Course : Business Communication for Managers (BC601)

Linear Model of Communication

In linear model, communication is considered one way process where sender is the only one who
sends message and receiver doesn't give feedback or response. The message signal is encoded
and transmitted through channel in presence of noise. The sender is more prominent in linear
model of communication. Linear model was founded by Shannon and Weaver which was later
adapted by David Berlo into his own model known as SMCR (Source, Message, Channel,
Receiver) Model of Communication.
Linear model is applied in mass communication like television, radio, etc. This model is not
applicable in general human communication as general human communication has to have
feedback and responses.
Components of Linear Communication
Linear model has defined set of components required for a communication to be established
where
 Sender is the person who sends a message after encoding.
 Encoding is the process of converting the message into codes compatible with the channel
and understandable for the receiver.
 Decoding is the process of changing the encoded message into understandable language by
the receiver.
 Message is the information sent by the sender to the receiver.
 Channel is the medium through which the message is sent.
 Receiver is the person who gets the message after decoding.
 Noise is the disruptions that are caused in the communication process in channel or in
understandability of the message.
Types of Linear Communications
Different types of communication models based on linear model of communication are:
Aristotle's Model
Aristotle's Model is a linear communication model which was made for public speaking. In
Aristotle's model, the speaker sent message and the audience receive it. The model was made to
establish a propaganda.

Shannon Weaver Model

The Shannon Weaver Model of Communication is a mathematical model used for technical
communication or machine communication like telegraph and telephone. In Shannon Weaver's
model, if the channel does not have distorting elements or noise producing elements, the
communication is successful.
Berlo's SMCR Model
Berlo's Model was made to understand general human communication. In Berlo's Model,
communication depends on many factors: like communication skills, attitude, knowledge, socio-
cultural systems, the way in which the message has been sent, the content of the message, senses
of the receiver, etc.
Criticisms of Linear Model
 The model assumes that communication has a particular beginning and an end, so it is not
continuous.

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 There is no concept of feedback which makes it inapplicable to direct human communication

and only applicable to mass communication like newspaper, television, etc. There is no way
to know if the communication was effective or not.
 Human communication is mostly circular rather than linear as audience is also an active
participant.
 Communication may not happen in turns and more than one message can be sent at the same
time.
 The sender must have the ability to encode and the receiver must have the ability to decode.
 The model has become less relevant to electronic communication and internet where it’s not
clear who is the sender and who is the receiver.

Shannon and Weaver Model Of Communication

Shannon Weaver model of communication was created in 1948 when Claude Elwood Shannon
wrote an article "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" in Bell System Technical
Journal with Warren Weaver. Shannon was an American mathematician whereas Weaver was a
scientist. The Mathematical theory later came to be known as Shannon Weaver model of
communication or “mother of all models." It is more technological than other linear models.
This model is specially designed to develop the effective communication between sender and
receiver. Also they find factors which affecting the communication process called “Noise”. At
first the model was developed to improve the Technical communication. Later it’s widely
applied in the field of Communication.
The model deals with various concepts like Information source, transmitter, Noise, channel,
message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
Encoder : The transmitter which converts the message into signals
Note: The sender’s messages converted into signals like waves or Binary data which is
compactable to transmit the messages through cables or satellites. For example: In telephone the
voice is converted into wave signals and it transmits through cables
Decoder : The reception place of the signal which converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encode

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Note : The receiver converts those binary data or waves into message which is comfortable and
understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it will affect
the effective communication between sender and receiver
Receiver : The destination of the message from sender
Note : Based on the decoded message the receiver gives their feed back to sender. If the message
distracted by noise it will affect the communication flow between sender and receiver
Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through channel. During this
process the messages may distracted or affected by physical noise like horn sounds, thunder and
crowd noise or encoded signals may distract in the channel during the transmission process
which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct message
Note : The model is clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly
affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages

Explanation of Shannon Weaver Model

The sender encodes the message and sends it to the receiver through a technological channel like
telephone and telegraph. The sender converts the message into codes understandable to the
machine. The message is sent in codes through a medium. The receiver has to decode the
message before understanding it and interpreting it. The receptor machine can also act as a
decoder in some cases. The channel can have noise and the receiver might not have the capacity
to decode which might cause problems in communication process.
Here, for instance, brain might be the sender, mouth might be the encoder which encodes to a
particular language, air might be the channel, another person’s ear might be the receptor and his
brain might be the decoder and receiver. Similarly, air is the channel here, the noise present in
his environment that disturbs them is the noise whereas his response is the feedback. There
were only 5 components when the model was made. Noise was added later.
As Shannon was an engineer, this model was first made to improve technical communication,
mainly for telephonic communication. It was made to maximize telephone capacity with
minimum noise. Later, Weaver applied it for all kind of communications to develop effective
communication and the model became famous as Shannon Weaver model. In engineering,
Shannon’s model is also called information theory and is used academically to calculate
transmission through machines and also has a formula.
Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :
Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”. During his call, noise
appeared (transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked
Thomson (feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.
Sender : Thomson
Encoder : Telephone (Thomson)
Channel : Cable
Noise : Distraction in voice
Reception : Telephone (Assistant)
Receiver : Assistant.
Due to transmission error or noise, Assistant can’t able to understand Thomson’s messages.
*The noise which affect the communication flow between them.
Criticism of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :

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1. One of the simplest model and its general applied in various communication theories
2. The model which attracts both academics of Human communication and Information
theorist to leads their further research in communication
3. It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience
4. The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Here sender plays the primary role and
receiver plays the secondary role (receive the information or passive)
5. Communication is not a one way process. If it’s behaved like that, it will lose its strength.
For example: Audience or receiver who listening a radio, reading the books or watching
television is a one way communication because absence of feedback
6. Understanding Noise will helps to solve the various problems in communication

Aristotle's Model of Communication

Aristotle (384-322 B.C) was a Greek philosopher and writer born in Stagira, Northern Greece.
He was also the teacher of Alexander the Great. He studied physics, logic, mathematics, etc.
While exploring the human nature scientifically, Aristotle developed a linear model of
communication for oral communication known as Aristotle's Model of Communication. This is
considered as the first model of communication and was proposed before 300 B.C. It is also the
most widely accepted among all communication models.
Aristotle Model is mainly focused on speaker and speech. It can be broadly divided into 5
primary elements: Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience and Effect.
The Aristotle's communication model is a speaker centered model as the speaker has the most
important role in it and is the only one active. It is the speaker's role to deliver a speech to the
audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the speech. This makes the
communication process one way, from speaker to receiver.
The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target audience and
situation (occasion). The speech must be prepared so that the audience be persuaded or
influenced from the speech. He believed "Rhetoric" is the study of communication and
persuasion and different message or speech should be made for different audiences at different
situations to get desired effects or to establish propaganda. This model was highly used to
develop public speaking skills and create propaganda at that time so; it is less focused on
intrapersonal or interpersonal communication. Even if the model is speaker oriented and
focuses on audience interaction in communication, there is no concept of feedbacks.
For instance, a politician (speaker) gives a speech to get votes from the civilians (audience) at the
time of election (occasion). The civilians only vote if they are influenced by the things the
politician says in his speech so the content must be very impressive to influence the mass and the
speaker must design the message very carefully. The speech must be clear as well as the speaker
must have a very good non-verbal communication with the audience like eye contact.
This example is a classic case of Aristotle Model of Communication depicting all the elements in
the model.
Critical Elements of a Good Communicator
Aristotle has given 3 elements that must be present in a good communicator or public speaker.
These elements are related to each other and they reinforce the other elements.
Ethos
Ethos is the characteristic which makes you credible in front of the audience. If there is no
credibility, the audience will not believe in you and will not be persuaded by you. Expertise and
positions also give credibility to a person. For instance, the mass will not listen to the promises

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of a corrupt politician, but if a politician is known for his good deeds, there's a high change his
speech will be heard.
Pathos
If what you say matters to them and they can connect with it, then they will be more interested
and they will think you are more credible. Emotional bonds will make the audience captivated
and they feel the speaker is one of their own people. For instance, if people of a village needs
water and the politician tells them that he will help in building roads, the people will not get
influenced but might be more influenced if he says he'll build a dam for drinking water and
irrigation.
Logos
Logos is logic. People believe in you only if they understand what you are trying to say. People
find logic in everything. If there is no logic behind the speaker's work or time, they do not want
to get involved. Everybody has a sense of reason. You must present facts to the audience for
them to believe in you. For example, a presenter using factual data in an awareness program will
attract the audience's attention and will make them believe in the need of awareness in the
particular matter.
Criticisms of Aristotle's Model of Communication
There are few criticisms around this model. Some of them are
 There is no concept of feedback, it is one way from speaker to audience.
 There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers.
 This model can only be used in public speaking.

The 7CS of Communication

7cs of communication, which is also known as the principles of communication have utmost
importance for business organization. Whenever, you talk about communication, the first thing
that comes in our mind is the principles of communication or the 7cs of communication. With
these principles, we come to know that how to make communication effective, so that it could be
easy to understand for the targeted group of people. Communication must be effective because in
business, individuals have to communicate with their workers, with customers, with buyers and
sellers and so on. Therefore it is necessary to make communication effective that help the
receivers to understand the message in the sense and with the meanings in which it was
conveyed. The principles of communication tell us the meaning and style of the message.
Thus, before making communication to every individual, keep these principles or 7cs of
communication in your mind.

7CS of Communication

 Completeness
 Conciseness
 Consideration
 Concreteness
 Clarity
 Courtesy
 Correctness

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1. Completeness:

Completeness - The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by
the audience. The sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver’s mind set
and convey the message accordingly. A complete communication has following features:

1. Complete communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization.

2. Moreover, they are cost saving as no crucial information is missing and no
additional cost is incurred in conveying extra message if the communication is
complete.
3. A complete communication always gives additional information wherever
required. It leaves no questions in the mind of receiver.
4. Complete communication helps in better decision-making by the
audience/readers/receivers of message as they get all desired and crucial
information.
5. It persuades the audience.

Completeness refers to the fact that the information sent by the sender should be complete in
every aspect, so that it will result in an effective communication. The sender should analyse the
receiver’s mind and send him that message according to his intellectual level. Firstly, the sender
should send the message by considering all the facts and figures and should convey all the
relevant information, and if he fails to do so he should answer every question of the receiver by
providing extra details. Let’s quote a simple example here. Suppose if you are working with a
company and you are dealing the engineering area, one of you customer ask about the A.C
mechanism. You are supposed to provide him extra details to make him satisfy this will result in
effective communication. If you failed to provide the relevant information in a short period of
time, it means the communication between you and your customer has failed, and he might shift
to some other company.

2. Conciseness:

Conciseness - Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to convey in
least possible words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. Conciseness is a necessity
for effective communication. Concise communication has following features:

1. It is both time-saving as well as cost-saving.

2. It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive and
needless words.
3. Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited words to
the audience.
4. Concise message is more appealing and comprehensible to the audience.
5. Concise message is non-repetitive in nature.
Conciseness means providing accurate information in a short period time. As we know that
businessman always have short time either he is a sender or a receiver. So conciseness saves the
time of both of them. To achieve conciseness in the business, every individual has to avoid
repetition of words during communication. He should not use lengthy explanations as it takes

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long time and also summaries the communication with relevant information. Besides, not
consuming more time, this principle of communication helps to save money too. Remember that
the basic aim of a business is to provide to the point information without using jumbo and
repetitive words that takes time. For example, if your customer ask you to provide the details of
your clients. You should provide him with the list of the names of the clients. Providing business
and personal details are useless and just wastage of time. Always use abbreviations like I.T,
W.H.O, to save the time too.

3. Consideration:
4. Consideration - Consideration implies “stepping into the shoes of others”. Effective
communication must take the audience into consideration, i.e, the audience’s view points,
background, mind-set, education level, etc. Make an attempt to envisage your audience, their
requirements, emotions as well as problems. Ensure that the self-respect of the audience is
maintained and their emotions are not at harm. Modify your words in message to suit the
audience’s needs while making your message complete. Features of considerate communication
are as follows:
1. Emphasize on “you” approach.
2. Empathize with the audience and exhibit interest in the audience. This will
stimulate a positive reaction from the audience.
3. Show optimism towards your audience. Emphasize on “what is possible” rather
than “what is impossible”. Lay stress on positive words such as jovial, committed,
thanks, warm, healthy, help, etc.

From business perspective, consideration means to consider receiver’s nature while compiling a
message by keeping himself in receiver’s place. Effective communication is the one, when the
sender considers the mental level, education and background of the receiver before sending the
message. Sender should make a mental picture of receiver’s emotions and problems before
sending him a message. He should make sure that he has maintained the self-respect of the
receiver and his words should not harm him. Sender should Use “you” instead of using I or We.
Sender should manifest interest in the target audience. Sender must emphasize positive words in
order to produce positive response. Sender should always write the message in such a way that
shows benefit of the targeted audience.

4. Concreteness:

Concreteness - Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than fuzzy and
general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message has following features:

1. It is supported with specific facts and figures.

2. It makes use of words that are clear and that build the reputation.
3. Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

Concreteness refers to be specific rather than to be general. General messages lead to

misunderstandings that affect both the sender and the receiver. It is recommended that while
communicating with the client, facts and figures should be used instead of general discussions.
While Communication, the words that build images should be preferred. For example, while

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writing a general message the sender will write “he is an intelligent boy and got first position in
class” this is so confusing message. But if the sender writes “Ahmed got 78% marks in A –
Level.” This one is not only specific, but also build a good perception in the readers mind.

5. Clarity:

Clarity - Clarity implies emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than trying
to achieve too much at once. Clarity in communication has following features:

1. It makes understanding easier.

2. Complete clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message.
3. Clear message makes use of exact, appropriate and concrete words.

Clarity means to be clear in the goal rather than chasing too many goals at a specific time. In
business communication the messages sent should be clear with exact wordings that are short,to
avoid misunderstandings. For effective communication, easy to understand words should be
used. Easy wordings help in understanding the ideas and thinking of the sender. While
communicating the sender should be clear of the purpose of communicating, if not so then the
receiver will not understand his message. Receivers are not capable of assuming what the sender
wants to say; therefore it is necessary to make easy and precise messages.

6. Courtesy:

Courtesy - Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender’s expression as
well as should respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite,
judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. Courteous message has following features:

1. Courtesy implies taking into consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of

the receiver of the message.
2. Courteous message is positive and focused at the audience.
3. It makes use of terms showing respect for the receiver of message.
4. It is not at all biased.

It means not only knowing the receiver ideas and thoughts, but also to know his feelings. It
means that sender is sending the message by respecting the feelings of the receiver. Therefore,
the sender should be polite and caring while writing a message. Courteous messages strengthen
relations. Sender should use the words that show respect and care for the audience. He can use
frequently “thank you” and “please” to show respect for the feelings of receiver.

Correctness:

Correctness - Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors

in communication. Correct communication has following features:

 The message is exact, correct and well-timed.

 If the communication is correct, it boosts up the confidence level.

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 Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers.

 It checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the
message.
 It makes use of appropriate and correct language in the message.

In business, correctness means the correct use of grammar, punctuation and language during
communication. The message should be written in right language with accurate figures and facts.
The type of language used in business is often informal i.e. the words that are used during
conversation are short while in written message always abbreviations are used. Thus the last 7cs
of communication have utmost importance.

Business associates communicate all the day. The better they communicate (either verbally or
non-verbally) the better the reliability they will have with their clients. Awareness to these 7CS
of communication will make every businessman the best communicator, and the best use of these
principles ensure good communication.
Classification of Communication (With Diagarm)
Communication may be classified into several categories on the following basis:
1. On the basis of Organizational structure or relationship:
(a) Formal communication.
2. On the basis of How or direction:
a) Downward communication.
b) Upward communication.
c) Horizontal or lateral or sideward communication.
d) Diagonal communication.
3. On the basis of methods or media used or expression:
(a) Written communication.
(b) Oral communication.
(c) Gestural or non-verbal communication.
These categories of communication are illustrated in the following chart:

A. On the Basis of Relationship or Organizational Structure:

1. Formal Communication:
Formal communication is that which takes place through the formal channels of the organization
structure deliberately and consciously established by the management. It implies the flow of the
information along the lines of authority formally established in the enterprise.
Members of the enterprise are expected to communicate with one another strictly as per channels
laid down in the structure. For example, when the chief executive issues decisions and

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instructions to the subordinates, there is a formal communication which flows downward. In the
same manner formal communication flows upward when the subordinate reports to the superior.
Such communications are generally in writing and may take any of the following forms:
(i) Policy manuals
(ii) Procedural and rule books
(iii) Memoranda papers and orders
(iv) Official meetings
(v) Interviews, etc.n
B. On the Basis of Flow or Direction:
1. Downward Communication:
Communication between a superior and subordinate is known as vertical communication.
Vertical communication may be downward vertical communication or upward vertical
communication. Downward communication means communication which flows from a superior
to a subordinate. It follows the line of authority from the top to the bottom of the organization
hierarchy. Downward communication is a must in any organization.
It is needed:
(i) To get things done;
(ii) To prepare for changes;
(iii) To discourage lack of understanding and suspicion; and
(iv) To let the members of the organization develop feeling of pride of being well-informed
about all organizational matters.
The important examples of downward communication are:
(i) Notices
(ii) circulars
(iii) Instructions
(iv) Orders
(v) Letters
(vi) Memos
(vii) bulletins
(viii) Handbooks
(ix) Annual reports
(x) Loudspeaker announcements and
(xi) Group meetings, etc.
2. Upward Communication:
Upward communication means the flow of information from the lower levels of the organization
to the higher levels of authority. It passes from subordinate to superior as that from worker to
foreman, from foreman to manager, from manager to general manager and from general manager
to the chief executive or the board of directors. It includes opinions, ideas, suggestions,
complaints, grievances, appeals, reports, etc.

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Upward communication is very important as it serves as the feedback on the effectiveness of

downward communication. Management is able to know how well its policies, plans and
objectives are followed by those working at lower levels of the organization. It keeps the
management informed about the progress of the work and difficulties faced in performance. On
the basis of upward communication, the management revises its plans and policies and makes
further planning.
Upward communication is needed:
(i) To create receptiveness of communication;
(ii) To create a sense of belongingness through active participation;
(iii) To evaluate the effectiveness of communication;
(iv) To increase morale of employees;
(v) To make improvements in managerial decisions :
(iv) To co-ordinate efforts and
(vii) To know ideas of each individual in the organization.
The important examples of upward communication are:
(i) Reports
(ii) Meetings
(iii) Interviews
(iv) Conferences
(v) Letters
(vii) Complaints
(vii) Suggestions
(viii) Surveys
(xi) Union publications and
(x) Grapevine, etc.
3. Horizontal, Lateral or Sideward Communication:
The transmission of information and understanding between people on the same level of
organization hierarchy is called the horizontal communication. This type of communication is
also known as lateral or sideward or crosswise communication. Usually, it pertains to inter-
departmental communication, i.e. the communication between two departmental managers
working at the same level of organization or among subordinates working under one boss.
Horizontal communication speeds up information and promotes mutual understanding. It enables
the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-ordinate their activities

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without referring all matters to the higher level of management. As shown in the diagram of
Flows of Communication, supervisor a will often communicate with supervisor B for co-
ordination and integration of various activities. Such communication is essential in all
organizations.
The horizontal communication is generally of an informal nature. Whenever a departmental head
requires some information from another departmental head, he tends to contact him directly.
However, this type of communication can be oral or written.
4. Diagonal Communication:
The transfer of information between people who are neither in the same department nor on the
same level of organization hierarchy is called diagonal communication. For example, when the
Assistant Marketing Manager communicates with the accounts clerk directly, it is the case of
diagonal communication. This type of communication increases the organizational efficiency by
speeding up information and cutting across departmental barriers.
C. On the Basis of Media or Expression:
The term communication media refers to the medium used in the transmission of message and
mutual understanding. Words, pictures and actions are the media used for exchanging
information and understanding between different persons. The most important medium through
which communication takes place is the words. Pictures in the form of charts, models or blue
prints and gestures such as smile, silence, twinkling of eyes etc., are used to make the
communication effective. The communication, purpose, audience, qualities of the communicator
and the situation must be considered in selecting the media of communication.
The various media of communication have been studied as under:
1. Written communication
2. Oral communication
3. Gestural or Non-verbal communication.
1. Written Communication:
Communication through words, may be in writing or oral. Written communication implies
transmission of message in black and white. It includes diagrams, pictures, graphs, etc. Reports,
policies, rules, procedures, orders, instructions, agreements, etc. have to be transmitted in writing
for efficient running of the organization.
Written communication ensures that everyone concerned has the same information. It provides a
permanent record of communication for future reference. Written instructions are essential when
the action called for is vital and complicated. To be effective, written communication should be
clear, concise, correct and complete.
It may take the following forms:
(i) Reports
(ii) Circulars
(iii) Magazines
(iv) Manuals
(v) Memoranda
(vii) Newspapers
(vii) Pictures, diagrams, graphs, etc.
(viii) Agreements
(ix) Rule and Procedure books
(x) Orders
(xi) Instructions

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(xii) Notice Boards, etc.

Improving Written Communication:
Written Communication may be improved by using the following tips:
(i) Using simple words and phrases
(ii) Use short and familiar words
(iii) Give illustration and examples, use charts
(iv) Use short sentences and paragraphs
(v) Avoid unnecessary words
(vi) Putting the things forcefully
(vii) Appropriate style suiting the message.
Advantages of Written Communication:
(i) It ensures transmission of information in uniform manner, i.e. everyone concerned has the
same information.
(ii) It provides a permanent record of communication for future reference.
(iii) It is an ideal way of transmitting lengthy messages.
(iv) It ensures little risk of unauthorized alteration in the messages.
(v) It is the only means of exchanging information at distant places even beyond telephonic
range,
(iv) It tends to be complete, clear, precise and correct.
(vii) It can be quoted as a legal evidence in case of any disputes.
(viii) It is suited to convey message to a large number of persons at one and the same time.
Disadvantages of Written Communication:
(i) It is expensive.
(ii) It is time consuming.
(iii) It becomes difficult to maintain secrecy about a written communication.
(iv) It is rigid and does not provide any scope for making alterations for inaccuracies that might
have crept in.
(v) It is very formal and lacks personal touch,
(vi) It encourages red-tapism and involves so many formalities.
It may be interpreted in a different manner by different people.
It often becomes lengthy, when messages are conveyed in writing.
2. Oral Communication:
Oral or verbal communication implies the conveying of message through spoken words. It is face
to face communication between individuals and includes communication through telephone,
intercom and public speech, etc. In every organization, a great deal of information is exchanged
orally and it is generally preferred to written communication. Theo Haimann pointed out, “the
human voice can impart the message with meaning and shading which even long pages of
written words simply cannot convey.” The important feature of oral communication is that real
meaning is conveyed by manner or tone of the voice or the facial expressions of the
communicator and the communicate.
It may take the following forms depending upon the need and situation:
(i) Face to face talks.
(ii) Telephonic conversation,
(iii) Interviews.
(iv) Meetings,
(v) Lectures.

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(vi) Conferences,
(vii) Symposiums.
(viii) Radio talks, T.V. and cinema shows,
(ix) Joint consultations,
(x) Announcements, etc.
Advantages of Oral Communication:
(i) It is less expensive or economical as compared to written communication.
(ii) It is quicker and saves in time.
(iii) It is more effective than written communication.
(iv) It establishes a personal touch and leads to greater understanding.
(v) Misunderstanding or doubts can be removed then and there.
(vi) Immediate reaction, motivation or response of the receiver can be taken,
(vii) It is more flexible and the messages can be changed to suit the needs and response of the
receiver.
(viii) It provides as the only means of conveying messages in times of emergencies.
Disadvantages of Oral Communication:
Oral communication has the following limitations or drawbacks:
(i) It is less reliable.
(ii) It is influenced by self-interest and attitude of the people.
(iii) Oral communication has the tendency of being distorted.
(iv) It provides no record for future reference.
(vi) It is not suitable for lengthy message.
(vii) It does not provide sufficient time for thinking before conveying the message.
(vii) It has language problems, one may mean to convey something, but due to his way of
speaking, it may convey something else.
(viii) It cannot be used to communicate with people scattered over distant places.
3. Gestural or Non-Verbal Communication:
Communication does not mean merely written or oral messages. It includes everything that may
be used to convey meanings from one person to another, e.g., movement of lips or the wink of an
eye or the wave of hands may convey more meaning than written or oral words. Expression
through body parts is known as gestural or non-verbal communication.
It includes facial expression, movement of lips, wink of an eye, nodding of heads, movement of
hands, a sense of humour or a mere silence, etc. Gestural communication is also known as
‘Gesticulation’ and is frequently used as a supplementary method of communication. It helps of
make communication effective.
Selecting a Suitable Media of Communication Oral vs. Written:
It is very difficult to say which of the two types of media, i.e., written or oral is a better technique
of communication. Both have merits and limitations. But, in general, verbal communication is
more effective media of conveying ideas, feelings, suggestions, information, messages, etc.
However, as a matter of fact, no organization can depend entirely upon one method as both are
complimentary to each other.
Written communication may be preferred to convey lengthy messages to a large number of
persons scattered over distant places and where the information is required to be repeated for
purposes of repetition and record. Oral communication may be the only available method to be
used to convey emergency messages and where personal touch is required. Oral messages may
be supported by gestures, demonstrations, etc. to make communication effective.

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Communication is the exchange of information, news, ideas, feelings and views between
persons. In the process of communication, information flows form sender to receiver.
Organizations are mainly concerned with two types of communication. These are internal
communication and external communication. Internally, communication occurs horizontally and
vertically. Moreover, these communications may occur formally and informally. The following
diagram shows the various types of communication:

 Communication based on parties involved: Communication is mainly two types on the

basis of parties involved in the communication process. These are internal communication
and external communication.
 Internal communication: Internal communication refers to the flow of information to
the internal participants of an organization. It happens only within the organization. The
main purpose of this communication is to ensure smooth functioning of organizational
activities. Internal communication may be of two types: Vertical communication and
horizontal communication.
 Vertical communication: When information flows between superiors and
subordinate of an organization, it is known as vertical communication. Vertical
communication can be of three types: Downward communication, upward
communication and diagonal communication.
 Downward Communication: Downward communication occurs when
information flows form superiors to subordinates. Through downward

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communication, superiors send organizational goals, policies, job

assignments, orders, instructions etc to their subordinates.
 Upward Communication: Upward communication occurs when information
flows form subordinates to superiors. Through upward communication,
subordinates convey their responses, reactions and performance feedback to
their superiors.
 Diagonal or cross communication: Diagonal communication occurs when
information flows between persons at different levels who have no direct
reporting relationships. Diagonal communication is used to speed information
flow, to improve understanding and to coordinate efforts for the achievement
of organizational goals.
 Horizontal communication: When information flows among persons holding the
same position or rank in the organization, it is called horizontal communication.
 External communication: When an organization communicates with external or
outside parties, it is called external communication. External parties include customers,
suppliers, investors, bankers, insurance companies, government agencies, local
communities etc. the main purpose of external communication is to exchange
information with the outside parties.
 Communication based on formality: Communication can be classified on the basis of the
formality into two types: formal communication and informal communication.
 Formal communication: When communication occurs by following the prescribed
rules and procedures of the organization, it is called formal communication. Formal
communication is governed by the established chain of command.
 Informal communication: When communication does not follow any prescribed rule
or procedure, it is called informal communication. The basis of informal
communication is spontaneous relationship among the participants. Informal
communication is sometimes more powerful and more effective that formal
commutation.
 Other types of communication: There are two other useful types of communication. These
are as follows:
 Personal communication: When people exchange information related to their personal
lives or personal affairs, it is called personal communication. Every person engages
himself or herself in personal communication. Personal communication occurs among
the parties within the organization and outside the organization.
 Mass communication: Mass communication is a process of transmitting messages to a
large number of scattered audiences. Through mass communication, information can be
transmitted quickly to a large number of people who generally stay far away form the
sources of information. Mass communication is done through radio, television,
newspaper, magazine, leaflets etc.

Types of communication

Communication is essential for success in any business, and the type of communication will vary
given the circumstances and business needs.

Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication

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Communication can be divided between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal

communication is communication using speech that is understood by all parties to the
communication. In other words, it's talking. Keep in mind that we're talking about speech, not the
written word. Written communication falls under its own category.
Non-verbal communication is a bit more complicated. It is sending a message without using
words to convey meaning. Non-verbal communication can include many different elements.
Let's look at some:

 Vocal cues, referred to as paralinguistics, is a form of non-verbal communication that

includes such things as pitch, inflection, tone, volume, speed of the speech, quality, non-
word sounds, pronunciation, enunciation and even silence.
 Body movement and gestures are also part of non-verbal communication. For example,
leaning forward may mean interest, while crossing arms is often viewed as a defensive
posture.
 Facial expressions are a common form of non-verbal communication. Examples of facial
expressions include smiling, crying and grimacing.
 Space can also act as a form of non-verbal communication. Space includes the concept of
territoriality and personal space. Territoriality is about making sure others know your
territory. A fence is an example of territoriality. Personal space, on the other hand, is a
three-dimensional space surrounding you that you don't want people to cross. If they
come too close, you get uncomfortable.
 Touch is often considered as positive and reinforcing, such as patting someone on the
back for a job well done.
 Clothing and artifacts can also send a message, including status, conformity or rebellion.
Think about a doctor. Do they really need to wear a lab coat during all examinations? Not
really, but it's a cue to their status. Artifacts include such things as hairstyles, jewelry,
cosmetics, watches, shoes, tattoos and body piercing.

Barriers to communication
Linguistic Barriers:
Language is needed for any kind of communication, even people with speech impairments
communicate with sign language and brail. Communication becomes difficult in situations where
people don't understand each others' language. The inability to communicate using a language is
known as language barrier to communication. Language barriers are the most common
communication barriers which cause misunderstandings and misinterpretations between people.
Most of the people in the world do not speak English or, even if they use, it is their second or
third language. If the speaker and receiver do not use same language and words, there is no
meaning to the communication. Not using the words that other person understands makes the
communication ineffective and prevents message from being conveyed.

Causes of Language Barriers

Difference in Language
Difference in language is the most obvious barrier to communication as two people speaking two
different languages cannot communicate with each other. For example, an American goes to
China. The person does not understand Chinese and most people in China do not understand

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English. So, when the person speaks, the communication is worthless as the other Chinese
person doesn’t understand it.
Regional Accents, Dialects
The accents and dialect (use of words) of people belonging to different places differs even if
their language is same. Though the languages are technically the same in people using different
dialects and accents, the meanings, implications and interpretations of words are different, which
may lead to various kinds of conflicts. For example, If a Scottish farmer talks to a person from
London, they do not understand most of the words the other says even though they both speak
English. The word ham and bacon can be used interchangeably in Scotland but they are different
in England.
People who speak soft or in a small voice cannot be understood. The sender might be saying
something whereas the receiver might understand something else. Though speaking common
language, people might have difficulty understanding the meaning of the message and the
feedbacks. This might also be a cause of obstacle in communication.
Use of Jargons and Slang
Jargons are the technical words used in communication. It might be different according to
different professions, specialty and technical field of a person. For example, technical words
used by doctors and lawyers are extremely different. If they start talking, both of them will not
get what the other is talking about. Some jargons like adjournment (jargon used by lawyers and
police used for delaying a trial for defendant), BP (medical jargon for Blood pressure), etc. are
only used by people in similar profession which might be a cause for language barrier.
Similarly, the use of slang also makes communication ineffective. For example, the use of word
“grass” to describe marijuana can act as a barrier for the people who do not know the slang
meaning.
Word Choice
The choice of word used in describing anything must be considered before communicating. The
words used by a particular person to show their agreement on something can be taken as sarcasm
which is negative in nature. Words with two meanings, homonyms, homographs, homophones
should always be avoided as it doesn’t send the proper meaning and can be interpreted in any
way. So, the message will not be sent as intended which acts as a type of language barrier in
communication.
Literacy and Linguistic Ability
Some people have low vocabulary in a particular language whereas some very high. Though
literacy and education increases the need to learn new words, it might not be the only reason.
People can increase their vocabulary by reading and with their own interest too. Vocabulary is
also less if a person uses the language as their unofficial language. Likewise, linguistic ability is
the capability of a person in a particular language. If a person with high vocabulary and linguistic
ability talks with another with low ability, the second person will not understand the words used
leading to miscommunication of whole message.
Grammar and Spelling
Grammar and spelling becomes a barrier in communication as people from different parts of the
world can be using it differently even in a particular word. Similarly, grammar and spelling
mistakes create a huge communication barrier in written communication. For example, a person
makes a mistake of typing done as don. The spelling and grammar checker of the computer does
not label it as wrong as don is also a correct word. But, the word can change the whole meaning
of the sentence or make the sentence not understandable.

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These are some of the most common causes of language barriers in communication. There are
many other causes too like language disabilities, noise, distance or use of metaphors or similes
which can be included in other barriers like physiological and physical. Some language barriers
can be overcome with practice or other ways like translation, interpreter, language classes, visual
methods, etc. whereas some barriers act as problems in a person's whole life. These barriers must
not be present to make the communication effective.

Cultural Barriers
Cultural diversity makes communication difficult as the mindset of people of different cultures are
different, the language, signs and symbols are also different. Different cultures have different
meaning of words, behaviors and gestures. Culture also gives rise to prejudices, ethnocentrism,
manners and opinions. It forms the way people think and behave. When people belonging to different
cultures communicate, these factors can become barriers.
Signs and Symbols (Semantics)
Non-verbal communication cannot be relied upon in communication between people from
different cultures as that is also different like language. Signs, symbols and gestures varies in
different cultures.The culture sets some meanings of signs like the ones mentioned above, which
might not be the same in other culture.

Stereotypes and Prejudices

Stereotyping is the process of creating a picture of a whole culture, overgeneralizing all people
belonging to the same culture as having similar characteristics and categorizing people
accordingly. It is a belief about a certain group and is mostly negative.
Negative stereotyping creates prejudices as it provokes judgmental attitudes. People look at those
cultures as evil and treat the people following the religion wickedly. Media is a tool of mass
communication which promotes stereotypes and prejudices and creates more communication
barriers.

Behavior and Beliefs

Cultural differences causes behavior and personality differences like body language, thinking,
communication, manners, norms, etc. which leads to miscommunication.

Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the process of dividing cultures as “us” and “them”. The people of
someone's own culture are categorized as in-group and the other culture is out-group. There is
always greater preference to in-group. There is an illusion of out-group as evil and inferior. This
evaluation is mostly negative. If the culture is similar to us, then it is good and if is dissimilar, it
is bad. Other’s culture is evaluated and assessed with the standard being their own culture.
Ethnocentrism affects the understanding of message, and encourages hostility.

Religion
Similar to ethnocentrism and stereotyping, religion also disrupts communication as it creates a
specific image of people who follow other religions. People find it difficult to talk to people who

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follow different religions. Religious views influence how people think about others. It creates
differences in opinions.

Psychological Barriers

Lack of Attention
When a person’s mind is distracted or preoccupied with other things, the person is not able to
form proper message, listen to what others tell him/her, interpret the message as required and
give proper feedback. The communication will face problems and becomes ineffective. A person
in tragedy, for instance, does not want to listen to other people giving advice. A person might be
preoccupied by the problems of his/her professional life or personal life, which affects both.

Poor Retention
Retention of information is the capacity of the memory of the brain to store information and the
way brain stores information in memory. Brain does not store all the information it comes across,
but only the ones it deems useful for future. So, half the information is lost in the retention
process. Similarly, brain also loses information that is old and not taken as useful with time.
Extracting the information is also a process in the formation of message. Here, the brain tries to
remember the required information, the fragments of which have already been lost.

Distrust and Defensiveness

Communication is successful when the communicators trust each other. Lack of trust makes
them derive negative meaning of the message and they ignore the message. When a person tries
to force his/her own ideas and opinions, then receiver does not listen. If the receiver does not
agree to the message provided or thinks of it as a threat, he/she will not listen to it. Similarly,
when the message is not transferred across to the receiver, the communication fails. For example,
I don’t trust a friend, I will only give the details, of what is happening in my personal life which I
think are harmless.

Perception, Viewpoint, Attitudes and Opinions

Perception is the mindset using which people judge, understand and interpret everything. Each
person has his/he own perception of reality which is shaped from mental and sensory
experiences.

Likewise, viewpoint is also a mindset to look at the world. Sender might have a particular
viewpoint that is not shared by the receiver. The sender does not explain the viewpoint but takes
the viewpoint as granted. The message is not understood by the receiver as must have been
understood, creating a barrier to effective communication.

Attitude is the established way in which we think and feel about things and ideas which also

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creates a psychological communication barrier. For example, a person takes females to be weak
which is the person’s perception. He/she tells that to someone who does not think so. This causes
a misunderstanding between the two. Everything they communicate after that becomes
unsuccessful that the view of the person is already set.

Emotions
Anyone who isn't in a good mood is likely to talk less or talk negatively. A preoccupied mind is
not good at communicating. For example, when a person is angry, he/she might say things
they regret later. Even when listening to someone else speak, an angry person might easily
misinterpret the message.Various other emotions like fear, nervousness, confusion, mistrust and
jealousy affect communication process. For example, a person having extreme moods of
happiness will laugh at anything at all said to him/her. The same person when sad will cry or get
angry at insignificant situations.

Closed Mind and Filtering

Man is selfish by nature and put his own needs and problems above all else. This sometimes
leads people to filter information that someone is trying to convey to them. This might be due to
mistrust, competition, jealousy, or the view that the message is insignificant.

For example, a senior in a company does not want the junior to do better at work, the person
filters the information and does not provide crucial information that could help the junior. The
junior therefore will not be able to complete the work properly and progress in ranks. Similarly,
when a person is close minded, the person will have fixed opinions on many things which the
person believes resolutely. The person will interpret any information in a negative way.

For example, a sexist person does not accept the suggestions of a female colleague in a meeting
that affects the communication flow in the meeting. It is difficult to argue with such close
minded people and give proper information.

Premature Evaluation
Some people are always in a hurry by habit. These kinds of people most likely make quick
judgments and jump into conclusions. They do not consider all aspects of the information such as
social, cultural, economic, etc. and often end up taking quick and wrong decisions. It is important
to hear the whole message to make proper judgments because they are not changed easily after
they are once made. For example, a person is in a hurry and talks on the phone, the person does
not listen to half the message and makes the decision which is wrong in the situation.

Psychological barriers affect communication more as information is formed in the brain and is
sent by people with various psychological condition which differs from one moment to another.
Information is as effective as the people involved make it. Similarly, the psychological condition
of the receiver also has as much importance as the sender’s. Communication is ineffective if
psychological aspects of communication acts as a barrier to communication.

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Semantic Barriers in Communication

Denotative Barriers
Direct meaning of any word which must be shared by two people to understand each other is the
denotative meaning. The barriers that arise due to the definition or meaning of a word used
differently by sender and receiver is denotative barriers of communication. They disagree on the
meaning of a word as they are unaware of the other persons' meaning. For example, the meaning
of braces which is used to define the metallic structure to adjust teeth in American English
whereas it means a part of clothing in British English.

Connotative Barriers
The implied meaning of a word is known as Connotative meaning. Connotative barrier in
communication refers to the difference of meaning according to different abstract situations,
contexts, actions and feelings. Both the communicators know both meanings of the word, but use
only one meaning according to the context, which might be being used differently in the
context. For example, the word astonish can be used to describe surprise as well as startle. The
words, when used by someone, can have any of the meaning. The context in which it is used will
only let the receiver know what the sender means. Another example is the word god, which is
used differently by people following different religions.

Causes of Semantic Barriers in Communication

Homophones, homonyms and homographs

Homophones
Homophones are the words with same pronunciation but different meaning which might have
different spelling too. For example: Words buy, by and bye. They have same pronunciation, but
different meanings and spellings.
Homonyms

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Homonyms are the words which have the same pronunciation and their spellings are mostly
same, but the intended meaning is different. For example, the noun "bear" and the verb "bear"
has different meanings but same pronunciation and spelling.
Homographs
Homographs are the words that have the same spelling but the pronunciation and meaning are
different. For example, "The research lead to the discovery of lead". In this sentence, both the
words have the same spelling, but different pronunciation and different meanings.
These words can be interpreted wrongly when used unknowingly causing the semantic barrier in
a communication process. This, in turn, makes the communication ineffective.

Cultural difference
Many words have fixed meanings in different norms. So, confusion arises in communication due
to meaning of different signs and symbols in different cultures, causing semantic barrier. The use
of the “Swastika” symbol in Hinduism and for German Nazi cab be taken as an example. The
symbol was used by Hitler for his rule and is taken as something to fear, whereas swastika in
Hinduism takes it as auspicious and lucky. People belonging to these two cultures take the
symbol differently. If people belonging to these two cultures talk or use the symbol, it can lead to
conflicts.

Difference in use of words

Words can mean something different in two different languages even though the words have the
same pronunciation and spelling. People do not know many languages, so the word used in some
language might have a different meaning in the language the person understands. The
unfamiliarity with the word might make the listener react in a bad way. The receiver might not
understand the message or understand it in a way which is not intended. Sequence of use of
words must also be taken care of. Technical words or jargons is also understood differently if the
receiver does not have proper knowledge. For example, the word "concha" in Spanish means
shell whereas in it means female sex in an offensive language in Argentina.

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Body language and gestures

When what you speak and your body language (kinesics) is different, the listener can get
offended. Inconsistent body language creates conflict. Sarcasm and contrasts make people
confused or doubtful about the intentions. Action and language must always go together to make
people trust you. For example, if someone requests you with a catapult posture (hands and
elbows behind head) which is used to show intimidation, you will interpret the request as order
and might resist doing it.
Use of ambiguous words

A single word can be used in various ways and they have different meanings. The meaning must
be clear of all the words used in every sentence. If the meaning of a particular word can be
interpreted in many ways, such a word should not be used unless there are no other alternatives.
The words people choose to convey their message makes a communication effective or
ineffective. Relative words like bright, love, big, small, good, bad, etc. have their meanings only
when compared to or in relation to some other things. For example, "a small fish" can be
interpreted as of any size. But if the word is used as "a fish smaller than a marble", then the size
can be predicted properly.

Differences in dialects
People from different parts of the world use different dialects for the same language and
pronounce a word differently. People, who speak more than one language can not speak a
particular language they use less in the same way the people whose native language or mother
tongue. The mothertongue or the language used most is always prominent and affects the
pronunciation of other languages. Dialects or use of different words to give the same meaning
according to places makes communication less effective. It causes semantic barrier as meaning
of words are different.

Physical Barriers:

Noise
Noise causes obstacles for the message to reach the receiver and cause physical communication
barrier. There are many kinds of noise in communication process such as physical noise, written

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noise, technological noise, etc. Physical noise are the disturbances that occur due to outside or
background disturbance and environment. This type of noise occurs in mostly all kinds of
communication like face to face, written, etc. Written noise like bad handwriting or typing is also
taken as physical barrier. Technological noise are the noise that occur in the medium or channel
like no sound while talking on phone or message sending failure in chats. All of the mentioned
types of noises are included as physical communication barriers.

Information Overflow
When information becomes more than that can be received at a particular time by the receiver,
then communication fails. The receiver does not have the capacity to get all the information
and can miss some important points or misinterpret the meaning of the whole
message altogether. The message will not get the desired outcome causing the communication to
not be effective and act as a barrier. Work overload and information duplication also help to
cause physical communication barrier.

Physical factors obstruct effective communication, in any form of communication. If physical

barriers are reduced or eliminated, the communication becomes effective as there is less
distortion and interference.

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