CHAPTER 1

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Hydroelectric power captures the energy released from falling water. In the most
simplistic terms, water falls due to gravity, which causes kinetic energy to be converted
into mechanical energy, which in turn can be converted into a useable form of electrical
energy. In ancient Mesopotamia and Greece, over 6,000 years ago, they were
developing irrigation and devices such as water clocks, one of the oldest time
measuring instruments. In about 1,000 BC the Persians developed Qanat technology
that used long, narrow channels or tunnels that ran almost vertically to provide
water for local populations. Around the same time the Ancient Chinese were doing
something similar in the Turpan region of their country.

We have the Greeks and the Romans to thank for the development of the
water mill which became a staple technology for communities across the globe and
is still in use in many parts of the world today. Our earliest physical remains of such
a device being used is in the 3 rd Century BC in Perachora in Greece but there is
written evidence of it being used as far back as 240 BC.

This valuable technology, probably one of the first renewable energies in

human existence, spread rapidly and, in 1 AD we know there was a settlement in
France that had multiple mills working to grind wheat into flour. As time
progressed, so water mills began to be used for more industrial processes such as
cutting wood and marble. In China, it was being used to drive bellows for smelting
and other industrial processes. The development that changed everything and
provided a brand-new power source was the generation of electricity – following on
from Michael Faraday’s principals and theories in the early 19 th Century and
progressing through to the dynamo developed independently by both Sir Charles
Wheatstone in the UK and Sam Varley in the United States.
 England was also the site of the first hydroelectric power machine in
Northumberland, created by William Armstrong and used to provide elect ricity for
a single lamp in 1878. But it is in Niagara that we find the first major step in full
scale power production with the Schoelkopf Power Station that began pushing out
electrical current just three years later. It caused a major surge in building and by
the end of 1890 there were almost 200 power stations alone across North America
(the US is still the world’s biggest producer of hydroelectric power).

In fact, by the time we reach the 1940s, nearly 40% of power in the US was
produced by hydroelectricity. Huge concrete monuments were built like the Hoover
and Grand Coulee Dams. Hydroelectric power was often referred to as white coal
but its influence declined in later years as coal, oil and nuclear power became the
technology of choice across the world.

2.1 Relevant Theories

2.1.1 Theoretical Horsepower

Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers compute how much

power can be produced when the facility is complete. The actual output of energy at a
dam is determined by the volume of water released (discharge) and the vertical distance
the water falls (head). So, a given amount of water falling a given distance will produce a
certain amount of energy. The head and the discharge at the power site and the desired
rotational speed of the generator determine the type of turbine to be used.
The head produces a pressure (water pressure), and the greater the head, the
greater the pressure to drive turbines. This pressure is measured in pounds of force
(pounds per square inch). More head or faster flowing water means more power. To find
the theoretical horsepower (the measure of mechanical energy), this formula is used:
 (Q x H)
THP =
8.8

where: THP = theoretical horsepower

Q = flow rate in cubic feet per second (ft3/sec)
H = head in feet
8.8 = a constant

A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this available power.
The formula considers losses in the amount of head due to friction in the penstock and
other variations due to the efficiency levels of mechanical devices used to harness the
power. To find how much electrical power we can expect, we must convert the
mechanical measure (horsepower) into electrical terms (watts). One horsepower is equal
to 746 watts (U.S. measure).

2.1.2 Electromotive Force and Faraday’s Law

When a voltage is generated by a battery, or by the magnetic force according to Faraday's

Law, this generated voltage has been traditionally called an "electromotive force" or emf.
The emf represents energy per unit charge (voltage) which has been made available by
the generating mechanism and is not a "force". The term emf is retained for historical
reasons. It is useful to distinguish voltages which are generated from the voltage changes
which occur in a circuit because of energy dissipation, e.g., in a resistor. To find the
electromotive force this formula is used:

𝛜 = 𝐈(𝐫 + 𝐑)
 Where: e = electromotive force in volts, V
I = current in amperes, A
r = internal resistance of the cell in ohms, W
R = resistance of the load in the circuit in ohms, W

Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to
be "induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be
generated. The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength,
moving a magnet toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the
magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to the magnet, etc.

Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which comes from Maxwell's equations. It

serves as a succinct summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may be generated by a
changing magnetic environment. The induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the
rate of change of magnetic flux times the number of turns in the coil. It involves the
interaction of charge with magnetic field. This formula is used for Faraday’s Law:

Where: N = Number of turns

Φ = Magnetic flux

B = External magnetic field

A = Area of coil
 2.1.3 Ohm’s Law

Ohm's Law is the mathematical relationship among electric current, resistance,

and voltage. The principle is named after the German scientist Georg Simon Ohm.

In direct-current (DC) circuits, Ohm's Law is simple and linear. Suppose a

resistance having a value of R ohms carries a current of I amperes. Then the voltage
across the resistor is equal to the product IR. There are two corollaries. If a DC power
source providing E volts is placed across a resistance of R ohms, then the current through
the resistance is equal to E/R amperes. Also, in a DC circuit, if E volts appear across a
component that carries I amperes, then the resistance of that component is equal
to E/I ohms.

Mathematically, Ohm's Law for DC circuits can be stated as three equations:

1. E = IR
2. I = E/R
3. R = E/I

Where: E = Electrical voltage

I = Electrical current
R = Electrical resistance

2.1.4 Law of Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy is a fundamental concept of physics along with
the conservation of mass and the conservation of momentum. Within some problem
domain, the amount of energy remains constant and energy is neither created nor
destroyed. Energy can be converted from one form to another (potential energy can be
converted to kinetic energy) but the total energy within the domain remains fixed.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics which deals with the energy and work of
a system. As mentioned on the gas properties slide, thermodynamics deals only with the
large-scale response of a system which we can observe and measure in experiments.
 In rocketry, we are most interested in thermodynamics in the study of propulsion
systems and understanding high speed flows.
On some separate slides, we have discussed the state of a static gas,
the properties which define the state, and the first law of thermodynamics as applied to
any system, in general. On this slide, we derive a useful form of the energy conservation
equation for a gas beginning with the first law of thermodynamics. If we call the internal
energy of a gas E, the work done by the gas W, and the heat transferred into the gas Q,
then the first law of thermodynamics indicates that between state "1" and state "2":

E2 - E1 = Q - W

Aerospace engineers usually simplify a thermodynamic analysis by

using intensive variables; variables that do not depend on the mass of the gas. We call
these variables specific variables. We create a "specific" variable by taking a property
whose value depends on the mass of the system and dividing it by the mass of the
system. Many of the state properties listed on this slide, such as the work and internal
energy depend on the total mass of gas. We will use "specific" versions of these
variables. Engineers usually use the lower-case letter for the "specific" version of a
variable. Our first law equation then becomes:

e2 - e1 = q - w

Because we are considering a moving gas, we add the specific kinetic energy
term to the internal energy on the left side. The normal kinetic energy K of a moving
substance is equal to 1/2 times the mass m times the velocity u squared:

K = (m * u^2) / 2

Then the specific kinetic energy k is given by:

k = (u^2) / 2

and the first law equation becomes:

e2 - e1 + k2 - k1 = q - w

There are two parts to the specific work for a moving gas. Some of the work,
called the shaft work (wsh) is used to move the fluid or turn a shaft, while the rest of
the work goes into changing the state of the gas. For a pressure p and specific volume v,
the work is given by:

w = (p * v)2 - (p * v)1 + wsh

Substituting:

e2 - e1 + k2 - k1 = q - (p * v)2 + (p * v)1 - wsh

If we perform a little algebra on the first law of thermodynamics, we can begin to

group some terms of the equations:

e2 + (p * v)2 - e1 - (p * v)1 + [(u^2) / 2]2 - [(u^2) / 2]1 = q - wsh

A useful additional state variable for a gas is the specific enthalpy h which is equal to:

h = e + (p * v)

Simplifying the energy equation:

h2 - h1 + [(u^2) / 2]2 - [(u^2) / 2]1 = q - wsh

or

h2 + [(u^2) / 2]2 - h1 - [(u^2) / 2]1 = q - wsh

By combining the velocity terms with the enthalpy terms to form the total specific
enthalpy "ht" we can further simplify the equation.

ht = h + u^2 / 2

The total specific enthalpy is analogous to the total pressure in Bernoulli's

equation; both expressions involve a "static" value plus one half the square of the
velocity.

The final, most useful, form of the energy equation is given in the red box.

ht2 - ht1 = q - wsh

For a compressor or power turbine, there is no external heat flow into the gas and
the "q" term is set equal to zero. In the burner, no work is performed and the "wsh" term
is set to zero.