Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
James Livingstone
January 2008
UK RESIDENTIAL
TOWER BLOCKS.
DEMOLISH OR
REFURBISH?
THE
ENERGY PERSPECTIVE
Abstract
Housing contributes almost a third of the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions. A
coherent strategy is needed to reduce these emissions from the existing
housing stock.
Mass redevelopment of housing in the 1950’s 60’s and 70’s delivered estates
of ‘non traditional’ dwellings. The consequent movement and disruption of
communities caused social problems, and the tower block came to symbolise
all the worst aspects of design and build of the times.
The reputation of the tower block has been blighted in almost all respects.
Beyond social issues, the tower block has come to be thought of as energy
inefficient and considered the epitome of the ‘Hard to Treat Home’.
This thesis looks at whether this reputation is well founded and relevant today.
It asks if tower blocks have a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from
the UK housing stock, or if energy priorities will dictate that they should be first
in line for demolition and replacement by more efficient dwellings.
It seeks also to provide tools for tower block owners to use in making
investment decisions about their housing stock.
Architecture, build quality, and condition are looked at to see whether there is
a design and structural basis for preserving tower blocks. Structural condition
is sometimes a spurious reason for demolition of tower blocks when social and
estate management issues are really the problem.
Thermal simulation is used to model energy use and heat losses in tower
blocks under a variety of scenarios. Results indicate that, although costs can
be high because of the access equipment required to carry out works,
form and layout of tower blocks are actually conducive to relatively simple
improvements in insulation and glazing, that can make tower blocks very
energy efficient dwellings.
- Melissa Taylor, my tutor for this project, for general support and her
comments on the proposal and drafts.
- Damian Randle, and Mike Thompson for their support throughout the MSc
course.
- Anthony Dickins and Prija of Wates Construction Limited who were very
generous with their time discussing and demonstrating the work at the Little
Venice refurbishment project in Westminster.
- Architects Kemp, Muir, Wealleans for further information about the Little
Venice project.
- Graeme and Steven Henn of Islington Energy Centre for their time discussing
the energy strategy at Islington BC, and in particular the proposed installation
of a wind turbine on Kestrel House.
- Chris Goodings at Solar Energy Alliance, for further discussions about the
proposed wind turbine on Kestrel House.
- Graham Hill, David Green, and Andrew Chambers at Norwich City Council
for discussion, copies of plans and access to Normandie Tower in Norwich.
- The Zero Carbon Britain project, the production of which coexisted with the
thesis and encouraged my research into energy use and carbon emissions in
buildings.
- Andrew Holland, energy consultant, for fuel use figures for Winchester Tower
Norwich.
- Duncan Josh and Jamie Bull for support and comment during the work.
Abstract
1. Introduction 1
2. Literature Review 4
6. Case Studies 47
Appendices 100
Bibliography 105
Pictures and Tables
Figure 1 The Bahrein Trade Centre (eso-news) ............................................... 8
Figure 2: The Modern tower block ................................................................... 9
Figure 3 : Unite D’habitation ( Photograph:Great buildings on line’)............... 11
Table 1 Post war Multi-storey Approvals and Starts...................................... 13
Figure 4 : Expressions of Modern frame construction (via .Glendenning and
Muthesius)............................................................................................... 17
Figure 5: Column and Beam Construction..................................................... 19
Aylmer Tower in Norwich is an example of a column and Beam type
construction with brick in- fill panels. Post and beams, which are cast first,
can be seen clearly in the photograph..................................................... 19
Figure 6: Butterfield Court in Dudley is an example of Box frame construction
................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 7: Normandie Tower in Norwich is a Wimpey ‘No fines’ concrete block
................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 8: Stephenson Tower in Birmingham is an example of LPS construction
................................................................................................................ 20
Table 3 : Bison Wall external wall construction .............................................. 21
Table 4: Bison Wall thermal characteristics results......................................... 22
Table 5 : Recorded Insulation thickness for LPS type blocks ......................... 22
Table 6: Cavity Wall Thermal Characteristics ................................................ 23
Table 7: ‘No fines’ Concrete Thermal Characteristics ..................................... 23
Table 8 : Typical thermal bridging components.............................................. 23
Figure 9: The Collapse of Ronan Point ( Photograph BBC)............................. 26
Table 9 Indicative estimates for external repair costs to high rise blocks....... 30
Table 10: Estimated Costs for Decent Homes Improvements ...................... 31
Table 11: Total UK domestic energy consumption by end use (DCLG 2007) . 35
Table 12: Growth in Total UK domestic energy consumption by end use (DTI,
2005) ....................................................................................................... 36
Table 13 : Stock Profile (EHCS 2005)............................................................ 42
Table 14: Condition of Homes (EHCS 2005) ................................................ 43
Table 15: Condition of Homes Extracts from ECHS (EHCS 2005) ............... 44
Table 16: heating costs and carbon dioxide emissions by dwelling type ....... 45
Table 17: Glastonbury House basic information ............................................ 49
Table 18: Glastonbury House. Key (predicted) performance data ................ 49
Figure 10 : Glastonbury House proposal (Image : Cole Thompson Anders
Architects. ) ............................................................................................. 50
Table 19: Makartstrasse Flats : basic information........................................... 52
Table 20: Makartstrasse Flats. Post Occupancy Costs, Energy and Carbon
performance. ........................................................................................... 52
Figure 11 : ...................................................................................................... 53
Makartstrasse Flats before the refurbishment programme ............................. 53
Figure 12: ....................................................................................................... 53
Makartstrasse Flats after the refurbishment programme ................................ 53
Information on this project came from Euroace. ............................................. 54
Table 21 : Ozolciema iela 46/3, basic information .......................................... 54
Table 22: Ozolciema iela 46/3. Cost, Energy and Carbon Performance........ 54
Figure 13: Ozolciema iela 46/3 (Photograph Euroace).................................. 54
Table 23: Little Venice Towers - basic information ......................................... 56
Table 24: Little Venice Towers . Cost Energy and Carbon Performance......... 56
Figure 14: Polesworth House before refurbishment as the scaffolding is being
erected .................................................................................................... 58
Figure 15: Wilmcote House after refurbishment with the scaffold being
dismantled............................................................................................... 58
Figure 16: Over cladding and insulation detail on Little Venice project.......... 58
Table 25: Kestrel and Peregrine Houses – basics .......................................... 59
Table 26: Kestrel and Peregrine Houses. Cost, Energy and Carbon
performance ............................................................................................ 59
Table 27: Wind turbine feasibility figures ....................................................... 60
Figure 17: Kestrel House, Islington , soon to be home to a wind turbine........ 60
Table 28: Six Towers Norwich – basics.......................................................... 62
Table 29: Six Towers Norwich. Cost, Energy and Carbon performance ........ 62
Figure 18: Normandie Tower IES Model......................................................... 69
Figure 19: Normandie Tower Photograph....................................................... 69
Table 30: IES VE Analysis of Boiler loads for Normandie Tower –(Whole
Block) ...................................................................................................... 71
Table 31: Flat by flat results of IES.VE analysis ............................................. 72
Table 32: Comparison of heat loads for flat and same construction bungalow.
................................................................................................................ 73
Table 33: Actual and IES simulation figures for whole block boiler loads ...... 74
Table 34 : Projected savings in cost of oil (per annum) from insulation
measures ................................................................................................ 75
Figure 20: Aluminium over cladding at Little Venice has dramatically improved
the look of the blocks............................................................................... 78
Figure 21: The corrugated concrete at Kestrel House has been expertly
repaired. .................................................................................................. 79
Figure 22 : Detailing for cladding installation .................................................. 79
Table 35: How Orientation and Tilt affect Photovoltaic Electricity Generation
Potential .................................................................................................. 83
Table 36: Calculation of Mass. Embodied Energy and Embodied Carbon in
Normandie Tower .................................................................................... 89
Table 37: Embodied Energy of new buildings (ECI 2007 p1)......................... 90
Table 38: Calculating the embodied energy of insulated cladding .................. 91
Table 39: Calculating the embodied energy of new windows ......................... 91
Table 40: Benchmark figures for energy use for space heating from hot water
................................................................................................................ 92
Figure 23: PassivHaus and refurbished flat. Lifetime energy use compared93
Table 41: Examples of development densities................................................ 94
Table 42: Normandie and Winchester Towers , Norwich. Existing
Construction details............................................................................... 101
Figure 24: Ground Floor Plan of Winchester Tower...................................... 102
Table 43: Tower Block modelled variables for IES VE simulations ............... 103
Table 44: Oil consumption for Winchester Tower, Norwich. .......................... 104
Abbreviations and Glossary
High rise dwellings are not just numerically significant in themselves. They
also act as an archetype of construction for a lot of the housing buildings
constructed between 1950 and 1980. There are for example, a further
2,677,000 medium rise purpose built flats in the England having similar
construction details as high rise. (English House Condition Survey 2008)
However, society has suffered from problems arising from the vast social
experiment that post war housing became.
Because of these problems, high rise buildings are still being demolished at an
unprecedented rate, this despite signs of a renewed interest in their potential.
In the current rush to redevelop post war estates and build new communities,
there is a very real risk of repeating the mistakes of the past, when good
buildings were wiped away with the bad in widespread demolition and
redevelopment schemes that were based on social and political imperatives,
rather than on careful assessment of the stock.
Energy Standards
Legislation and guidance for new housing is being introduced to ensure that
new dwellings at least, are built to high energy efficiency standards.
James Livingstone 1
Laudable as this is, it has limited impact on carbon dioxide emissions from the
UK housing stock, because, at present rates of construction and demolition,
over 90% of UK housing in 50 years time will be the buildings that exist now.1
There is little incentive, little information and little support for energy efficient
approaches to refurbishment, and where high rise blocks are being
refurbished instead of being demolished, they are apparently being done with
little recognition of the need for energy efficiency.
Content
This thesis therefore, aims to examine the environmental credentials of the
high rise residential block to assess its potential in a world where energy use
must play a bigger part in decision making.
The limited amount of the previous work in this area is looked at in chapter
two. This thesis attempts to go further. It tries to make specific contributions to
the decision making process about high rise buildings, by providing new
perspectives and an energy model for building owners to apply to their
housing investment decisions.
Local social circumstances will sometimes dictate the future of an estate, and
this is as it should be. Although it is not the business of this thesis to do any
more than to recognise that as a fact, it does try and look behind some of the
preconceptions arising from the perceptions of those problems. These are
looked at in some detail in chapter three.
For example, it is commonly thought that high rise blocks were ill conceived
and badly designed from the start. It is often said that tower blocks were badly
built and are falling down. If either contention were fundamentally true,
investment of any sort would not be worthwhile. Construction science and
types are examined to put these ideas to the test.
Chapter four looks in greater detail at the environmental and legislative context
in which the study is being done, and provides an introduction to the debate
about lifetime energy performance in new and refurbished buildings. This
continues in chapter five with examination of the concept of ‘ hard to treat
1
Demolition rates currently at about 20,000 per year and new build at 180,000 per year. (CAT
2007)
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homes’ and whether the labelling of high rise blocks as ‘hard to treat’ is correct
or still relevant given the available evidence.
Case studies are not easily found, but several contractors, architects and local
authorities were good enough to give comprehensive access to some
interesting refurbishment projects, and these are looked at in detail in chapter
six, together with some secondary research downloaded from government
sponsored, and commercial web sites. These provide an empirical base for the
later analysis.
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2. Literature Review
This chapter looks at the most significant contributions to the
study of sustainability of high rise dwellings. It aims to review
what is written and to ensure that the thesis is adding to these –
not duplicating them. It also acknowledges some of the most
important sources of background information for the thesis and
lastly, looks at some of the contemporary thinking about high rise
buildings.
It aims to:
“........ facilitate the regeneration of the 3000+ residential high rise blocks in the
UK with proposals for sustainable solutions integrating environmental, social
and economic criteria.”
The resource starts by putting the issues in context under the headings of:
• Background :
Why refurbish?, history of tower blocks, present context, case studies.
and ..
• Refurbishment Process:
Consultation, funding and decanting.
• Building roof, building facade, entrance and security, lifts, lobby and
corridors, flat layout , heating and hot water, electrical and IT, ventilation, water
supply, waste management, site and surroundings, landscape and
environment, and tenants and management.
Of these headings, the building facade is the most relevant to this thesis so it
is this that is looked at in more detail below to demonstrate the approach taken
by the Sustaining Towers resource.
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‘Building facade’ identifies the various opportunities for improvement to the
building facade as:
The breadth of view that it takes is exciting, and it looks for opportunities (such
as constructing extra floors and growing plants up the walls) that push the
boundaries back a bit from conventional thinking. A realm of possibilities
outside the normal scope of Local Authority (LA) or Registered Social Landlord
(RSL) work is presented.
It is perhaps this ambition that is also the limitation of the site, for whilst the
ideas are great, the opportunities for carrying out a lot of these improvements
are in reality only the preserve of the private sector.
Case:
Berkeley Homes have built extra stories on the fully privatised Aragon Tower in east
London, and this has helped finance the improvements to the rest of the block.
Few would argue however, that the change in tenure from social tenant to private owner is
as important a factor in ‘turning round’ this once dilapidated block, as is the investment in
sustainable physical improvements to it.
The LAs and RSLs that are the usual owners of these buildings are rarely in a
financial position to consider many of the options presented here. Officers
often have to fight for sufficient funds to carry out basic repairs let alone for
improvements.
The site describes itself in part as a tool kit for building owners, but falls short
of the real detail to enable financial cases to be made for any of the options. It
is possible to estimate some costs, but no detailed information of the benefits
is given.
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Nevertheless, it is a useful resource that may have inspired some.
In terms of this thesis, ‘Sustaining Towers’ has been drawn on only in respect
of using some of the budget figures for energy improvements as comparators.
Leads to some of the examples given on the site have also been followed
“.... address the need for a coherent strategy to improve the social and environmental
sustainability of Britain's tower blocks.”
The main product of the initiative, apart from co-sponsorship of the Sustaining
Towers resource above, seems to be the 2000 report ‘Streets in the Sky’ (Gale
and Church 2000) which introduces the subject and identifies the needs and
means of moving towards ‘sustainable’ tower blocks under the following
headings:
• ‘Tower Blocks matter’ introduces the subject and spells out the aims of the
NSTBI which include demonstration, disseminating good practice, influencing
policy, providing guidance to tenants.
• ‘Tower Blocks – the challenge’ identifies the perceived and actual problems
with tower blocks and the associated funding and management issues.
• ‘Making a start’ proposes new ways of thinking and identifies opportunities
and potential benefits of tower blocks.
• ‘Making it happen’ proposes ways of dealing with what it sees as the key
issue of funding, building communities, security, and management, all in the
context of urban regeneration.
Euroace
The European Alliance of Companies for Energy Efficiency in Buildings
(Euroace) was set up in 1998 by 20 large European companies, all involved in
the business of energy efficiency in buildings.
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It divides Europe into climatic zones, identifies the numbers of high rise
dwellings (36 million – or one in six households!), identifies the potential
improvements in terms of process (insulation, window improvement and
services improvements) and in terms of carbon saving, and makes
recommendations for policy and research.
This is a commercial site and its primary aim is to lobby, but there is useful
information particularly in respect of basic data and for the examples, some of
which are used later in the thesis.
Other Resources
It is important also to acknowledge the principal resources used for
background, context and technical understanding.
For historical and architectural context, Glendenning and Muthesius’ book The
Tower Block. Modern Public Housing in England Scotland and Northern
Ireland, was important. The website ‘From Here to Modernity’ was also useful
for further information this area.
For technical understanding and some early case studies, Building Research
Establishment (BRE) reports were well used.
For U Value calculations ‘Build Desk’ software was used. This software is
approved for use in calculations for SAP for Part L of the Building Regulations.
Contemporary thinking
Finally, it is worth giving space here to some of the recent renewed interest in
new high rise buildings, both residential and office based. Land pressure in
cities and shifts in planning perspectives, have meant that high rise buildings
now being built in all major cities once again.
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It is not a part of this thesis to consider these issues in any depth, but it notes
the following in the interest of shedding light on some of the later discussions:
Sue Roaf (Roaf et al 2005 p240 - p265), argues strongly against new high rise,
on the grounds of cost, carbon footprint, psychological effects and shading.
Case :
The Bahrein Trade Centre (left )has three 29 metre
diameter integrated wind turbines producing 1.3
GWh electricity per year.
James Livingstone 8
3.1. Understanding High
Rise Buildings -
History and
Architecture
This section looks at the development of the residential tower
block in the UK to put it into its historical and architectural
context.
James Livingstone 9
Introduction
“Tenements had existed for centuries. Four to six storey blocks had been the
predominant urban form of housing form the middle of the 19th century.”
(Glendenning and Muthesius 1993 p 24)
However, although people have long been familiar with living in low rise flats, it
is true that the high and medium rise blocks that are so much a feature of our
urban landscape today, are largely a product of the special conditions of the
mid 20th century.
High rise blocks were an expression of Modernism, which arose, in large part,
as a reaction against the perceived over decoration of Art Nouveau and Deco,
and the decadence of the Dada and Surrealist movements of the early part of
the 20th century.
Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and Mies Van der Rohe were leading pioneers of
Modernist architecture and they defined the philosophy behind the Modernist
dream of a better world for all.
These were people of intellect and ambition who were trying to define a vision
of architecture in which buildings worked for people. They felt able to rise
above the limitations of earlier architecture by the freedom afforded to them by
the availability of the new materials of steel and concrete.
The aspiration for good lighting was a prime driver and as Glendenning and
Muthesius point out ...
James Livingstone 10
“ An increase in height will always, for a given density of population, improve
lighting conditions” (Glendenning and Muthesius 1993 p53)
Walter Gropius vocalised the desire to move away from the darkness and
squalor of what were now seen as primitive Victorian slums:
“ ... all dwellings should command a clear view of the sky over the broad
expanses of grass ... instead of the ground floor windows looking onto blank
walls or onto sunless courtyards” (Glendenning and Muthesius 1993 p45) .
In the 1920’s Le Corbusier developed the ‘Dom-ino’ system. This together with
the ‘Chicago frame’ gave rise to two of the most important ideas in modernist
architecture. The birth of the framed building led to a freedom of design by
allowing a design separation of the floor plan and elevation, from the structure.
It also introduced mass, and off site production into building.
One of the most important driving concepts of this architecture was one of
creating ‘communities in the sky’ and this aspiration led to the predominant
pre-war high rise form – the slab type blocks often known as Zeilenbon blocks.
These were characterised by being low to medium rise and were generally
associated with deck/ balcony access.
Slab blocks however, had the disadvantage, when built close together, of
shading each other and provided only relatively low density environments.
The aspiration for height was driven partly by the need to achieve higher
densities, but also (as is still seen today) by the architect’s ambition to create
architecturally imposing buildings. (This aspiration was perhaps the first to
compromise the design premise of building serving the occupant).
1
Le Corbusier. Completed 1954
James Livingstone 11
This led to the development of the ‘point’ block, early examples of which were
generally built on green field sites such as those at Roehampton in London.
Along side this architectural and social ambition, were the development of
structural engineering principles, the understanding of reinforced concrete and
the rapid development of industrial techniques for mass production.
In addition, the concept of the ‘U’ Value was introduced at this time and was
first seen in the Housing Manual of 1944. According to Glendenning and
Muthesius...
“.. the thermal properties of all kinds of external walls were minutely
investigated...” (Glendenning and Muthesius 1993 p80)
It is easy to forget that up until the 1950s only a very small proportion of
housing had even the most basic facilities. Running water was often at the end
of the road and ‘in house’ bathrooms, electricity and heating were unusual.
By 1945 the social fabric of society had been overwhelmed by two world wars
which had diverted all investment from domestic infrastructure. The buildings
that had survived the war were worn out and in a poor state of repair.
Town planning became an important area of study and debate. In 1944, the
Greater London Plan looked back at inter-war housing planning with dismay:
“ London indeed can take no pride in the bulk of the 600,000 houses that were
built on her ever expanding outskirts between the wars. What would our
feelings be if were thought that the scheme of decentralisation proposed in
this plan were destined to impose on the still vacant land a mass of similar
houses similarly disposed, during the next decade? Would a repetition of
London’s sprawl be something that we should want to show our allies as our
contribution to remaking the world?”
(The Greater London Plan 1944: Sect 476 – 490)
Whether to build flats or houses was thus the subject of much heated debate.
In the end however, rebuilding more small houses was felt to be tantamount to
rebuilding the slums they were trying to replace.
The provision of facilities was also thought about in great detail. Despite what
might appear inadequate provision now, these new housing units were a huge
improvement in terms of space and ‘basic’ facilities over those that they
James Livingstone 12
replaced. Each member of a family had a room of their own, and by the early
1960’s there was more or less universal application of the ‘Parker Morris ‘
standards which defined minimum provision for spaces for new dwellings.
Where individual provision was not thought to be feasible, communal laundries
and drying areas played well to the idea of creating those ‘communities in the
sky’.
And people at the time appear to have been very happy with their new homes:
“ Small wonder Mrs Gameroll likes her flat. When the rival claims for flat
versus house arise for discussion she will no doubt agree that here at Spa
Green the Finsbury Borough Council have demonstrated to the full the many
advantages ,- individual and communal – among which she includes her
neighbours . “The people here are all so nice” she says.
(Concrete Today 1951)
Reality sets in
Between 1945 and 1969 4 million public sector dwellings were constructed
and as the numbers of homes required continued to increase through the
1950’s and1960’s several things happened.
The quantity of houses built became more important than quality. As a result,
some of the in situ construction was done on the cheap. The shortcuts tended
to be in the provision of services and communal areas, and this resulted in
problems with safety, lighting and landscaping.
James Livingstone 13
Land shortages, labour shortages and materials shortages all encouraged a
move towards high density system built housing.
The ability to build higher drove the architects and engineers to do just that.
Technical and architectural challenges therefore sometimes overwhelmed
good design.
By the early sixties, the volume of building work had reached unmanageable
proportions, resulting in labour shortages, over powerful unions, and
allegations of impropriety over contract awards in Local Authorities.
The ideals of ‘Modern’ architecture were thus compromised by the speed and
urgency of the house building boom, which at its peak in 1965, reached
383,000 - about twice what it is today!
As early as 1953, Alison and Peter Smithson were expressing doubts about
the social effects of modernist domestic architecture. They wrote...
"The short narrow street of the slum succeeds where spacious redevelopment
frequently fails." (From Here to Modernity).
... and they responded by designing their own version of modernism with a
conscious reversion to the early ideals of Le Corbusier and Gropius, and a
more neighbourly reinterpretation of these ideals. Denys Lasdun did likewise.
Sheffield’s Park Hill estate was designed with these ideals and concerns in
mind too, but this was not immune from the social problems that were
beginning to surface in these modern developments.
Although it was the architecture that took the blame, this was not principally a
failure of design. It was a failure resulting from the corruption of the design by
mass market interpretation, from the break up of communities, and perhaps,
above all, from the under investment in management of these estates.
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Despite that, by the early 1960’s the level of dissatisfaction with modern
estates had generated so much criticism that Modernism as an architectural
philosophy was effectively dead, and generally agreed to be a failure.
The final nail in the coffin of Modernism was driven home on the 16th May
1968, when Mrs Ivy Hodge struck a match in her kitchen and blew out the side
of her 18th storey flat resulting in the collapse of one end of Ronan Point in
East London.
“It was modern architecture's Titanic, and spelled the end of the high-rise as a
viable solution to the post-war housing crisis as well as plunging modern
architecture and the architectural profession to a low level of public esteem”.
(From Here to Modernity).
The result of this was to question the very structural integrity of high rise
blocks, and encourage the anti Modernist lobby.
The net result of this about turn on high rise living has been the systematic
destruction of large numbers of tower blocks, and many cities have seen the
ritual explosive demolition of the majority of them.
The emotive headlines of the Birmingham Mail on March 19th 2007 - as they
reported the demolition of Hamilton House, go a long way to illustrate the
feelings, and ingrained preconceptions about high rise living that prevail even
now in some quarters.
James Livingstone 15
Redemption
Not all high rise blocks were problematic however. In Aberdeen they
established a management and allocations model that worked, and they
continued to build high rise until the mid 1980s.
And there are many signs now of a reappraisal of high rise blocks as housing
and land shortages necessitate a rethink.
A lot of the worst blocks are gone, and although there is still a significant
backlog of repairs in social housing, a lot of investment has been made into
security and other environmental improvements. Landlords have also learned
how to manage high modern estates better by improving security, encouraging
tenants associations, and ensuring common areas are kept clean, safe and
well lit.
The ‘Right To Buy’ has created mixed tenure blocks, and in some cases entire
blocks have been taken over by private developers, turning what were once
considered ‘squalid council flats’ into luxury apartments for young executives.
Even some blocks that remain in our social housing stock such as Trellick
Tower in West London have apparently been redeemed, by a combination of
good management by landlords and resident involvement. Trellick Tower is
now one of London’s fashionable addresses.
Conclusions:
It also concludes that high rise housing is not inherently bad, that
public perception is perhaps coloured by the inability of social
landlords to manage their new responsibilities, and that the
beginnings of a long overdue reappraisal of the qualities of high
density high rise living is now starting.
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3.2. Understanding
High Rise Buildings -
Construction
3.2 looks at the way tower blocks were built and what construction
characteristics they consequently have. This informs later
discussions about condition, comfort and ‘hard to treat’ homes.
Discussion concentrates on the walls, windows and a brief
description of the heating to maintain focus on the thermal and
environmental issues that are the focus of this work. Roof and
ground constructions are ignored as being of no special relevance
to the discussion about tower blocks.
James Livingstone 17
Technology
The ‘Chicago frame’ and pre-war tower block design in the UK were
predominantly steel framed, with conventional in-fill panels of brick.
Traditional brickwork was also occasionally used at this time, up to about
eleven storeys in height.
At the same time, the concept of cladding came into its own. High rise
buildings place special demands on their exposed components, so research
was done into developing materials to incorporate qualities of weatherproofing,
good looks, durability and insulation. Materials such as steel, aluminium,
asbestos, wood, concrete and later, plastics were all developed in different
forms that would take on these qualities.
James Livingstone 18
Figure 5: Column and Beam Construction
Various proprietary box frame methods are recorded by the BRE (Glick and
Reeves 1996) such as Laidlaw-Thornton and MWM.
‘No fines’ concrete is a concrete with a smaller proportion of sand than is usual
in concrete. This results in a lightweight concrete with higher insulation values.
It was widely used for housing in all forms, particularly by Wimpey.
In high rise blocks it was sometimes combined with the post and beam
system, in order to reduce the load bearing on the ‘no fines’ concrete.
Floors were cast in situ high density concrete. External walls were generally
drylined internally and pebble dashed externally. (Williams and Ward 1991)
James Livingstone 19
Figure 7: Normandie Tower in Norwich is a Wimpey
‘No fines’ concrete block
(Photograph : Author )
Large Panel Systems were a late development in the construction of high rise
blocks, but soon became the most common, owing to the fact that the panels
were factory constructed, allowing for quick weather proof assembly on site.
Reinforced concrete storey height panels for internal, external and spine walls
make up the buildings, with the central services spine often being cast in situ,
to provide a degree of rigidity to the structure.
Camus, Bison Wall frame and Taylor Woodrow Anglian (Larsen Neilson), were
perhaps the most widely applied systems, in which each floor was supported
by the load bearing walls directly beneath it. The wall and floor system fitted
together in slots with overlaps on the horizontal, and straight joints on the
vertical. These were bolted together and filled with dry pack mortar to secure
the connections. (BRE 1985)
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Thermal Characteristics.
Although this thesis looks briefly in the next section at the repair problems
these constructions have in order to assess their longevity, the primary interest
here is in the thermal characteristics of these blocks.
There is scant good information on exactly how these blocks are constructed,
but certain conclusions can be drawn from first hand observation (see Chapter 6,
Case Studies) and from the available literature .
Walls:
Standards
For benchmarking and comparison purposes some standard wall
constructions their U values are recorded in Table 2 below.
External wall types that predominate in the four types of high rise blocks are:
Sandwich walls
Cavity walls
Solid concrete walls
These are examined individually in the following sections.
Sandwich Walls
The best available sandwich wall construction details are from the BRE study
of Bison Wall Frame construction (Hotchkiss and Edwards 1998)
James Livingstone 21
Somewhat surprisingly the Scottish MBA certificate (quoted by Hotchkiss and
Edwards) claims a U value of 0.17 W/m2K for these walls. The calculation
done for this thesis looks rather different:
The Department of the Environment (DOE) Good Practise Case Study 121
records 4 variations for this type of block with different insulation thickness:
(DOE 1996)
Note:
It is not the purpose of this thesis to look at condensation risk in any detail, but, it is
interesting to note that the risk of interstitial condensation in this type of sandwich
construction is considered high by the Build Desk programme used to calculate the U
Values. It is surprising that the bitumen felt layer in this construction is outside the insulation
layer. It is there presumably to prevent the ingress of moisture from the air. There is no use
of a vapour barrier on the inside of the insulation layer. It may be that the concrete is
sufficiently dense to act as one.
James Livingstone 22
Cavity Walls: (Box frame and Column and beam systems)
Table 6 below illustrates the ‘Build Desk’ calculations for the U values typical
cavity wall constructions found in high rise blocks.
Concrete Walls:
Table 7 below illustrates the Build Desk’ calculations for the U values typical
no fines concrete constructions found in high rise blocks.
Thermal Bridging
James Livingstone 23
As an example of this, the U value for a concrete column (300mm square) will
be 3.5 Wm2K. Typically, this would be adjacent to the cavity wall or the
sandwich type LPS system wall with U values of 0.51 Wm2K and 0.93 Wm2K
respectively. Thermal bridging therefore brings down the overall U value of the
wall considerably and is likely to induce condensation.
Original installed widows were, almost without exception, single glazed metal
or wood framed as was the case for most housing types at this time.
The U values for a 2m2 wooden framed window with 4mm single glazing is
4.86 Wm2K.
This compares with the target elemental U Value for windows under 2006
Building Regulations standards of 2 Wm2K.
Infiltration
However, they are not simply flat. Balconies and walkways, for example are
common features.
Shading:
Overheating is not a problem that is generally associated with these high rise
dwellings, and despite the likelihood of the design creating intolerably warm
conditions at times, there is no empirical evidence to suggest it is a serious
problem at the moment.
James Livingstone 24
This is probably because air infiltration is high and occupants are long
suffering.
Heating
Heating of high rise blocks varies considerably, but two main factors seem to
have influenced the choices at the time of construction and when
refurbishment options are considered
District heating was often installed. This provides efficiencies in terms of plant,
installation, running and maintenance costs.
Conclusions
There are four main types of high rise residential construction.
Within the broad definitions of these types, there are many
overlaps and variations.
James Livingstone 25
3.3. Understanding High
Rise Buildings -
Condition
This section looks briefly at the structural condition of high rise
residential blocks. It does this to try to establish whether these
blocks are in a good enough condition to merit large-scale
investment in modernisation and energy improvement measures.
It does not look at the cosmetic, nor the environment, as these are
too variable and are independent of the construction type. It does
however include a table from the English House Condition Survey,
which estimates the financial costs of improvements of different
house types for Decent Homes purposes. This is included
because, although Decent Homes is in large part about kitchen
and bathroom improvements, it does also include assessments of
costs of basic repairs and some thermal improvements.1
1
See glossary for Decent Homes definitions
James Livingstone 26
Structural instability
Ronan Point opened the debate about workmanship, and structural condition
so it is here that the appraisal will start.
There is a lot of analysis of the incident. Rouse and Delatte (2003) is the
primary resource drawn on here.
When Ivy Hodge lit the match that caused the explosion in her 18th storey flat,
the corner walls were knocked outwards by the force of the blast.
These walls were the only bearing for the walls above. As a result of their
collapse, the floors above gave way, loading floor eighteen, which then set off
a chain reaction loading on all the floors below which collapsed like a set of
dominoes down to ground floor level.
In later analysis, three key problems were identified. Firstly, there was the fact
that the Larsen-Neilson design had been intended for blocks of a maximum of
six storeys. Ronan Point was 21 storeys high.
Secondly, there had been no redundancy built into the design. In other words,
if a failure occurred in any key component, there were no alternative load
paths to support the structure above.
Thirdly, and this was not fully revealed until some 16 years later when Ronan
Point was systematically demolished by the architect Sam Webb, was the
issue of bad workmanship. Sam Webb:
“I knew we were going to find bad workmanship – what surprised me was the
sheer scale of it. Not a single joint was correct. Fixing straps were
unattached: levelling nuts were not wound down, causing a significant loading
to be transmitted via the bolts: panels were placed on bolts instead of mortar.
But the biggest shock of all was the crucial H-2 load-bearing joints between
floor and wall panels. Some of the joints had less than fifty percent of the
mortar specified.” (Wearne, 2000).
Ronan Point itself was repaired and eventually with its eight ‘ sister ‘ blocks
demolished sixteen years later. In the immediate aftermath of the incident
reinforcement work was done to these blocks and to blocks of similar design
across the world.
Much criticism was rightly levelled at what had preceded, and this led to
widespread changes in Building Standards Regulations.
Although Ronan Point blighted the reputation of high rise dwellings, it remains
the only example of structural failure of a high rise residential building, and in
their conclusions to their investigation into the incident the BRE concluded that
there has been ... :
“... no major failure of an LPS building in the United Kingdom since the
appraisal and strengthening of LPS buildings was carried out following the
collapse at Ronan Point in 1968.” (BRE 1985)
James Livingstone 27
Concrete Defects
Carbonation
Carbonation is a chemical process that takes place in the concrete, resulting
from atmospheric Carbon Dioxide (CO2) getting into it, causing a reduction in
the alkalinity of the concrete and corrosion in the reinforcing bars (rebars) and
ultimately, spalling of the concrete. Problems are exacerbated if concrete
cover levels over the rebars are inadequate.(Davis Langdon and Everest 2002; Ciria
1992)
Chlorides
Chlorides from salt and from chemicals added to speed the curing of concrete
in cold weather can result in corrosion damage to rebars and spalling of
concrete.
Cover
Inadequate cover on rebars exacerbates the above problems and can lead to
spalling due to water penetration alone.
Concrete delamination
Delamination of concrete sandwich panels occasionally happens, as does the
separation of cavity walls where wall tie failure occurs.
Joint failure
Cracking of joints in cast in-situ concrete sometimes occurs where the
concrete has not been given enough time to cure.
“Corrosion related defects were present in both the cast-in-situ elements and
the pre-cast components in the majority of buildings examined and in some
cases had required extensive concrete repairs.”
James Livingstone 28
It is apparent that concrete condition varies a lot between sites, but there are
no recorded cases yet of the concrete being in any sense ‘beyond repair’:
“Some buildings were found to be virtually defect free and to have suffered
only minimal deterioration whilst others of similar age and design were in need
of extensive repair. In the majority of buildings inspected there were at least
one or two places where concrete cracking or spalling had occurred.
The quality of the pre-cast components was in line with observations of other
pre-cast work. In general, serious deterioration had not arisen so far. (Glick and
Reeves 1996)
In 1987, although they recommended the introduction of log books and annual
inspection regimes, the BRE had no serious concerns about the structural
integrity of high rise residential buildings:
“The BRE has found no LPS building showing structural distress sufficient to
give concern for the safety of people, not has it received any reports of any
LPS building failing to sustain the loads experienced in service – including fire
loads” (Currie et al 1987)
Nevertheless, concrete repairs will be in needed on all high rise blocks built in
the sixties and earlier, and complex access equipment is needed to carry out
the work.
It is this requirement that demands questions about whether the repairs are
worth doing, and if the answer is yes, then what else should be done whilst the
access equipment is in place.
Weather tightness
Vertical joints between panels seem to be the main point of weakness for
weather tightness. These were generally neoprene, and not of the standard
that would be used today. With high levels of exposure, demands on materials
are great and many of these neoprene strips are now brittle and have
separated from the structure, allowing the ingress of wind driven rain.
Repairs
Patch repairs, involving cutting out and replacement of affected concrete using
proprietary mortars, are the solution to spalling caused by lack of cover,
chlorides, and carbonation.
James Livingstone 29
In addition, preventative measures such as the use of anti carbonation paints
and desalination techniques for chloride problems should be applied.
In cases of delamination, wall ties and resin grouts can be used to stabilise
panels.
Cladding
Where insulation and aesthetics are also invested in, over cladding is the
obvious solution.
Cost
Secondary data on costs for this type of work is hard to obtain, and does not
bear easy comparison. However the following table is indicative of the
amounts involved:
Table 9 Indicative estimates for external repair costs to high rise blocks
Source Work as described Cost pro rata Cost for typical 16
storey block c
Davis Langdon and Render application £90.00 / sm £294,000
Everest a including insulation
(2000) Rain screen cladding £210.00 /sm £685,000
including insulation
Concrete repairs and £24 /sm £52,240
prevention
Access : item £70,000 £70,000
James Livingstone 30
The case studies in chapter six include some actual project costs.
Table 10: non fail those average average average average all
Estimated decent thermal failing floor SAP (mean) property dwelling
Costs for homes comfort fitness, area rating repair value s
only repair (m2) costs in the
Decent
or (£/m2) 000s group
Homes
moderni ('000s)
Improvem sation
ents % in
this group
that are:
dwelling
type
small 33.7 18.4 15.3 58 54 52 £115 2,629
terraced
house
medium/la 29.8 15.1 14.7 92 53 46 £158 3,494
rge
terraced
house
semi- 27.1 15.4 11.7 87 50 47 £161 6,127
detached
house
detached 18.2 11.7 6.5 136 50 25 £298 3,631
house
bungalow 18.4 11.7 6.6 72 47 48 £163 2,072
James Livingstone 31
Conclusions
There are strong suggestions that the explosion at Ronan Point,
the anti modernist sentiments of the late 1960’s and the
mismanagement of high rise estates, have contributed to a
representation of the structural condition of high rise blocks as
poor.
According to the available data repair costs of high rise flats are in
fact lower than for most other types.
James Livingstone 32
4. Environmental, Social
and Legislative Issues
This section looks at the issues which frame this thesis. It looks at
why priorities in decision making about housing, need to shift
towards those that serve the environmental agenda.
Climate Change
There is no need to add to words of the IPCC draft fourth assessment report of
17th November 2007:
“Observational evidence from all continents and most oceans shows that many
natural systems are being affected by regional climate changes, particularly
temperature increases.”
Policy implications for climate change are likely to be carbon pricing and
rationing, resulting in effect, in a rationing of the right to burn fossil fuels.
Demand
Demand for fossil fuels continues to increase as developing nations world go
through their own industrial revolutions, and as the western world demands
greater comfort levels.
James Livingstone 33
Peak Oil
This term is used here in its most generic sense to mean the reduction in the
world’s ability to produce fossil fuels. The ‘peak’ date for different fuels and
from different thinkers varies, but there is more or less universal agreement
that fossil fuels will become progressively harder to extract and that
consequently, prices will increase.
• Energy labelling for housing is being introduced on the back of the Home
Information Pack.
James Livingstone 34
Carbon Emissions Reduction Target (CERT) in 2008 to include support for
micro generation. Both the EEC and CERT are aimed primarily at low income
households.
Support is largely directed towards building owners, and whilst tenants are the
ones who benefit there is little incentive for landlords to invest in fuel efficiency
improvements.
Fuel poverty continues to be an issue and with the cost of fuel increasing it will
become worse. Fuel poverty is, in part, alleviated by EEC initiatives, but
probably more so by direct subsidy to the fuel poor, such as pensioners winter
fuel payments
Within the Buildings Sector space heating accounts for the largest proportion
of total use.
Table 11: Total UK domestic energy consumption by end use (DCLG 2007)
2002(TWH) 2002 (%)
Space heating 337 61
Hot water 130 23
Lights & Appliances 72.5 13
Cooking 15.1 3
Total 554 100
James Livingstone 35
There is a significant growth in consumption in domestic energy use in all
sectors despite improvements in efficiency and Building regulations:
Table 12: Growth in Total UK domestic energy consumption by end use (DTI,
2005)
(PJ) 1990 2002 Growth Growth %
Space heating 990 1213 223 12.3
Hot water 422 467 45 11.1
Lights & Appliances 228 261 33 11.4
Cooking 63.3 54.4 -8.9 -8.59
Total 1703 1995 292 17.1
The implications for housing of the 60% reduction target in the Climate
Change Bill of 2003 has been interpreted best for buildings by the ‘40%
House’ research carried out by the Environmental Change Institute. (ECI 2003)
Both the ECI and ZCB identify the need for a dramatic increase in both
refurbishment, and in demolition and new build.
At present, just 20,000 dwellings per year are being demolished and replaced
(0.08%of the stock) and only 180,000 more are being built. (Helweg-Larsen et al
2007), this despite the ambitions of the government’s own advice to build more
than 200,000 per year just to meet the needs of the market. (Barker 2004)
Both the 40% house and ZCB models require a large increase in investment
in energy efficient refurbishment. The 40% house proposes cuts in average
space heating demand for existing homes from 14,600 kWh p.a. now to 9,000
kWh p.a. in 2050 and ZCB aspires to cuts in space heating in refurbished
homes down to 6000 kWh p.a.
Demolish or Refurbish?
Confronting the issue of energy efficiency in buildings means addressing key
decisions about which properties to demolish and rebuild, and which to
refurbish.
Historically, demolition has been fairly widely spread across building types, but
largely determined by social and economic issues rather than technical and
environmental ones.
It is the contention of many that energy efficiency should replace social issues
as the main criteria in deciding where to demolish, and that demolition and
replacement should be targeted along these lines.
James Livingstone 36
In publication it has become an emotive issue, because the demolition of
homes is seen as wasteful and even as an attack on architectural and social
heritage. Environmentalists are challenged by the idea that demolition and
new build may be more energy efficient and, in fact less wasteful, than
retention of existing stock.
It has been demonstrated however, that in many cases the energy payback of
the embodied energy lost to demolition is in fact, quite short when replaced by
highly efficient new buildings.
“ Construction and demolition processes all use energy, but the amount is
relatively small compared to the energy consumption in the use of buildings.
When an old, inefficient building is replaced by a new, efficient one, the
embodied energy in the construction process will offset in a few years by the
more efficient building in occupation: thereafter the more efficient building will
represent savings throughout its lifetime “ (Boardman et al 2005 p43)
Case:
A study by XCO2 (2002 p40,41) estimates efficiency savings after only 5 years with new
build based on the following figures :
New build designed to run at 1.5 MWh p.a.
Refurbishment to run on 14 MWh pa.
Embodied energy in new build 80MWh
Embodied energy in refurbishment 12MWh.
A study by ECI (ECI 2007App E p 5 ) frames a scenario in which the energy payback is
about 25 years for high efficiency refurbishment (9.5MWhpa) compared with new build
(2MWHpa)
It is important to recognise that these outcomes depend on the new build and
refurbishment energy standards achieved, but even if the running costs were to be 5MWh
and 10 MWh respectively (and even this is ambitious for new build) at the present time,
the payback would only be 10 years.
If this is true, more detailed analysis is needed and building types should be
assessed against the ease of their refurbishment in this way.
There is analysis of a tower block in these terms later in the thesis in chapter
nine.
James Livingstone 37
Conclusions
James Livingstone 38
5. Classification and
Comparison
It is quite easy to understand how solid walled houses and those with no loft
can be broadly classified as hard to treat, but to include ‘non traditional’ house
types and high rise blocks, may be a generalisation too far.
James Livingstone 39
The expression is now limiting because:
• It was defined at a time when ambitions for energy efficiency were lower
than they are today. Hard to treat homes therefore usually include homes
with solid walls and no loft space.
• It was only really applied in terms of the potential for fuel poverty and thus
limited to the construction types and locations in which those likely to
suffer from this lived. The definition therefore often includes homes which
cannot accommodate energy efficiency schemes such as ‘Warm Front’ 1
where there is ‘no connection to low cost fuel such as oil or gas’. (Energy
Savings Trust 2007)
The Centre for Sustainable Energy have done the most comprehensive
studies of ‘Hard to Treat Homes’ (HTTH) in their two reports to the Hard to
Treat Homes sub group of the Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes (EEPH
2006; CSE 2005). They are both based on interpretations of data from the
English House Condition Survey.
They researched access to gas and the prevalence of solid wall housing.
Access to gas is not pursued here as it is common to all construction types
and, although impacting directly on carbon emissions, it relates more to
affordability of fuel than to energy use per se.
Solid walled housing is of interest here as this is a feature of some high rise
construction types – notably Wimpey no fines.
The CSE acknowledge that the availability of adequate data limits their
approach :
1
For Warm Front – See glossary
James Livingstone 40
well as in traditional dwellings with solid walls. Some individual proprietary
systems provide mean SAP ratings that are significantly lower than the
average for traditional solid walled housing.” (CSE p6)
The CSE do therefore recognise for the first time here, that high rise flats
should not generally be considered as energy inefficient, and that they do not
generally even fit the definition of being ‘solid walled’ and ‘off gas’.
Classification:
It continues to be surprising that we know so little about the construction types
and consequential energy performance of the housing stock in this country.
Various initiatives and research projects seek to address this and part of the
role of the recently introduced Energy Performance Certificates is to fill this
knowledge gap.
The classification of construction types and their energy efficiency, has for a
wide variety of purposes, been largely based on research gathered for the
English House Condition Surveys (EHCS) commissioned by the Government
and updated annually. The Energy Savings Trust have also published figures
for energy use by dwelling type based on Bredem methodology.
There are about 21 million homes in the England. The EHCS results are based
on a sample of about 25 thousand – or just over one per cent - of those.
The reported results tend to be driven by policy areas and lately, Decent
Homes is at the heart of the most recent report. Although The Decent Homes
targets have a thermal comfort (energy) criterion to them, it is neither the
focus of Decent Homes – nor is it a high threshold that has to be passed to
satisfy it.1
It is the Stock Profile and the Condition of Homes sections of the EHCS that
are useful to this work, and these are included as Table 13 : Stock Profile
(EHCS 2005) and Table 14: Condition of Homes (EHCS 2005)below.
1
The Thermal Comfort criterion of the Decent Homes Standard
Requirement Description
Efficient Heating Heating should be programmable
Effective insulation – gas / Cavity wall insulation ( if appropriate ) or 50mm loft insulation
oil C/H systems ) (if there is a loft)
Effective insulation (Electric Cavity wall insulation ( if appropriate ) and 200mm loft
heating systems ) insulation (if there is a loft)
James Livingstone 41
Table 13 : Stock Profile (EHCS 2005)
owner private local RSL total
occupied rented authority
numbers of dwellings ('000s
dwelling age
pre 1919 3398 1,042 106 186 4,731
1919 to 1944 2,931 364 362 151 3,808
1945 to 1964 2,780 268 811 421 4,279
1965 to 1980 3,350 363 738 477 4,928
post 1980 2,873 430 149 582 4,035
dwelling type
small terraced house 1,704 445 270 246 2,665
medium/large terraced house 2,629 365 325 315 3,634
semi-detached house 4,728 447 419 302 5,897
detached house 3,512 220 9 11 3,753
bungalow 1,535 113 209 172 2,028
converted flat 288 309 42 78 716
purpose built flat, low rise 868 515 747 654 2,783
purpose built flat, high 67 54 145 40 305
rise
dwelling size
under 50m2 1,068 573 602 593 2,837
50- up to 70m2 3,470 821 842 623 5,756
70- up to 90m2 4,749 596 596 473 6,414
90- up to 110m2 2,598 220 103 89 3,009
over 110m2 3,446 257 23 39 3,765
Neighbourhood Renewal
Funded (NRF) districts
NRF districts 5,335 1,035 1,332 838 8,540
other districts 9,996 1,432 834 979 13,241
market conditions
Market Renewal Pathfinder 411 115 202 114 842
areas
other areas 4,920 2,352 1,964 1,703 20,939
nature of area
city or other urban centre 2,782 946 711 563 5,002
suburban 9,104 1,031 1,260 1,024 12,418
rural 3,445 490 195 230 4,361
occupancy
vacant 363 253 128 80 824
occupied 14,968 2,214 2,038 1,737 20,957
James Livingstone 42
Table 14: Condition of Homes (EHCS 2005)
% in this group that:
... are ...fail ..fail average average averag average all
non thermal fitness, floor SAP e property dwellings
decent comfort repair or area rating (mean) value in the
homes only modernis (m2) repair group
ations costs (‘000s)
(£/m2)
tenure
owner 24.9 15.2 9.7 94 46 43 £204,971 15,331
occupied
private rented 40.6 19.4 21.2 72 46 70 £173,119 2,467
all private 27.1 15.8 11.3 91 46 46 £200,556 17,798
sector
local authority 33.7 19.1 14.6 63 55 50 £114,058 2,166
RSL 23.8 16.5 7.4 62 59 32 £120,665 1,817
all social 29.2 17.9 11.3 62 57 42 £117,072 3,983
sector
dwelling age
pre 1919 40.8 25.4 15.4 96 39 71 £213,480 4,731
1919 - 1944 30.0 15.6 14.4 88 43 65 £199,292 3,808
1945 - 1964 25.8 8.2 17.6 81 48 44 £160,943 4,279
1965 - 1980 28.0 5.6 22.3 80 51 34 £164,597 4,928
post 1980 10.8 1.1 9.6 83 61 12 £190,113 4,035
dwelling type
small terraced 32.3 16.4 15.9 58 51 56 £127,656 2,665
house
medium/large 29.0 14.6 14.4 92 48 49 £172,289 3,634
terraced house
semi-detached 23.8 13.8 10.0 86 45 50 £173,138 5,897
house
detached 16.7 10.5 6.2 135 44 30 £311,681 3,753
house
bungalow 16.7 11.0 5.6 71 44 48 £170,394 2,028
converted flat 44.3 18.8 25.4 61 43 76 £162,483 716
purpose built 44.3 32.2 12.1 55 61 33 £130,456 2,783
flat, low rise
purpose 50.3 29.5 20.8 61 60 45 £169,98 305
built flat, 8
high rise
NRF districts
NRF districts 30.4 16.4 14.0 78 50 52 £155,156 8,540
other districts 25.6 16.0 9.6 90 47 41 £204,724 13,241
market
conditions
Market 36.5 15.0 21.4 72 49 68 £73,210 842
Renewal
Pathfinder
areas
other areas 27.1 16.2 10.9 86 48 45 £173,398 20,939
broad regional
areas
south east 29.3 17.1 12.1 85 50 46 £249,277 6,666
regions
northern 27.3 15.9 11.3 83 48 49 £133,446 6,337
regions
rest of 26.3 15.6 10.7 87 46 43 £174,125 8,778
England
nature of area
city or other 36.5 18.3 18.2 75 50 58 £174,630 5,002
urban centre
suburban 24.2 15.2 9.0 83 50 41 £172,493 12,418
rural 26.4 16.3 10.2 105 42 45 £233,956 4,361
occupancy
vacant 51.0 20.1 30.9 76 47 95 £164,256 824
occupied 26.6 16.0 10.6 86 48 44 £186,117 20,957
all dwellings 27.5 16.2 11.3 85 48 46 £185,290 21,781
James Livingstone 43
Table 15 below draws out the facts most relevant to this work.
High rise flats have the highest proportion of ‘non decency’. This may be
because most high rise flats are owned by Local Authorities (LAs) and
Registered Social Landlords (RSLs), and are let as social housing. Social
housing has suffered from a lack of investment over the last 30 years.
Similarly, high rise flats have almost the highest level of failure on thermal
comfort standards. This may be for the same reasons. However it is difficult to
reconcile this with the figures for SAP1, and with the fact that most high rise
constructions had basic levels of insulation installed during construction.
High rise flats are the smallest of the house types classified.
1
SAP : See glossary
James Livingstone 44
High Rise flats have the second best SAP rating. This seems surprising in the
light of the fact that they are the least ‘decent’ and are included in the category
of ‘hard to treat homes’.
High rise flats have the 6th highest per metre repair costs. There is a simple
relationship between size and cost that is reflected here.
Figures from the Energy Savings Trust , which are again drawn from the
English House Condition Survey in Table 16 tell us that the flat is the most
energy efficient of the 2 bedroom dwelling types surveyed.(EST 2006)
Table 16: heating costs and carbon dioxide emissions by dwelling type
Gas Heating Electric Heating
Property Type Bedrooms kWh/yr kgCO2/ kWh/yr kgCO2/yr
yr
Flat 2 11,423 2,170 8,626 3,709
Mid Terraced House 2 11,693 2,222 9,057 3,895
End Terraced House 2 15,138 2,876 12,222 5,255
Semi-Detached House 2 18,373 3,491 14,886 6,401
Detached House 2 24,412 4,638 20,092 8,639
Conclusions
Such data as there is, tends to support the view that high rise
dwellings are in fact some of the more energy efficient dwellings in
the English housing stock and that their inclusion in the
James Livingstone 45
classification HTTH is, at the very least subject to
misinterpretation.
The next Chapter looks in more detail at the costs and practical
difficulties of improving the thermal characteristics of high rise
blocks.
James Livingstone 46
6. Case Studies
This chapter looks at some recent and ongoing examples of high
rise refurbishment contracts.
Introduction
The examples are drawn from two sources.
There are no selection criteria for their inclusion here except that they are
available.
These are:
Glastonbury House. Pimlico
Flats in Makartstrasse Linz Germany
Ozolciema iela 46/3 Riga Zemgale. Latvia
Also included are descriptions of work from published BRE Good Practise
Guides research documents. The information is relevant to the work, but it is
over 20 years old
James Livingstone 47
Primary Research
First hand research of particular case studies was done in London and
Norwich.
These were selected on the basis that either they were local and records of
work were made available, or because large scale refurbishment projects were
ongoing at the time of the research, and the participants were receptive to
requests for information and assistance.
These are:
James Livingstone 48
Glastonbury House
Glastonbury House, is the most often cited example of a ‘sustainable’ high rise
refurbishment.
“the UK's first intelligent and green residential tower, clearly a truer, better
building.” (Enabling Concepts 2002)
1 1
The predicted performance data was supplied to ‘Euroace’ by Enabling Concepts who
worked on the project for Integer:
James Livingstone 49
Note
It is interesting to compare these figures with those supplied by Norwich City Council for
Winchester Tower, and those estimated by the IES simulation, both in Chapter 7.
In the Winchester tower example, the average heating load per flat is 9,700Kwh (a 78%
proportion of the total boiler load derived from fuel supplies), which is similar to those
quoted for Glastonbury house.
The IES simulation of Normandie Tower(the sister block to Winchester Tower) calculated
potential improvements to the heating load per flat of up to 86% with the addition of
100mm external insulation and 2006 standard double glazing. This compares with a
target of 29% (50%) for the Glastonbury House project.
Commentary
Glastonbury House was not externally insulated. The walls remained as brick
cavity walls with probably no more that 50mm insulation in the cavities. The
energy savings therefore were principally from heating system improvements
(connecting to the Pimlico District Heating Scheme), and double glazing and
balcony enclosure.
This project seems to have been principally aimed not at cutting energy use,
but more at a sustainability agenda that was more about social and housing
sustainability.
James Livingstone 50
Unfortunately (and typically of the industry) there is a lot of information about
the project at planning stage and very little information about it afterwards.
It has been impossible to establish exactly what was installed and what it’s
performance is.
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Makartstrasse Flats
As part of the facade, the balconies were enlarged and enclosed to include
insulated parapet walls and side frames, effectively increasing the living area
of the flats.
Unlike most British examples, some post occupancy energy monitoring figures
are available:
Table 20: Makartstrasse Flats. Post Occupancy Costs, Energy and Carbon
performance.
Space heating energy
consumption:
Before refurbishment: 179kWh/ma
After refurbishment: to 13,3 kWh/ma
Saving of around 446.800 kWh/a
CO2 saved 147 kg/a (per flat)
CO2 saved due to renewable energy None
integration:
Refurbishment cost: Not known
Additional costs to achieve passive 27%
house standard
1
For PassivHaus – see Glossary
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Note
This equates to space heating saving of 93%. This is equivalent to the saving achieved
for the mid floor flat at Normandie Tower analysed in Chapter 7 with a total annual
heating load of 630 watt hours (down from 9000 KWh).
Figure 11 :
Figure 12:
Commentary
This project was an experimental and demonstration one in which the aims
were specifically to try to reproduce ‘PassivHaus’ principles in an urban
refurbishment project. Although falling some way short of PassivHaus
standards, it appears to have been successful.
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Ozolciema iela 46/3
Information on this project came from Euroace.
The walls were externally insulated using 80mm slabs (probably rockwool)
which was screened and rendered.
Table 22: Ozolciema iela 46/3. Cost, Energy and Carbon Performance
Space heating energy consumption:
Before refurbishment: 155 kWh/m a 2
There is not a lot of available information on this project, but it tells us energy
costs were more than halved through apparently simple measures of insulation
and heating improvements
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Examples from the Building Research Establishment
The BRE have recorded a number of improvements to high rise blocks which
are published under their own banner and that of the Department of
Environment (DOE).
They are of limited value to this work because they are all over fifteen years.
However, in the interests of seeing how understanding and priorities have
changed in this relatively short time, it is still interesting to note some general
details from some of these reports.
The DOE Good Practice Case Study 121 for instance, records ‘ energy
efficient’ improvements to six LPS blocks – all carried out in the late 1980’s.
‘Improvements’ include:
• Over cladding with rendered 50mm polystyrene or 80mm mineral wool
slabs
• Electric storage heating.
• Draft stripping to windows
• Off peak immersion heater control
• Prepayment meters.
Measurements of energy saved are made in terms, but in terms of the costs of
heating per flat not as is generally done now, in terms of U Values, SAP, or
kWh. This makes comparison with contemporary projects difficult.
Commentary
Whilst the improvements are valuable, they are of a relatively modest standard
and this perhaps reflects the priorities of the time.
The use of energy costs per flat as a measure of savings tells us that fuel
poverty was of greater interest than energy use, and reflects on the fact that
standard measures are not yet settled even now in a business that is still
evolving fast
Further research into these case studies can be done following the sources
recorded in the Bibliography.
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Little Venice Towers , Westminster
Information about the project was made available from site visits, the main
contractors and the architects, in interview and by e Mail.
This project comprises the internal and external refurbishment of 6 high rise
blocks in Little Venice London in 2007/2008. These are Polesworth House,
Oversley House, Wilmcote House, Princethorpe House, Gayden House,
Brindley House.
Table 24: Little Venice Towers . Cost Energy and Carbon Performance
Space heating energy consumption:
Before refurbishment: Figures not available
After refurbishment: Figures not available
Saving of around Figures not available
CO2 saved Figures not available
CO2 saved due to renewable Figures not available
energy integration:
James Livingstone 56
The principal energy improvement measure was to upgrade the thermal
performance of the external walls by insulating them. This was done in the
main with 100mm of Rockwool. This was applied to the walls behind an
aluminium frame. Under the windows an insulated render system was
employed, as these were lightweight panels that could not support the load of
the aluminium panels.
“No we did not work out the heat loss improvement on any scientific basis. Our
client had to meet ‘Decent Homes Standards’ which just requires a reasonable
improvement. As we did not have to meet any specific standard we included
enough insulation to meet the current building control standards but were not
required to procure any specialist calculations to prove the improvement. I am
afraid this is not the scientific answer you wanted but the standards are not
specific on this point.” ( E mail 02.01.2008)
New heating was installed. There was no mains gas in the blocks, so the
architects specified electric storage heating and water heating by Elson as the
most cost effective to install.
Commentary
Although a lot of money and attention was given to insulating these blocks,
there is nothing to suggest that this was done with much detailed
premeditation. There does not seem to have been any particular brief or
understanding relating to the thermal performance of these blocks, the
insulation merely coming as part of the cladding package. In further support of
this suggestion is the use of electric water heaters, the absence of any
consideration given to renewables and the lack of any energy performance
calculations.
I am very grateful to Anthony Dickins and Prija of Wates Construction Ltd, and
Martyn Kemp and Ken Lee of Kemp Muir Weallams architects for their
assistance and time to discuss and show me around this project.
James Livingstone 57
Before refurbishment the Little Venice Tower blocks were unsightly LPS
system built dwellings :
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Kestrel and Peregrine Houses
This project comprised the major refurbishment in 2007/2008, driven largely by
the need for concrete repairs and by the imperatives of the Decent Homes
programme.
Information about the project was made available from site visits, the main
contractors and the architects, in interview and by E Mail.
The LPS wall panels are 300mm thick comprising (from outside to in) 250mm
dense reinforced concrete, 35 mm cork and render and plaster finish.
The design work was done by ‘Homes for Islington’. The Islington Energy
Office was not included in the design proposals and there is nothing to suggest
that thermal efficiency was an integral consideration in the design. When
asked, the design team said that it was “not practical to do wall insulation.”
Table 26: Kestrel and Peregrine Houses. Cost, Energy and Carbon performance
Space heating energy consumption:
Before refurbishment: Not known
After refurbishment: Not known
Saving of around Not known
CO2 saved Not known
CO2 saved due to renewable energy Not known
integration:
Refurbishment cost: Not known
Islington Energy Office became involved in the project when they saw an
opportunity to use a high rise block to fulfil a commitment they had to install
four wind turbines in the borough.
Kestrel House and Peregrine House were assessed for this installation.
Peregrine House was excluded because of the amount of telecommunications
equipment already on the roof.
A feasibility study was carried out for the installation on Kestrel House:
James Livingstone 59
Table 27: Wind turbine feasibility figures
Kestrel House Wind turbine project
Size 6kw
Anticipated annual output 13,000 to 18000 kWh
Average annual demand of common areas 102,000 kWh
Estimated cost of electricity for common areas £714
Estimated cost £35,000
Estimated saving (15.5 kWh @7p per unit) £1085
Estimated Revenue (@£40.00 per MWh per ROC) £620
Total revenue £1705
Simple Payback calculation1 21 years
Commentary
The driver for the external parts of project was the concrete repairs.
Replacement windows were being fitted because the old ones were no longer
serviceable – and because they are a popular improvement for occupants.
Some of the original concrete detailing made over cladding more challenging
than in other blocks that have been looked at (see photograph chapter eight),
and this may be one reason why improving the thermal performance of the
walls was not done. It is surprising though, that this never seems even to have
been part of the proposals, despite having full scaffold in place.
1
No allowance is made for maintenance in this calculation.
James Livingstone 60
Energy efficiency was not a design consideration, and the wind turbine was
only proposed as highly visible part of a political drive to be at the cutting edge
of the ‘green’ agenda in London.
It is interesting to compare the payback times for the wind turbine with
payback times for external insulation seen later in the work.
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Six Towers, Norwich.
This project comprised concrete repairs and external refurbishment to Aylmer,
Seaman, Markham, Compass, Burleigh and Ashbourne Towers, completed in
2005. Information was from interviews and a printed archive provided by
Norwich City Council.
The towers are of reinforced cast in situ concrete post and beam construction
with brick in fill panels of cavity brickwork with approximately 50mm cavity
insulation installed at the time of construction.
The towers were suffering from spalling concrete, which by 2000, had become
so bad that consideration had to be given to fencing off areas outside the
towers to protect the public from falling debris. Tests indicated that the
problems were being caused by a combination of poor ‘rebar’ cover and
carbonation.
Other problems in the blocks related to cold common areas, and condensation
from ‘cold bridging’ problems.
Table 29: Six Towers Norwich. Cost, Energy and Carbon performance
Space heating energy consumption:
Before refurbishment: Not known
After refurbishment: Not known
Saving of around Not known
CO2 saved Not known
CO2 saved due to renewable energy Not known
integration:
Costs
Concrete and miscellaneous repairs £650,000
Access equipment £550,000
Total £1,200,000
Refurbishment cost: Not known
District heating from CHP had been installed in the three tower blocks in the
Mile Cross area of Norwich and PVCu double glazing had been installed in all
blocks in about 1985.
James Livingstone 62
Commentary
The district heating installation had addressed any fuel poverty issues that
there may have been here, so insulation was not thought to be a priority when
the concrete repairs were done.
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Demolitions
It has not been possible to establish how many residential tower blocks have
been demolished, or exactly why decisions were taken to demolish them.
The website UK Housing Wiki which is a collaborative site (and therefore
largely unsubstantiated) records 187 cases of demolitions to date in thirteen
cities in the UK. There are obvious omissions from the list and there is every
reason to think that the total might be twice as many as this.
Reasons given for demolitions are more often than not given by local
politicians, and tend to include emotive descriptions of urban blight, damp,
flooding and structural problems. More often than not in fact, demolition takes
place as part of regeneration of an area and is seen as a kick-start to the
process, enabling funding for new housing for new communities.
James Livingstone 64
Commentary and Conclusions
These case studies will be drawn on to illustrate points made later in the work,
but there are some interesting points that merit raising now.
Where energy saving measures have been included they seem to be ancillary
to the concrete repairs and aesthetic improvements. Even in the case of the
Little Venice project there is a surprising absence of standards and scientific
principles , preferring instead a ‘hit and hope’ approach.
In the Islington case, a high rise block has been used as a green flagship to
further the environmental cause and the credentials of the borough.
The European examples, particularly the German one appear to take the
energy issues further. This would tie in with Germany’s other achievements in
this area.
The agenda for energy savings has changed a lot in the last twenty years, and
is still evolving.
Figures for energy use and energy saved are still published in different ways
so do not bear comparison in every case.
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7. Analysis of Heat
Loads in High Rise
Residential Buildings
This chapter reports on the analysis of the heat loads of high rise
dwellings.
Observation
It is important to observe and understand before analysing, both to illuminate
the analysis and to try to understand what to expect from it - and why.
What is it about high rise dwellings therefore that might give reason think that
they are heat efficient or heat inefficient, and what special characteristics is it
important to be aware of?
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• The fact that high-rise blocks are rarely considered beautiful – and often
ugly - means that over cladding may be welcomed rather than feared.
Conclusion
Thermal modelling has been used to aid our understanding of this issue
because:
• Improvements to the thermal performance can easily be assessed and
compared.
• Computer analysis is quick, and changes to models can be made easily.
Once the model is set up, what would have taken days in the past can be
done in minutes now.
• It enables the thermal performance of the high rise block to be analysed
without the vagaries of occupant behaviour.
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variations depend on small things, such as distorted or ‘painted up’
windows
• Occupant behaviour has as big an impact on thermal performance as does
the construction. Occupants may choose to ‘live cold’ or insist for example
on open windows when they sleep.
These factors mean that the greatest strengths of computer simulation are not
in predicting actual energy use, but in demonstrating relative performance of
different construction make ups.
Checks
Accurate plans are hard to come by for high rise blocks because details were
either lost by building owners or transferred to microfiche. Some building
owners have transferred these to computer readable files, but the detail is
often poor and the drawings are no longer not to scale.
Information
Normandie Tower , Rouen Rd, Norwich was chosen because access was
made available by Norwich City Council. Within the block, one flat had been
completely gutted after a fire, so the construction details were exposed.
Measurements were taken on site to establish exact construction details for
input to the model.
The actual figures for energy consumption were only obtained after the IES
analysis was completed. They apply to Winchester Tower, the sister tower
block to Normandie Tower, constructed at the same time and to the same
specification.
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Other variables for the modelling were sourced form IES itself – or from
experience. All relevant variables are included in the Appendices.
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Analysis
This approach has been taken because windows and walls constitute the
whole envelope of most high rise flats, and insulation of these elements is the
key to energy saving. These also represent the most accessible and readily
understandable options for building owners.
Model 1: As built . ‘No fines’ concrete walls and 4mm singles gazing
Model 2: As existing. ‘No fines’ concrete walls and 1985 double glazing.
Model 3: Walls insulated with 100mmm rockwool and cladding, and windows
as existing.
Model 4: ‘No fines’ concrete walls and 2006 Building Regulations standard
double glazing.
Model 5: Walls insulated with 100mmm rockwool and cladding and 2006
Building Regulations standard double glazing.
More details of the constructions and modelled variables can be seen in the
Appendices.
The simulation results are broken down into heat demand for space heating,
and boiler load for space heating and hot water. This project focuses on space
heating, as hot water demand is similar in all dwelling types, and largely
dependant on occupant rather than building characteristics. In this case
however kerosene is the fuel used for both space and hot water heating, so it
is necessary to include the analysis of both in order to compare it with the fuel
use figures supplied.
Results
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Table 30: IES VE Analysis of Boiler loads for Normandie Tower –(Whole Block)
The most significant gain is from insulating the walls. This is the case because
the walls constitute the largest external surface area (78%), and the U value of
the walls is being cut by over half from 0.54 to 0.28 W/m2k.
Table 31 breaks down the results into across section of individual dwellings.
This level of analysis gives us further insights into the thermal dynamics of the
block:
• Heat demand is much higher on the top and ground floor illustrating the
level of heat loss through the flat roof and into the ground. The flat roof
could relatively easily be improved, but the replacing of the ground floor
would be much more disruptive. Both these could be easily modelled, but
would add little to the overall debate.
• Orientation makes a small but significant difference.
• Heat demand reduces and then increases going up the block.
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Table 31: Flat by flat results of IES.VE analysis
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Analysis : The benefits of sharing walls and heat
For this experiment Flat 2 was ‘ taken out’ of the block and analysed as if it
were a bungalow with a solid ground floor and flat roof of similar construction
to flats in Normandie Tower. The walls and glazing received the same
treatment as the flats in the blocks in the various models.
The modelled ‘bungalow’ now has four outside walls and exposed flat roof and
floor.
Table 32: Comparison of heat loads for flat and same construction bungalow.
th
2 Bed flat converted to bungalow (Flat 2) – Compared to Results for 8 floor flat
Heating loads (MWh p.a.)
Actual Figures
Norwich City Council supplied the figures for oil consumption at Winchester
Tower, the sister block to Normandie Tower.1 These are produced in full in the
Appendices, but summed up and compared with the IES analysis in Table 33
below.
1
Winchester Tower was constructed at the same time and to the same specification as
Normandie Tower. Winchester Tower has a slightly older average tenant than Normandie.
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Table 33: Actual and IES simulation figures for whole block boiler loads
There is a significant difference in the amount of oil actually used and that
calculated in the simulation.
Correction
Whilst it would have been good to achieve a result closer to actual, it would be
a mistake to do it by trying to adjust the inputs to fit.
It is quite satisfactory to accept the analysis and work in the knowledge of this
limitation and to aspire to do longer term research into the actual performance
of buildings that have had this type of improvement work done.
Potential Savings
Projected financial, energy and carbon savings can now be calculated for
these models from the savings figures in Table 30 above.
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Table 34 : Projected savings in cost of oil (per annum) from insulation measures
The 67.19% saving on boiler load between the existing Model (Model 2) and
Model 5 represents a potential saving of 53,000 litres of oil, equivalent to about
£18,000 (at today’s rates) and 14,045 kilograms of carbon dioxide.1
With available estimates varying around an average of about £1 million
pounds2 to do this work, the ‘simple’ payback period looks unattractive at 55
years. But although the payback period is important, it requires the use of
projected fuel prices such as ‘Fuel Prophet’3 might give, and does not take into
account offset costs and other benefits to the occupants arising from the work.
Conclusions
Thermal performance analysis of Normandie Tower a ‘no fines’
concrete construction high rise block was carried out using
observation, IES VE analysis and actual fuel use data.
1
Current price of oil taken as 35 p per litre. Conversion rate for Kerosene (10.3 KWh per litre
of oil) from the dti. Conversion rate for oil ( 0.265 Kg Co2 per Kwh) from Energy Savings
Trust.
2
Estimated using Sustaining Towers website figures and Little Venice figures (Chapter 6)
3
Fuel Prophet is a software tool that forecasts the effects of fuel price increases on payback
times for investments in energy efficiency.
James Livingstone 75
scenario target average for 2050 is 6.8MWh (Boardman et al 2005 p40).
The figure also compares well with PassivHaus and AECB
standards.1
Using the model to ‘take out’ the flat from its context usefully
demonstrated the buffer effects of its neighbours on fuel
consumption for space heating, and showed why the flat can have
so much more potential for low energy use, than a detached
house, for example.
1
See Chapter 9 for further details
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8. Improvements to
Thermal Performance -
Potentials and
Practicalities
This chapter looks at the practicalities of improving the energy
performance of high rise buildings.
One of the key drivers behind this work is the conviction that
insulation comes before renewables in the drive to save energy in
housing, and it is on this therefore, that this chapter concentrates.
Access
Access is the issue which, more than any other, influences the approach to
improvement and remedial works on high rise buildings.
In the case studies in chapter six, access costs in the Westminster and
Norwich examples were about £300,000 per twenty one storey block and
£90,000 per eleven storey block respectively.1 It is important therefore, that if
access equipment is going to be erected, maximum possible advantage is
made of it, and that workmanship is of the highest quality so that maintenance
is minimised.
1
See chapter six – case studies
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External insulation and cladding
Choice of materials / systems1
Ventilated or unventilated systems are the two basic choices for external
insulated cladding of high rise blocks,
Form
It has been argued that the simple form of the high rise block makes them
conducive to external cladding and insulation. This was so in the Normandie
Tower example used in chapter seven, but is by no means always the case.
1
Permarock, Sto , Weber and Alumasc systems are the market leaders. Their products were
looked at to inform this section, together with those sources listed in the bibliography
James Livingstone 78
Many brick built houses with complex architectural features and surface
mounted building services present a much greater challenge to external
insulation. Although form is not generally as complex on high rise as on these,
high rise blocks are not just the flat boxes they are sometimes thought of.
The more complex the work, the more likely that the workmanship will be poor,
air infiltration levels may not be cut as much as anticipated, and maintenance
problems may arise.
Form also takes in aesthetics here. It is much more palatable to over clad an
ugly plain building than a complex and attractive one.
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Weather
Extreme weather conditions can prevail high up. Suction loads from wind and
rain loadings that are not met at ground level must be catered for.
Workmanship
It is imperative that workmanship is of the highest quality to avoid thermal
bridging, infiltration and weathering problems.
Fire
Fire testing at the BRE (Colwell and Martin 2003) has concluded that spread of fire
through thermosetting insulation1 and expanded polystyrene is too great to
allow their use on multi-storey buildings, unless a barrier of Rockwool is
incorporated at each level. In practise this means that Rockwool is the
insulation of choice for most, if not all, proprietary insulation systems for
external application to multi-storey blocks.
Condensation
The British Board of Agrement Certificates for external cladding (Swisslab 2003)
state that high internal moisture content internally could result in interstitial
condensation but not in the insulation itself. This seems unlikely and in any
event can be calculated prior to installation and prevented through the
installation of efficient ventilation systems.
Internal Insulation
Internal insulation is an option that has been chosen by a number of landlords,
but has normally been done on a ‘piecemeal’ basis in response to extreme
condensation problems – caused by uninsulated walls and cold bridging, often
exacerbated by lifestyle issues.
There is also a loss of thermal mass, but in the case of high rise blocks there
is enough concrete in the floors and internal walls for this to be insignificant.
There are enough good throught the enclosed balco reasons for insulating
externally that it is the default choice, but internal insulation can be more
appropriate where the form of the building externally is so irregular that
external cladding is impractical, or where other external works are not taking
place requiring access equipment.
The Blades Rise Estate in Sandwell is an example of large-scale internal
insulation. (Trim 1991)
1
See Glossary. Includes Polyisocanurates, phenolic foams and polyurethane.
James Livingstone 80
Balcony enclosure
Glazed balcony enclosure is often a good choice if access equipment is in
place, particularly where the balcony is recessed on the face of the building,
such as at Glastonbury House.
If used properly and oriented right, solar gain through the enclosed balcony
can give considerable fuel and ‘feel good’ benefits to the occupants.
Balcony enclosures can also reduce wind noise and cut down on the problems
with pigeons that are commonly associated with high rise living.
Roof Insulation
Roof insulation benefits the top floor flats, and it almost goes without saying
that when the roof surface needs recovering, the insulation should be
upgraded to the highest standards. Although easier with external access, it can
be done independently of other external works. Some owners have
approached this by ‘pitching ‘ the previously flat roof. This often provides an
aesthetic improvement as well.
Most high rise roof spaces have been let to telecommunication companies,
who may install bulky equipment, which can seriously obstruct improvements
to the roof surface.
Glazing
Windows generally have shorter life span than other elements of the external
envelope. For this reason, a lot of high rise blocks seem to have had window
replacement programmes in the early 1980’s, often before concrete repairs
were really needed. Early forms of PVCu double glazed windows were
generally the replacement of choice, and in a number of cases external
cladding was also done. PVCu profiles from this date have developed
problems with discoloration and have become brittle. In many cases they now
need replacing again.
Although there are many sound environmental reasons not to use PVCu, the
technology has improved, and there are compelling arguments for using it in
windows in situations where access for maintenance is difficult.
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Heating Improvement Options
In 1991 the Building Research Establishment published figures for the installed
primary heating type in high rise residential blocks. (Trim .M. 1991). Electricity at
56% was the most common form installed in high rise ahead of gas (32%)
solid fuel (7%) and oil (2%).
Electricity was often installed because it was thought at the time, to be the
cheapest, and the safest. This was generally in the form of under floor or warm
air heating, both of which later came to be relatively expensive and subject to
system failure.
Oil, some gas and solid fuel systems were generally district heating schemes
run from central boilers often serving more than one block.
Gas is currently the most efficient and cheap readily available fuel, but
landlords are very reluctant to install gas mains in tower blocks where there
were none previously for reasons of cost and perceptions about safety.
Photovoltaics
The facades of high rise blocks could be suitable for the erection of photo
voltaic (PV) panels. Research only revealed one example of this being done.
This was on Bowater House in Sandwell, where a small 4KW array was
installed in 1999. (Save Energy)
High rise rooftops are generally too small and often too crowded, to make a
significant contribution to either electricity or hot water generation, but they do
have the advantage of not being liable to shading. There are PV panels on the
roof of Glastonbury Tower in London, but there is no information available on
the size and generating capacity.
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Solar Century have installed panels to the facade of the CIS Tower, an office
building in Manchester. Performance figures are not available for this
installation.
This could serve as a model for the potential for PV in domestic high rise
buildings. However, office buildings, and this building in particular which has a
flat glazed facade, are usually better suited in use and design to the
application of PV facades.
They state that the cladding project cost £5.5 million to do, but there is no
estimate of what cost can be offset from that amount to get the true extra over
cost of the solar panels. They do claim however that the
“PV panels are cheaper than most commonly used high quality cladding
materials.”
One of the factors contributing to this relatively poor performance is the angle
of tilt and orientation of the panels. The following table illustrates the point.
Table 35: How Orientation and Tilt affect Photovoltaic Electricity Generation
Potential
The table shows that that efficiency of the PV cells is compromised by 17%
when placed vertically as a building facade, and that east or west facing
facades suffer a 50% loss in efficiency.
1
For ROCs see glossary.
2
For Retscreen see Bibliography
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Solar thermal
Similar issues apply to solar thermal installation, although it might be
advantageous use it to preheat some domestic water with panels on the roof.
Wind Power
The Islington case study case in Chapter 6 analyses the potential of wind
power on Kestrel House concluding a simple payback of twenty one years.
This seems reasonable, with turbines generally having a simple maintenance
schedule and a long life, but the figures have yet to be substantiated.
"It's not going to generate loads and loads of electricity but it is a symbol of
where we should be going with renewable energy."
(Ian Simpson, Bradford Community Housing Trust Executive Director 2007)
Wind power on high rise buildings is therefore significant for its symbolic and
political value, if not for its economic benefits. There may of course still be
technologies to be developed that take particular advantage of the wind
conditions around high rise buildings. Generally though, wind turbines are
likely to be better suited to new build projects rather than retrofits.
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Tenure can also make a significant difference. The installation of energy
efficiency improvements can sometimes be held back by the changing tenure
of blocks. Leaseholders for example, can be reluctant to invest in
improvement schemes.
In the case of the Little Venice project, the project manager from Wates
Construction Ltd reported that leaseholders supported the project because of
the potential increase in property values arising from it, but there have been
reports of improvements being blocked by leaseholders where paybacks
appear more marginal.
Conclusions
High rise blocks have particular challenges, but also offer particular
opportunities for the installation of energy efficiency measures.
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9. The Environmental
Impact of Demolition,
Replacement and
Refurbishment of High
Rise Blocks
Chapter four looks at the demolition / refurbishment debate in
general terms and concludes that demolition and rebuild is
generally more energy efficient over the lifetime of buildings than
refurbishment
The running costs of the tower block and the running costs of
replacement houses are then calculated. These are combined with
the figures for embodied energy, to compare the life time energy
costs of the two types.
Finally, it also looks at the implications for land use if high rise
blocks are replaced by low-rise housing.
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What is in a tower block?
Table 36 shows the calculations done for this paper of the embodied energy
and carbon dioxide in Normandie Tower.
It is limited to the fabric of the building and does not include services, fixtures,
or fittings.
In the table the embodied energy source data comes from Bath University.
(2007). The density figures for materials are sourced from IES Virtual
Environment programme. The density figure for no fines concrete are
increased to allow for high density beams and columns. The figures for the
windows are based on 3980 mj per 1.2 x 1.2 window (Asif et al)
By Bath University’s own admission their figures are need further work. For
example, these are ‘cradle to gate’ and in some cases ‘cradle to site’ so do not
include integration into the building. This is probably a very small proportion of
the costs, but a significant one nevertheless.
James Livingstone 87
Table 36: Calculation of Mass. Embodied Energy and Embodied Carbon in Normandie Tower
General description : 16 storeys. 95 flats. Central core with services , lift, stairs and access corridors to flats
Materials Thickness Area m2 Volume Density Total Embodied Embodied Embodied Embodied
m3 kg/m3 Weight energy energy carbon Kg carbon
External Walls Mj/Kg Mj Co2 /Kg Kg Co2
Pebble dash 10mm 3265 32.65 1800 58770 0.15 8815 0.08 4701
External render 25mm 3265 81.62 1300 105638 1.52 1,60569 0.228 24085
‘No fines’ Concrete 300mm 3265 979.5 1700 16655150 0.81 13,490,672 0.102 1,698825
Glass Fibre Quilt 50mm 3095 154.75 12 1857 28 51996 1.35 2506
Plasterboard 13mm 3095 40.23 950 3990 2.7 10773 0.24 957.6
Plaster 5mm 3095 15.5 1200 18600 1.8 33480 0.16 2976
Floors
Dense cast concrete 250mm 5760 1440 2000 2880000 2.36 6,796,800 0.265 763200
Flat Roof
3 layer bitumen felt 15mm 459 6.88 1700 11696 75 877200 3.8 44444
Ply 25mm 459 11.47 700 8029 15 120435 0.75 6021.75
fibreglass 100mm 459 45.9 12 550.8 28 15422 1.35 743.58
dense concrete slab 150mm 459 68.85 2000 137700 2.36 324972 0.265 36490
Plaster 13mm 459 5.97 1200 7164 1.8 12895 0.16 1146
Internal Walls (Dividing )
Plaster 13mm 2853 37.09 1200 44508 1.8 80114.4 0.16 7121.28
Cast Concrete 130mm 2853 370.9 1500 556358 2.36 1313005 0.265 147434
Plaster 13mm 2853 37.09 1200 44508 1.8 80114.4 0.16 7121
Windows Materials Area Units No Embodied Total Embodied Embodied
energy embodied carbon Kg carbon
mj/unit energy Co2 /unit Kg Co2
Double glazed PVCu 2 X 4mm 924 1.44m2 745 2980 2,220,100 372.5 277512
James Livingstone 89
The Embodied Energy of the Replacement Dwellings
Figures for the embodied energy of new dwellings vary widely:
Table 37 above gives a wide range of figures for the embodied energy in new
dwellings.
Normandie Tower
Normandie Tower comprises 95 dwellings.
It is not really possible to convert this figure to carbon dioxide without the source
data on production methods and fuels used.
Given the variation in the estimates, the figure of 7,100 MWh produced in the
analysis in Table 39 does not compare too badly, particularly when taking into
consideration the apparent naivety of the science.
James Livingstone 90
The Embodied Energy in Tower Block Refurbishment
Estimating the energy costs of the tower block refurbishment is far from straight
forward.
The only available figure for the embodied energy in refurbishment at the time
of writing is that quoted by David Ireland of the Empty Property Agency (no date):
“The total embodied energy in building a house can be added up. For what it’s
worth it’s normally about 90,000kWh for a new family house. Comparing that
with refurbishing a house let’s take a typical £40,000 refurbishment of a derelict
three bedroom semi. A refurbishment of this kind would use about 15MWh of
embodied energy.”
It is possible to look at some of the materials. In this case, the primary materials
for energy saving are the double glazing and the external insulation.
The Normandie Tower example uses 100mm rockwool so 40mm needs adding
as per table 38 below:1
1
Embodied Energy base figures from Bath University ICE as per table 39 above
2
3980 mj per 1.2 x 1.2 window ( Asif et al)
James Livingstone 91
refurbishment and updating. It would not be unreasonable to add a third to this
figure to account for this to say 20MWh.
Running costs
This section looks at the running costs in energy terms of the flats to see how
they compare with published benchmark figures.
Table 40: Benchmark figures for energy use for space heating from hot water
Measurement Standard Energy use standard
UK Average1 140 KWm2/year
BedZED1 16.2 KWm2/year
AECB Silver2 40 KWm2/year
AECB Gold2 15 KWm2/year
Passivhaus2 15 KWm2/year
1
BedZED Bioregional
2
AECB
The tower block energy line starts at 15.2 MWh (the amount of energy taken to
refurbish the block) and climbs at 1.25 MWh per annum, (the average annual
energy consumption per flat). The PassivHaus line starts a 60 MWh ( the
amount of energy required to build the PassivHaus and climbs at an annual
rate of 0.8 MWh. The crossover occurs in about 2110, when the theoretical
lifetime energy requirement for the PassivHaus is less than that for the
refurbished tower block.
1
Error allowance of 25% made based on calculations in Chapter 7
James Livingstone 92
Figure 23: PassivHaus and refurbished flat. Lifetime energy use compared
160
140
120
Energy in MWh
100
Energy used per flat (refurb)
1.25 pa
80
energy used per new
passivhaus 0.8 p.a
60
40
20
0
2010
2018
2026
2034
2042
2050
2058
2066
2074
2082
2090
2098
2106
2114
Date
The graph shows us that, even with PassivHaus standards it takes over a
hundred years to make the ‘in use’ energy savings necessary to outweigh the
difference in embodied energy investment between the refurbished high rise flat
and the new build.
It is unusual for a high rise block to sit in less than 8 times its own footprint, so
an allowance of 3680m2 is made. This is equivalent to about 0.9 acre or 0.32
hectares.
Normandie Tower then, can be said to have been built at a density of about 294
dwellings per hectare.
James Livingstone 93
Development densities for new dwellings vary according to locationdwelling
type and local planning policy. Some examples of urban densities are given
below:
Where tower blocks have been demolished it has been done largely for social
reasons, and they are not replaced by other tower blocks. This would be seen
to be repeating the same ‘mistakes‘.
It is likely therefore that the replacement dwellings will require as much as twice
the land as the demolished tower block occupies. Bear in mind also that
Normandie Tower stands at a relatively modest 15 storeys high. The impact
doubles for blocks of thirty storeys, of which there are many examples.
The point is well made by Rogers however that achievable density is as much
about good and appropriate design as it is about numbers.
Richard Rogers in his ‘Housing for a Compact City ‘ report for the Mayor of London
suggests that terraced housing, medium rise and high rise (20 storeys) can be built in the
same plot, giving very different results in terms of privacy and amenity, but resulting in the
same density. His figure is 75 dwellings per hectare which seems to give a larger than
normal space around the tower block and no parking for the terraced housing development.
(Rogers 2003 p 20)
James Livingstone 94
Conclusions
This chapter concludes that the approximate energy costs of
demolition and replacement of Normandie Tower or an equivalent
Tower Block is 7885 MWh (the energy required to build the
equivalent number of replacement dwellings).
This does not take into account the hazards and cost associated
with demolition.
With regard to land use, tower blocks are a high density form of
housing and fill the a current need in terms of the size and
accommodation type. Demolition and replacement places demands
on infrastructure and ‘greenfields’. A rational housing policy
maximises high density housing because delivery of facilities can
be so much more efficient than to a sprawl of cul-de-sacs full of
semi detached houses.
Limitations:
It would be wrong however, not to point out at this time, the
particular limitations of the science in this chapter.
The data for embodied energy from Bath University is by their own
acknowledgement, just a collection of information from various
sources with different methodologies underlying them.
Having looked at some of the primary sources behind the ECI table
of the embodied energy in new build, it is difficult to be confident
that these are based on strong analysis.
James Livingstone 95
10. Summary and
Conclusions
Summary
This piece of work attempted to assess the environmental credentials of high
rise residential blocks in a country that is generally hostile to the style of
architecture, but needs to face up to hard decisions about housing put upon it
by the exigencies of climate change and ‘Peak Oil’.
The three most important pieces of work in this particular area of study, The
Sustainable Tower Blocks Resource, The National Sustainable Tower Blocks
Initiative, and Euroace were looked at to ensure that this piece of work would
add to the available literature and not duplicate it.
Of the three, only The Sustainable Tower Blocks Resource makes a start in the
direction that this thesis tried to go. Useful and interesting as it is however, it is a
source of ideas, and not of analysis. This thesis has made its own contribution,
not only by increasing understanding of the significance and context of existing
high rise dwellings, but also by providing the outlines of an analytical tool for
building owners.
Chapter three provided a factual base for the rest of the piece, and questioned
some of the most common preconceptions about high rise blocks – those being
that the high rise concept was ill conceived and that high rise buildings were
badly designed, badly built and in poor condition.
The section about Modernism demonstrated the high ideal and, in some cases,
successful execution of the architectural concept. Modernist architecture, of
which the high rise block was an important part, replaced very poor housing and
the new occupants were for the most part impressed and satisfied by their new
‘communities in the sky’. It went on to describe how that ideal had been
corrupted by the political and economic imperatives of the time, and that good
design and high ideals became compromised by speed of execution, and
subsequently by a lack of understanding and resources to manage the huge
social experiment that housing had become.
James Livingstone 96
The next two sections of this chapter then looked at the way high rise blocks
were built and at their current condition. This was primarily descriptive, in order
to contextualise the later analysis, but also concluded that high rise blocks,
although in need of internal refurbishment and concrete repairs, were generally
fit for purpose and remain in a basically sound condition. Demolition on the
grounds of condition, has generally been a smoke screen for building owners
with overwhelming estate management problems.
Chapter four described why the issue is important and how hard decisions are
necessary. Climate change is a reality. Housing contributes almost a third to the
carbon dioxide emissions of the UK, and high rise represents a significant
proportion of housing. Housing is in short supply and poor condition and
investment in it is far too small. In order to address the climate change and
housing issues therefore, a debate is needed about where to refurbish and
where to demolish and rebuild. The emphasis in the selection of which buildings
to demolish and replace will have to shift towards the most energy inefficient.
Chapter five looked at the poor understanding the UK has about its housing
stock, and concluded that the country’s approach to energy efficiency in the
existing stock is naive, being based on misunderstanding and an out of date
appreciation of what is needed to achieve the energy savings required by this
situation. Available data was analysed and the chapter concluded that, on the
basis of the evidence, the labelling of high rise dwellings as ‘Hard to Treat
Homes ‘ is misplaced and an example of this misunderstanding.
Three case studies from primary research and three from secondary sources
are included in chapter six, together with a review of demolition numbers. They
look at the approach building owners are taking to the issue, aid analysis of
heat loss from particular building types and inform the later chapters.
It is evident for the English examples, that energy efficiency is not a primary
driver in doing refurbishment work. Where energy performance improvements
are made, they are done either for political gain or are ancillary to cosmetic
improvements already proposed. Even in the case of the Little Venice project
there is a surprising omission of the application of standards and scientific
principles, preferring instead a ‘hit and hope’ approach. Budgets and a lack of
urgency about energy efficiency seem to drive the agenda for these works. The
infrequent opportunity to carry out energy efficiency works, presented by the
erection of access equipment to carry out the repairs, is being routinely missed.
There was some discrepancy between the results and the actual fuel use, and
the suspicion remains that the overall level of results obtained from the
computer modelling was optimistic. However, the modelling proved pertinent
nevertheless, and the relative improvement in performance of the block was
impressive. Informed observation confirms that high rise flats should perform
James Livingstone 97
well as they benefit from a simple form and the buffer effect of each other and
the common areas to keep them warm.
The impact of refurbishment and demolition and new build on the environment,
green field sites and urban density was then looked at in the chapter nine. It
concluded that, if the performance assured by the earlier analysis could be met,
the refurbishment option was significantly more energy efficient over the lifetime
of the building than demolition and rebuilding.
It also concluded that high urban densities are key to efficient resource use.
Urban densities can remain high and still be successful with good design, but in
most cases demolition and replacement of the dwelling is likely to at least
double the land use for the same number of dwellings.
Further Research
To undertake research of this sort is to realise the frailty and novelty of this
branch of science and policy. There is much research to do in this area, and a
lot of it will only be done when the political and financial backing is provided.
The urgency of the debate continues to increase, and the parameters change.
The housing stock is badly understood. The data may be there, but adequate
analysis for energy assessment purposes has not been done. Classification of
dwelling types as ‘hard to treat’ on the basis of whether there are lofts and
cavity walls, is simply not adequate for the challenge that lies ahead.
Some basic scientific parameters are still unclear in this debate. In the early
BRE case studies, energy improvements were measured in terms of fuel costs
to occupants. Now, building energy is analysed in terms of SAP ratings, kWh
per metre squared, and kWh per dwelling, and there is still no consistency
about methods of carbon accounting. This makes comparison and analysis
difficult.
Whilst the detailed analysis of the energy use at Normandie Tower would be
invaluable in any debate about investment in it, there is scope to harden up the
James Livingstone 98
findings, both in terms of the inputs to the model and of prolonged study of the
ways in which the occupants use the dwellings.
To apply the findings of this analysis to all other locations would be to presume
too much. The findings have a general significance for high rise blocks, but
mostly present a useful methodology for understanding each one, as the need
arises. The results themselves are only reasonably accurate for this one tower
block and even then form only part of the equation.
Conclusions
There is a resurgence of interest in high rise living - and no wonder. Although
the housing experiments of the 1950’s and 1960’s failed in so many ways, the
concept of high rise living fits the times well now and, apart from building new
tower blocks, a thorough reappraisal of our existing blocks is necessary in the
current context.
This is an emotive issue. Many will argue that it is simply inhuman to cram
people together in a tall building, but demand for inner city high rise apartments
belies this assertion. This work has not sought to deny the importance of social
factors in decisions about demolition and refurbishment, merely to raise
environmental issues up the agenda and provide a framework to discuss them.
Building owners are still continuing to favour demolition over refurbishment, and
even where refurbishment is being done, once in a lifetime opportunities to
carry out energy efficient improvements to high rise blocks are being spurned.
There are many reasons for this. There is a lack of urgency in introducing
energy efficiency measures in to the existing housing stock generally; there is a
political and economic bias towards new build over refurbishment; and finally,
there is a lack of understanding of the issues by building owners, who in any
event, are routinely under funded for investment in their stock.
__________________ oo __________________
James Livingstone 99
Appendices
Appendix 1: Normandie/ Winchester Tower Construction Details
1
Walls (External to Material Thickness
internal)
Pebble dash 10mm
External render 25mm
‘No fines’2 Concrete 300mm
Glass Fibre Quilt 50mm
Plasterboard 13mm
Plaster 5mm
Total 403mm U Value3 of 0.5397
1
Dimensions are measured , taken off plan , or in exceptional cases , presumed
2
See Glossary
3
EN-ISO U Values as calculated by IES on the back of conductivity figures from CIBSE Guide A
( see Ref)
4
Windows were originally timber single glazed, but were replaced in about 1985 with double
glazed PVCu.
Oil Consumption
Bredem definition from Building Research Establishment General Information Sheet 31. from
http://www.ihsti.com/tempimg/B98864-CIS888614800201832.pdf accessed 04.01.08
Decent Homes programme defined with the aid of the Department of Communities and Local
Government at http://www.communities.gov.uk/housing/decenthomes/whatis/ accessed
04.01.08
Non traditional Construction defined with help from National Centre For Excellence in Housing
at http://www.homein.org/page.jsp?id=543 accessed 03.01.08
1. Introduction:
Department of Communities and Local Government.(2005) English House Condition Survey
from http://www.communities.gov.uk/housing/housing research/housing surveys/ english house
condition/ Accessed 08.07 to 01.08
2. Literature Review
Sustaining Towers Resource: http://www.sustainingtowers.org/ (Accessed 09-07 to 01-08)
Build Desk 3.2. U Value Calculator software. Download from Build Desk Ltd. September 2007.
Roaf S, Crichton D, Nicol F. (2005) Adapting Buildings and Cities for Climate Change. Elsevier /
Architectural Press. Oxford
Glendenning M and Muthesius S. (1993). Tower Block. Modern Public Housing in England
Scotland and Northern Ireland.
Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon Centre for Modern British Studies in Art.
Jencks.C. (2000) Le Corbusier and the Cultural Revolution in Architecture. Monacelli Press.
Concrete Today. The Cement and Concrete Association Jul – Sept 1951 Living in Flats .
Sourced via the Concrete Society http://www.concretecentre.com/PDF/cq_011.PDF. Accessed
Sept 2007
Open University (No date) . From here to Modernity. ( Accessed October 2007)
http://www.open2.net/modernity/
Jencks.C. (2000) Le Corbusier and the Cultural Revolution in Architecture. New York. Monacelli
Press.
Concrete Today . The Cement and Concrete Association Jul – Sept 1951 Living in Flats
Sourced via the Concrete Society http://www.concretecentre.com/PDF/cq_011.PDF accessed
06.08.07
Glick D H and Reeves B R (1996) Building Research Establishment Report. The structural
condition of cast-in-situ concrete high-rise dwellings. Garston. Building Research
Establishment.
Williams A.N and Ward GC (1991). The Renovation of Wimpey No Fines Housing. Garston.
Building Research Establishment.
BRE (1985). The Structure of Ronan Point and other Taylor Woodrow - Anglian buildings.
Garston. .Building Research Establishment.
Build Desk 3.2. U Value Calculator software. Download from Build Desk Ltd. September 2007.
The Department of the Environment (DOE) (1996) Good Practise Case Study 121. Energy
Efficient Refurbishment of High Rise LPS dwellings. Garston. Building Research Establishment.
Rouse and Delatte (2003) Lessons from the Progressive Collapse of the Ronan Point Apartment
Tower, Proceedings of the 3rd ASCE Forensics Congress, October 19 - 21, 2003, San Diego,
California
http://www.eng.uab.edu/cee/faculty/ndelatte/case_studies_project/Ronan%20Point.htm
Accessed 21.08.07
Wearne, Phillip (2000). Collapse: When Buildings Fall Down. TV Books, L.L.C., USA. via
http://www.eng.uab.edu/cee/faculty/ndelatte/case_studies_project/Ronan%20Point.htm
Accessed 21.08.07
Davis Langdon & Everest (2002) Refurbishing a Tower Block, Cost model, From Issue 49 of
Social Housing: December 2002 via
http://www.building.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=113&storycode=1024090&c=
Ciria (1992) Special Publication 87 . Wall technology. Volume E. Large Heavy units on framed
buildings and in situ Concrete. London .Ciria
Currie R J, Reeves B R, Moore J F (1987) BRE report A .The structural adequacy and durability
of large panel system dwellings. Garston, Building Research Establishment
Summary for Policymakers of the Synthesis Report of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report
DRAFT COPY 16 NOVEMBER 2007 23:04 – Subject to final copyedit.
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr_spm.pdf Accessed 20.11.08
Dti. (2003). Energy White Paper – Our Energy Future – Creating a Low Carbon Economy
Norwich. HMSO
Department of Trade and Industry via The House of Lords Select Committee on Science and
Technology – Second Report 2005
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldsctech/21/2106.htm
Helweg-Larsen et al. (2007) Zero Carbon Britain. Machynlleth. Centre for Alternative
Technology.
Kate Barker (2004) Review of Housing Supply . (Delivering our stability : securing our future
housing needs). at :
http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/053/C7/barker_review_execsum_91.pdf
XCO2 (2002) Insulation for Environmental Sustainability A Guide . London XCO2 Conisbee
Environmental Change Institute. (2007) Reducing the Environmental Impact of Housing Final
report – Appendix E. Oxford. Environmental Change Institute
Energy Savings Trust 2 Best Practice in Housing . Hard To Treat Homes and Fuel Poverty.
http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/housingbuildings/calculators/hardtotreat/
Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes (Insulation Strategy Group and Hard-to-Treat
Subgroup (2006) Final Report : Identifying and Quantifying the Prevalence of Hard to Treat
Homes. From :
http://www.eeph.org.uk/uploads/documents/partnership/HTTH%20Mapping%20Research%20M
ar%2006.pdf (accessed 22/10/2007)
Centre for Sustainable Energy (March 2005). Fuel Poverty and Non Traditional Constructions
Prepared for the HTT Sub-Group of the Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes. Bristol. Centre
for Sustainable Energy. From :
http://www.eeph.org.uk/uploads/documents/partnership/HTTH%20Mapping%20Research%20M
ar%2006.pdf (accessed 23/10/2007)
UK Fuel Poverty Monitor.(2006) Separate but Unequal . Energy Efficiency standards in social
housing in the United Kingdom. Third Year report . From:
http://www.nea.org.uk/downloads/publications/Fuel_Poverty_in_Social_Housing_in_the_United
_Kingdo1.pdf. Accessed September 2007
6. Case studies
John Prescott to the Better Buildings Summit quoted by ‘ Enabling Concepts’ at :
http://www.enablingconcepts.co.uk/testimonials.html
Euroace : Energy Efficiency in High Rise Refurbishment Case Study Series. www.euroace.com
th
Interviews 9 October 2007 : Anthony Dickens – and Prija of Wates Construction.
Information obtained from site visit and interviews with Apollo Construction, and Homes for
th
Islington. 8 October 2007
Trim MJB (1991) BRE information paper. Improving the Energy efficiency Performance of High
rise flats . Garston .Building Research Establishment
Technical literature from Sto Ltd, Permarock Ltd , Alumasc and Weber Ltd
Energy Savings Trust (Feb 2004) Energy Efficient Best Practice in Housing Community Heating
Aberdeen City Council Case study. London. Energy Savings Trust.
Energy for Sustainable Development Ltd (2003). Bradford Tower Block Wind Energy Feasibility
Study. Downloaded from http://www.clear-skies.org/CaseStudies/Documents/2121485.pdf.
th
December 14 2007
Environmental Change Institute (2007) . Reducing the Environmental Impact of Housing Final
report – Appendix E University of Oxford Embodied energy. Accessed 09.07 to 01.08
CABE: http://www.cabe-
education.org.uk/buildingforlife.aspx?bfl=true&contentitemid=340&aspectid=24 . Accessed 03-
01-08
Rogers R (2003) Housing for a Compact City . London. Greater London Authority.
Palmer J, Boardman B et al (March 2006) Reducing the Environmental Impact of Housing Final
Report Consultancy . Study in support of the Royal Commission on Environmental pollution’s
26th Report on the Urban Environment. Environmental Change Institute
XCO2 (2002) Insulation for Environmental Sustainability A Guide . London. XCO2 Conisbee
WRAP (No date) The Demolition Protocol . Aggregates Resource Efficiency in Demolition and
Construction. Wrap London.