also strongly believed that the malevolent or ill effects of these forces, which
came to be addressed as devatas, were the result of their wrath and offence and so these
needed to be propitiated and appeased. 142

The sun godling or Suraj Devta was the foremost among benevolent gods.
Though it had been one of the greatest Vedic deities, worship in that status had been
dropped, but he is still called as devtas.143 The worship of Sun is still much in vogue in
the society of this region. This religious significance can also be attested by the people of
who daily in the morning use to pay Namaskar to the Sun by pouring a little water
towards the proper direction of the Sun. 144

90
 Tila seeds (as representing both wild and cultivated plants) are the oldest ritual
gifts. The sesamum is particularly to be given at the beginning of the Sun’s northern
course; i’e passage into Capricorn, the famous makara-samkranti,145 is still in practice.

Thus, change in customs is partial. Customs cannot be change in totality. The

main concept remains the same with modifications occurring over time.

91
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1
Charak, S.D.S, and Chhabra, G.S, Jammu and Kashmir (Aspects of Socio-Political
Theory), p.54.
2
Ibid.
3
Raychoudhari, H.C, Political History of Ancient India, 1972, p.63.
4
Ibid., p.64-65.
5
Aggarwal, V.S, India as known to Panini, 1953, p.52-53.
6
Ibid., p.57.
7
Nilmata Purana, (Text) ed. Ved Kumari, vol.II, Verse-106.
8
Kumari, Ved, Nilmata Purana,VoI.I,1973, p.76.
9
Charak, S.D.S and Chhabra, G.S, Op. cit., p.57.
10
Sharma, Shiv Chander, Antiquities, History, Culture and Shrines of Jammu, 1997, p.3.
11
Rgveda, VII., 21.51.
12
Charak, S.D.S., A Short History of Jammu Raj, 1985,p.26.
13
Ibid., p.26-27.
14
Dasgupta, K.K., The Antiquities of Audumbara,’ Proceeding of Indian History
Congress,1960, p.46.
15
Roy, P.C, The Mahabharata, 2003, sec. 43.
16
Ibid.
17
Bawa, Seema, Religion and Art of the Chamba Valley (A.D.700-1300),1998, p.31.
18
Badhera, Ganesh Das Rajdarshani, A Persian History of North-Western Indian from
earliest times to 1847, translated into English by S.D.S.Charak and Anita,1991, p.8,
4fn.
19
Ibid.
20
Charak, S.D.S. Op. cit., p.28.
21
Kumari, Ved, Op. cit., p.72.
22
Stein, M.A, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, 1989, vol.I.180fn.
23
Maini, K.D, Rajouri, 2004, p.24.
24
Markandeya Purana., LVII.56.
25
Stein, M.A, Vol.I, Op cit., fn, 317.

92
26
Ibid., Vol. II, p.978-79.
27
Nilamata Purana, Vol.II, Op cit., Verses-986-87, p.251.
28
Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.29.
29
Cunningham, Sir Alexander, Ancient Geography of India, 1960, p.148.
30
Charak, S.D.S, Op. cit., p.29.
31
Labh, B Buddhism in Jammu and Kashmir, An Overview, ed. Singh, Nirmal, Jamwal,
Suman and Lal, Narayan Shyam, Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh: Historical, Cultural
and Linguistic Perspectives,2007, p.34-35.
32
Ibid., p.35.
33
Hiuen Tsang, Si-Yu-Ki, translated into English by Beal, Samuel as The Buddhist
Records of the Western World, 1889 ,p.163.
34
Ibid.
35
Gupta, Lalit,Buddhism in Darva-Abhisara- A Historical and Socio-Cultural
Perspective, 2009, p.200
36
Labh,B, Op. cit., p.37.
37
Ibid., p.38.
38
Ibid.,
39
Gupta, Lalit,Op cit., p.204-205.
40
Ibid., p.205
41
Ibid.
42
Nagasena, Milinda Panho,translated into English by P.K.Kaul,1996, p.1.
43
Gandhar, J.N. and Gandhar, P.N, Buddhism in Kashmir and Ladakh, p.28.
44
Bapat, P.V, 2500 years of Buddhism, 1956, p.198.
45
Nagasena, Milind Panho, Op cit., p.7.
46
Ibid., p.39.
47
Ibid., p.35.
48
Indian Archaeology, 1981-82, A review, 1983, p.18.
49
Maini, K.D, Op cit., p.92
50
Ibid., p.93-94.
51
Ibid., p.94.

93
52
Ibid.
53
Sharma, D.C., History and Culture of Kishtwar, 1995, p.227.
54
Ibid., p.227-228.
55
Ibid., p.228.
56
Ibid., p.230.
57
Ibid., p.225.
58
Indian Archaeology, 1999-2000, A Review, 2005, p.52.
59
Ibid., p.61.
60
Ibid.
61
Ganhar, J.N, Jammu Shrines and Pilgrimage,1973, p.154.
62
Nirmal, K. Singh, Inter-Communal Relations in Jammu and Kashmir, p.5-6.
63
Pathik, Jyoteeshwar, Op. cit., p.40.
64
Ibid., p.41.
65
Ganhar, J.N, Op. cit., p.150.
66
Pathik, Jyoteeshwar, Op. cit., p.42.
67
Sharma, Shiv chander, Op. cit., p .52-53.
68
Ibid., p.43.
69
Ganhar, J.N, Op. cit., p.153.
70
Sharma, Shiv chander, Op. cit., p.43.
71
Ibid., p. 43-45.
72
Ibid., Op. cit., p.43.
73
Ibid., p.43, 45.
74
Hiuen Tsang, Op cit., p.86.
75
Ibid., p.77.
76
Ibid., p.85.
77
Ibid., p.75.
78
Ibid., p.188
79
Ibid., p.198.
80
Al-Beruni, Kitab-ul-Hind translated into English by Edward C. Sachau, as Alberuni’s
India, in two vols in one, New Delhi, 1989, LXIX, p.154.

94
81
Ibid.,p.155.
82
Ibid.,p.157.
83
Ibid., LXXIII,p.169.
84
Ibid.,p.182.
85
Ibid.
86
Ibid.,p.180.
87
Badhera, Ganesh Das Op cit., p.23.
88
Ibid.
89
Ibid.,p.114.
90
Ibid.
91
Ibid.
92
Ibid.
93
Drew, Fredric, Jummo and Kashmir Territories, 1875, p. 49.
94
Ibid.
95
Ibid.
96
Ibid.,50.
97
Ibid.,51.
98
Ibid.
99
Ibid.,p.52.
100
Ibid.,p. 53.
101
Ibid.
102
Ibid.
103
Ibid.,p.54.
104
Ibid.,p.72.
105
Ibid.,88.
106
Ibid.,p.89.
107
Shrirama, Indra Deva, Society and Culture in India (Their Dynamics through the
Ages), 1999, p.30.
108
Pandit, S.N, Kashmir Hindu Sanskars (Rituals, Rites and Customs),2006, p.409.
109
Thomas, P, Hindu Religion Customs and Manners,1975, p.79.

95
110
Interview conducted with Sudesh Devi of village Prithipur (Jammu),19-1-2014.
111
Pandit, S.N, Op. cit., p.38.
112
Sharma,Champa, Duggar de Reete-Rewaj(in Dogri),, ed. Om Goswami, Duggar da
Sanskritic (in Dogri), Itihaas, 1985, p.358.
113
Interview conducted with Manohar Singh of village Katli (Samba),15-12-2013.
114
Thomas, P, Op. cit., p.82.
115
Shastri, B.K, Devika Tat Ke Sanskriti,1984, p.24.
116
Ahuja, Ram, Indian Social System, repriented 2004, p.141.
117
Interview conducted with Monahar Singh of Katli(Samba)15-12-2013.
118
Ibid.
119
Ibid.
120
Interview conducted with Santosh Devi of Malaal( Akhnur),8-1-2014.
121
Pathik, Jyoteeshwar, Op. cit., p.130.
122
Ibid., p.130.
123
Ibid., p.130.
124
Ibid., p.138.
125
Ibid.
126
Ibid.
127
Charak, S.D., History and Culture of Himalayan States vol.VII, 1997, p.158
128
Gupta, Kusum Kumari, A socio-Religious Study of Visnudharmottara Purana, 1994,
p.78-79.
129
Thomas, P, Op. cit., p.82.
130
Interview conducted with Manohar Singh of village Katli (Samba).15-12-2013
131
Shriram, Indra Deva, Op. cit., p.30
132
Ibid.
133
Interview conducted with Naar Devi of Gagwal,27-12-2013.
134
Shastri, B.K, Op. cit., p.16.
135
Thomas. P, Op. cit., p.30.
136
Kosambi, D.D, An Introduction to the study of Indian History, 1975, p.41.
137
Kosambi, D.D., Op. cit., p.64.

96
138
Billawaria, Anita, Religious Art in Jammu Hills, 1990, p.90.
139
Dube, S.C, Indian Society,2010, p.5.
140
Waklu, Somnath, The Rich heritage of Jammu and Kashmir-Studies in Art,
Architecture, History and Culture of the region,1998, p.67.
141
Billawaria, Anita, Op. cit., p.92.
142
Charak, S.D.S, Op cit., p.249.
143
Ibid., p.249-250.
144
Sharma, Shiv Chander, Op cit., p.77,
145
Kosambi, D.D, Op. cit., p.137.

97