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1.1 KINETICS
Kinetics is the study of the forces which cause and affect motion (e.g.
gravitation, friction, spring forces, etc.)
NOTE: Newton’s laws can also be applied to the motion of the Centre of Mass
(CoM) of bodies of finite size. The CoM behaves like a point mass with the
same mass as the object provided there is no moment of the applied forces about
the centre of mass.
consider also the centripetal acceleration due to the earth’s motion around the
sun: (assuming a circular orbit):
ar = –Rω2 = – 1.50 X 1011 X [2π/(365 x 24 x 3600)]2 = – 0.006 m.s-2
STEP 1 Identify the body or system to be considered in isolation, and draw its
outline shape
2. KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the study of the motion of point masses or rigid bodies. We will
typically be concerned with calculating position, displacement, velocity, etc
where acceleration is determined from a kinetic analysis.
r r dsr
s& = v = ,
dt
Now a , v and s are all functions of one variable only, (time). We can relate a
and v as follows:
For a general case where acceleration is not constant, but may be some function
of time (or velocity, or displacement),
these kinematic equations can be used to solve problems by integrating
directly:
NOTE: To integrate this, you will need to know the function a(t).
u+ v
s= t
2
v = u + at
1 2
s = ut + 2 at
2 2
v = u + 2 as
∫ – g . ds = ∫ v. dv
v2
−g s = + const
2
F is of magnitude ≤ µ| N |
F subject to F . N = 0
NOTE: The line of action of | F | is through the bottom of the block i.e. at the
point/surface of contact, NOT through the CoM.
There are other forms of friction, for example due to fluid drag:
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z(t ) = asin( ωn t + α)
where a and α are constants. (a) is known as the amplitude. The value of α
(known as the phase angle) will depend on the instant from which time is
measured and/or the initial displacement and velocity of the mass. This is
arbitrary. For example, suppose that when
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EXAMPLE 4
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First we look at the special case of 2-D motion around a point at fixed radius
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(a) (b)
Consider the motion of a point P, moving along a circular path of radius r and
centre O, with a constant angular velocity ω rad/s. The object moves at constant
tangential speed vθ = r ω, but the velocity is not constant, because the direction
is changing.
If P moves from position 1 to 2 in a short time ∆t, as shown, then the arc P1P2
will subtend a very small angle, ∆θ. The change in velocity is shown on the
diagram (b) as the vector difference OP2 – OP1. If ∆θ is very small, then the
vector P1P2 can be computed by assuming it to be an arc of a circle of radius vθ.
From N2, a force must exist to produce this acceleration. This is called
CENTIPETAL FORCE.
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Polar co-ordinates
If point P is the position of an object along a motion path at an instant t, then
the position of the object may be defined by the radius, r, at an angle θ, with
its direction given by the unit vectors as shown in the diagram adjacent:
POSITION:
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then
u&ˆ r = θ& uˆ θ
ACCELERATION:
The acceleration at point P is
r
dv &r&
= r = &r&uˆ r + r&uˆ& r + r&θ& uˆ θ + r&θ&uˆ θ + rθ& uˆ& θ
dt
To determine u&ˆ θ :
∆ uˆθ ∆θ
given lim = lim (− uˆ r )
that: ∆t→ 0 ∆t ∆t→ 0 ∆t
uˆ& θ = − θ& uˆ r
then
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r
a = ( &r& − rθ& 2 )uˆ r + ( r&θ& + 2r&θ& )uˆ θ or
r r
a = a r uˆ r + a θ uˆ θ
r r
where, a r = &r& − rθ& 2 , aθ = r&θ& + 2r&θ& This last term is the
Coriolis term.
r
The magnitude is: | a |= ( &r& − rθ& 2 ) 2 + ( r&θ& + 2r&θ& ) 2
EXAMPLE 6
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The z co-ordinate is identical to that used in Cartesian co-ordinates, and since the
unit vector defining its direction, uˆ z , is constant, the time derivatives of this
vector are zero. Therefore position, velocity and acceleration are written in
cylindrical co-ordinates as follows:
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If the force varies during the displacement, the work done is the area under the
|F| vs. |s|cosθ graph.
NOTE: Work is a scalar quantity, but remember to take the force component in
the direction of the displacement!
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Potential energy
is the energy possessed by a body because of its position in a “force field”. For
example in a gravitational field, if a body of mass m is raised to a vertical height h
above a datum level, a force mg is required to lift it. Thus the work done in raising
the mass is F. s = mgh. This amount of energy is stored in the mass and is
recoverable by allowing the mass to fall and do useful work in the process.
Strain Energy
is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its elastic deformation. When a spring
is stretched beyond its natural (free) length, the force required during the extension,
increases uniformly from 0 to kx,
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Conservation of energy
Initial energy + energy added = final energy + energy removed
This applies to any system. In a dynamics problem, the initial and final
energies will be made up of potential, kinetic and elastic energies. Energy can
be added or subtracted by external forces, (e.g. friction, which turns mechanical
energy into thermal energy (heat). This is sometimes called the work done W.
For a system with external forces acting on it, we can write a Work Energy
Equation
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power output
ε=
power input
energy output
ε=
energy input
dv
∑ F = m a= m
dt
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Which states that the initial momentum of the particle at t = t1 plus the vector
sum of all the impulses applied to the mass during the time interval t1 to t2 is
equal to the final momentum of the particle at t = t2
t2
∫t
The integral I = Fdt in this equation is defined as the linear impulse I.
1
NOTE: the impulse vector acts in the same direction as the force, and is a
measure of the effect of the force during
the time for which the force acts.
Impact
Impact occurs when two bodies collide with each other during a very short
interval of time, causing very large impulsive force to be exerted between the
bodies. Nonetheless the impulse I = ∫ F dt is finite. There are two types of
impact: central impact where the direction of motion of the colliding bodies is
along the line of impact, and oblique impact where the motion of at least one
of the particles is at an angle to the line of impact.
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For a system of particles, the principle of linear impulse and momentum can be
written as:
t2
∑ mi (v i )1 + ∑ ∫ Fdt = ∑ mi (v i )2
t1
If we assume the sum of the external impulses acting on the system to be zero,
then By N3, at impact, the objects both experience an impulse of magnitude |I|
but in opposed directions.
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In any such collision, each particle will undergo deformation and restitution
(relaxation). During the deformation, each particle will exert an equal but
opposite deformation impulse Id on the others, while during the restitution
period a restitution impulse, Ir pushes the particles apart.
The particles will either return to their original shape or remain permanently
deformed. In reality, the physical properties of any two bodies are such that the
magnitude of the deformation impulse is always the greater, i.e. |Id| > |Ir|
In most cases, the initial velocities of the particles will be known, and it will be
necessary to determine their final velocities. In order to do this, we need
information which relates the initial to the final velocities based on the nature of
the collision itself.
v b2 − v a2 (v )
e= , or e = rel 2
v a1 − v b1 (v rel )1
that relates the relative velocity of the two objects just after the collision to that
just beforehand:
NOTE for an oblique collision this equation applies only along the line of
impact.
The coefficient of restitution will depend on the nature of the forces, and on the
nature of the particles themselves, thus
it is system dependent. For example, the value of e can be a function of
velocity, surface roughness, etc.
Oblique impacts
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To solve such problems, first establish the y-axis at the intersection of the plane
of contact and the plane that contains the vectors vA,1 and vB,1. The x-axis is
along the line of impact.
The magnitude and the angles θ2, and φ2, of the final resultant velocities, (vA)2,
(vB)2, can then be found by determining (vAx)2, (vAy)2,(vBx)2, and (vBy)2
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