Engineering materials and structural analysis guide

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CONTENTS
A Definitions 8
A1 Important Properties of Engineering Materials 8
A2 Simple Stresses and Strains 9
A3 General Definitions 10
B Conversion Tables 26
B1 Introduction 26
B2 List of Units and Abbreviations 26
B3 Conversion factors Grouped by Category 28
B4 Miscellaneous Data 33
C Section Shear Center 34

C1 Location of Shear Center – Open Section 35
C2 Shear Center – Curved Web 36
C3 Shear Center Beam with Constant Shear Flow Between Booms 38
C4 Shear Center – Single Cell Closed Section 39
C5 Shear Center – Single Cell Closed Section with Booms 40
C6 Shear Center for Standard Section (Tables) 41
D Warping Constant 46
D1 Warping Constant – Typical Sections (Tables) 48
E Mechanical Properties 53
E1 DATA Basis 53
E2 Stress Strain Data 54
E3 Definitions of Terms 54
E4 Temperature Effects 57
E5 Fatigue Properties 57
E6 Generalised Stress - Strain Equation 59
E6.1 Problems 61
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1 Prismatic Bar In Tension 63

1.1 Limit Stress Analysis 63
1.2 Ultimate Stress Analysis 63
1.3 Problem 64
2. Prismatic Bar In Compression 65

2.1 Compression Stress Analysis 65
2.1.2 Problem 65
2.2 Euler Buckling 67
2.3 For Other Buckling Cases 67
2.3.1 Buckling For Eccentric Loading 67
2.3.2 Beam-Column 68
2.3.2.1 Notations And Conventions 68
2.3.2.2 Terms Used 69
2.3.2.3 Calculation Of Bending Moment 69
2.3.2.4 Allowable Stress 74
2.3.3 Local Buckling (Thin Walled Structures) 75
2.3.3.1 Flanges 75
2.3.3.2 Thin Webs 75
2.3.3.3 Plates And Shells 76
2.3.3.4 Analysis Of Thin Walled Structures 80
2.4 Problems 80
2.4.1 Problem For Euler Buckling 80
2.4.2 Problem For Beam – Column 83
2.4.3 Problem For Local Buckling 86
2.4.3.1 Problem For Combined Bending And Shear 87
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3 Lug Analysis 88
3.1 Failure In Tension 88
3.2 Failure By Shear Tear Out 89
3.3 Failure By Bearing 90
3.4 Lug Strength Analysis Under Transverse Loading 90
3.5 Lug Strength Analysis Under Oblique Loading 91
3.6 Lug Analysis (Avro Method) 92
3.7 Problems 93
4. Member In Bending 97
4.1 Introduction To Bending 98
4.2 Stress Analysis Of Beam 100
4.3 Bending Stresses 101
4.3.1 Limit Stress Analysis 101
4.3.2 Ultimate Stress Analysis 101
4.3.3 Rectangular Moment Of Inertia and Product of Inertia 102
4.3.4 Parallel Axis Theorem 103
4.4 Elastic Bending Of Homogeneous Beams 114
4.5 Elastic Bending Of Non Homogeneous Beams 128
4.6 Inelastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams 133
4.7 Elastic Bending Of Curved Beams 146
4.8 Miscellaneous Problems 148
4.8.1 Bending Stress In Symmetrical Section 151
4.8.2 Bending Stress In Unsymmetrical Section 153
4.8.3 Beams Of Uniform Strength 159
4.8.4 Beams Of Composite Section 160
4.8.5 Bending Of Unsymmetrical Section About Principal Axis 163
4.8.6 Bending Of Unsymmetrical Section About Arbitrary Axis 164
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5 Member In Torsion 172

5.1 Torsion of Circular Bars 173
5.1.1 Elastic and Homogeneous 176
5.1.2 Elastic and Non-homogeneous 178
5.1.3 Inelastic and Homogeneous 180
5.1.4 Inelastic and Non-homogeneous 182
5.1.5 Residual Stress Distribution 184
5.1.6 Power Transmission 185
5.2 Torsion of Non-Circular Bars 189
5.3 Elastic Membrane Analogy 190
5.4 Torsion of Thin-Wall Open Sections 194
5.5 Torsion of Solid Non-Circular Shapes 198
5.6 Torsion of Thin-Wall Closed Sections 202
5.7 Torsion-Shear Flow Relations in Multiple-Cell Closed Sections 208
5.8 Shear Stress Distribution and Angle of Twist for Two-Cell Thin-Wall Closed Section 209
5.9 Shear Stress Distribution and θ for Multiple-Cell Thin-Wall Closed Section 214
5.10 Torsion of Stiffened Thin-Wall Closed Sections 215
5.11 Effect of End Restraint 217
5.12 Miscellaneous problems 222
5.12.1 Problem For Torsion On Circular Section 222
5.12.2 Problem For Torsion In Non Circular Section 225
5.12.3 Problem For Torsion In Open Section Composed Of Thin Plates 226
5.12.4 Problem For Torsion On Thin Walled Closed Section 228
5.12.5 Problem For Torsion In Thin Walled Unsymmetrical Section 233
6 Transverse Shear Loading Of Beams With Solid Or Open Sections 236

6.1 Introduction 237
6.2 Shear Center 238
6.3 Flexural Shear Stress And Shear Flow 239
6.4 Shear Flow Analysis For Symmetric Beams 261
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6.5 Shear Flow Analysis For Unsymmetric Beams 286

6.6 Analysis Of Beams With Constant Shear-Flow Webs (I.E., Skin-Stringer Type Sections) 298
7. Transverse Shear loading Of Beams With Closed C.S 310

7.1 Single-Cell Unstiffened Box Beam: Symmetrical About One Axis 311
7.2 Statically Determinate Box Beams With Constant-Shear-Flow Webs 325
7.3 Single-Cell Multiple-Flange Box Beams. Symmetric And Unsymmetric Cross Sections 331
7.4 Multiple-Cell Multiple-Flange Box Beams. Symmetric And Unsymmetric Cross Sections 338
7.5 The Determination Of The Flexural Shear Flow Distribution By
Considering The Changes In Flange Loads (The Delta P Method) 346
7.6 Shear Flow In Tapered Sheet Panels 357
8. Combined Transverse Shear, Bending, And Torsion Loading 360
9 Internal Pressure 360

9.1 Membrane Equations Of Equilibrium 360
9.2 Special Problems In Pressurized Cabin Stress Analysis 368
10 Analysis Of Joints 373

10.1 Analysis Of Riveted Joints 373
10.1.1 Shear Failure Of Rivets 375
10.1.2 Tensile Failure Of Plate Along Rivet Line 375
10.1.2.1 Single Row And Rivets Having Uniform Diameter And Equal Pitch375
10.1.2.2 More Than One Row And Rivets With Equal Spacing 376
10.1.2.3 Rivet Line With Varying Number Of Rivets 377
10.1.2.4 Rivets Of Varying Diameter, Sheet Thickness And Pitch Distance 378
10.1.3 Failure By Double Shear Of Plate 378
10.1.4 Rivets Subjected To Tensile Loads 379
10.1.5 Rivets Subjected To Eccentric Loads 380
10.1.6 Inter Rivet Buckling 381
10.1.7 Calculation Of Fir Using ESDU Data Sheets 382
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10.1.8 Problems 382

10.2 Analysis Of Bolted Joints 397
10.2.1 Failure By Bolt Shear 397
10.2.2 Failure By Bolt Bending 398
10.3 Analysis Of Welded Joints 399
10.3.1 Shear Failure In Weld 399
10.3.2 Tensile Failure Of Weld 400
11 Combined Stress Theories For Yield And Ultimate Failure 401

11.1 Determination Of Yield Strength Of Structural Member 401
11.1.1 Maximum Shearing Stress Theory 401
11.1.2 Maximum Energy Of Distortion Theory 402
11.1.3 Maximum Strain Energy Theory 402
11.1.4 Octahedral Shear Stress Theory 403
11.2 Determination Of Ultimate Strength Of A Structural Member 404
11.2.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory 404
11.3 Problem 404
12 Cutouts In Plane Panels 409

12.1 Framing Members Around The Cutouts 409
12.2 Framing Cutouts With Doublers And Bends 412
12.3 Ring Or Donut Doublers For Round Holes 414
12.4 Webs With Lightning Holes Having Flanges 416
12.5 Structures With Non Circular And Non Rectangular Cutouts 417
12.6 Cutouts In Fuselage 418
12.6.1 Load Distribution Due To Fuselage Skin Shear 419
12.6.2 Load Distribution Due To Fuselage Bending 421
12.6.3 Load Distribution Due To Fuselage Cabin Pressurization 422
12.6.3.1 Panels Above And Below The Cutout 423
12.6.3.2 Panels At Sides Of The Cutout 424
12.6.3.3 Corner Panels Of The Cutout 424
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12.7 Problem 425
13 Tension Clips 430

13.1 Single Angle 433
13.2 Double Angle 433
13.3 Problem 435
14 Pre - Tensioned Bolts 438

14.1 Optimum Preload 439
14.2 Total Bolt Load 440
14.2.1 Mating Surfaces Not In Initial Contact 440
14.2.2 Mating Surfaces In Initial Contact 440
14.3 Preload For A Given Wrench Torque 441
14.4 Bolt Strength Requirements 441
14.5 Ultimate Stress Analysis 442
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A. DEFINITIONS:
A1. Import Properties of Engineering Material:
Its necessary to know from engineering point of view the following import
properties of solids.
a. Elasticity: It is property by virtue of which the body regains its original shape and
size after the removal of the external force acting on the body.
b. Isotropic Material: It is the material, which is equally elastic in all directions.
c. Ductility: It is the property of the material by virtue of which it can be drawn out
into wires of smaller dimension e.g., copper, Aluminium.
d. Plasticity: It is the property of the material wherein the strain does not disappear
even after the load or stress is not acting on the material. The material becomes
plastic in nature and behaves like a viscous liquid under the influence of large
forces.
e. Malleability: It is the property possessed by the material enabling the material to
extend uniformly in a direction without rupture. As such the material can be hot
rolled, forged or drop stamped. A malleable material is highly plastic.
f. Brittleness: A material is said to be brittle when it cannot be drawn out into thon
wires. This due to lack of ductility and the material breaks into pieces under
loading.
g. Toughness: It is property of the material due to which it is capable of absorbing
energy without fracture.
h. Hardness: It is the property of the material by virtue of which the is capable of
resisting abrasion or indentation.
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A2. Simple Stresses and Strains.

Allowable Stress (Working Stress):
If a member is so designed that the maximum stress as calculated for the expected
condition of service is less than some certain value, the member will have a proper margin of
security against damage or failure. This certain value is the allowable stress of the kind and for
the material and condition of service in question. The allowable stress is less than the damaging
stress because of uncertainty as to the conditions of service, non uniformity of material, and
inaccuracy of stress analysis. The margin between the allowable stress and the damaging stress
may be reduced in proportion to the certainty with which the condition of service are known, the
intrinsic reliability of material, the accuracy with which the stress produced by the loading can
be calculated and the degree to which failure is unaffected by danger or loss. (Compare
Damaging stress, Factor of Safety; Factor of utilization; Margin of safety)
Apparent Elastic Limit:

The stress at which the rate of change of strain with respect to stress is 50 percent
greater than at zero stress. It is more definitely determine from the stress strain diagram than is
the proportional limit, and is useful for comparing material s of the same general class(Compare
Elastic limit, Proportional limit, Yield point; Yield strength).
Apparent Stress:
The stress corresponding to a given unit strain on the assumption of uniaxial
elastic stress is called apparent stress. It is calculated by multiplying the unit strain by the
modulus of elasticity and may differ from the true stress because the effect of transverse stresses
is not taken into account.
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A3. General Definitions:

Bending Moment:
The bending moment at any section of the beam is the moment of all forces that
act on the beam to the left of that section, taken about the horizontal axis of the section. The
bending moment is positive when clockwise and negative when counter clock wise; a positive
bending moment therefore bends it so that it is concave downward. The moment equation is an
expression for the bending moment at any section in terms of x, the distance to that section
measured from a chosen origin, usually taken at the left end of the beam.
Boundary Conditions:
As used in strength of materials, the term usually refers to the condition of stress,
displacement, or slope at the ends or edges of a member, where these conditions are apparent
from the circumstances of the problem. Thus for a beam with fixed ends the zero slope at each
end is a boundary condition are apparent from the circumstances of the problem. Thus for beam
with fixed ends, the zero slope at each is a boundary condition: for a pierced circular plate with
freely supported edges, the zero radial stress at each edge is a boundary condition.
Brittle Fracture:
The tensile failure with negligible plastic deformation of an ordinarily ductile
metal is called brittle fracture.
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity:

The ratio of a tensile or compressive stress, triaxial and equal in all direction(e.g.,
hydrostatic pressure), to the relative change it produces in volume.
Central Axis (Centroidal Axis):

A central axis of an area is one that passes through the centroid; it is understood
to lie in the plane of the area unless contrary is stated. When taken normal to the plane of the
area, it is called the central polar axis.
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Centroid of an Area:
That point in the plane of the area about any axis through which the moment of
the area is zero; it coincides with the center of gravity of the area materialized as an infinitely
thin homogenous and uniform plate.
Corrosion Fatigue:
Fatigue aggravated by corrosion , as in parts repeatedly stressed while exposed to
salt water.
Creep:
Continuous increase in deformation under constant or decreasing stress. The term
is ordinarily used with reference to the behaviour of metals under tension at elevated
temperatures. The similar yielding of a material under compressive stress is usually called plastic
flow, or flow. Creep at atmospheric temperature due to sustained elastic stress is sometimes
called drift, or elastic drift. Another manifestation creep, the diminution in stress when
deformation is maintained constant, is called relaxation.
Damaging Stress:
The least unit stress of a given kind and for a given material and condition of
service that will render a member unfit for service before the end of its normal life. It may do
this by producing excessive set, by causing creep to occur at an excessive rate, or by causing
fatigue cracking, excessive strain hardening, or rupture..
Damping Capacity:
The amount of work dissipated into heat per unit of strain energy present at
maximum strain for a complete cycle.
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Deformation (Strain):
Change in the form or dimensions of a body produced by stress. Elongation is
often used for tensile strain, compression or shortening for compressive strain, and detrusion for
shear strain. Elastic deformation is such deformation as disappears on removal of stress;
permanent deformation is such deformation as disappears on remains on removal of stress.
Eccentricity:
A load or component of a load normal to a given cross section of a member is
eccentric with respect to that section if it does not act through the centroid The perpendicular
distance from the line of action of the load to either principal central axis is the eccentricity with
respect to that axis.
Elastic:
Capable of sustaining stress without permanent deformation; the term is also used
to denote conformity to the law of stress strain proportionality. An elastic stress or strain within
the elastic limit.
Elastic Axis:
The elastic axis of a beam is the line, lengthwise of the beam, along which
transverse loads must be applied in order to produce bending only, with no torsion of the beam at
any section. Strictly speaking, no such line exists except for a few conditions of loading. Usually
the elastic axis is assumed to be the line that passes through the elastic center of every section.
The term is most often used with reference to an airplane wing of either the shell or multiple-
spar type (Compare Torsional center; Flexural center; Elastic center).
Elastic Center:
The elastic center of given section of a beam is that point in the plane of the
section lying midway between the flexural center and center of twist of that section. The three
points may be identical and are usually assumed to be so. (Compare Flexural center; Torsional
center; Elastic axis).
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Elastic Curve:
The curve assumed by the axis of a normally straight beam or column when bent
by loads that do not stress it beyond the proportional limit.
Elastic Limit:
The least stress that will cause permanent set (Compare Proportional limit;
Apparent elastic limit; Yield point; Yield strength).
Elastic Ratio:
The ratio of the elastic limit to the ultimate strength
Ellipsoid of Strain:
An ellipsoid that represent the state of strain at any given point in a body; it has
the form assumed under stress by a sphere centered at that point.
Ellipsoid of Stress:.
An ellipsoid that represents the state of stress at a given point in a body; its semi
axes are vectors representing the principal stresses at that point, and any radius vector represents
the resultant stress on a particular plane through the point. For a condition of plane stress (one
principal stress zero) the ellipsoid becomes the ellipse becomes the ellipse of stress.
Endurance Limit(Fatigue strength):

The maximum stress that can be reversed an indefinitely large number of times
without producing fracture of a material.
Endurance Ratio:
Ratio of the endurance limit to the ultimate static tensile strength is called
endurance ratio.
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Endurance Strength:
The highest stress that a material can withstand with repeated application or
reversal without rupture for a given number of cycles is the endurance strength of that material
for that number of cycles. Unless otherwise specified, reversed stressing is usually implied
(Compare Endurance Limit)
Energy of Rupture:
The work done per unit volume in producing fracture is the energy of rupture. It
is not practical to establish a definite energy of rupture value for a given material because the
result obtained depends upon the form and proportion of the test specimen and manner of
loading. As determined by similar tests specimen, the energy of rupture affords a criterion for
comparing the toughness of different materials.
Equivalent Bending Moment:

A bending moment that, acting alone, would produce in a circular shaft a normal
(tensile or compressive) stress of the same magnitude as a maximum normal stress produced by
a given bending moment and a given twisting moment acting simultaneously.
Equivalent Twisting Moment:

A twisting moment that, acting alone would produce in a circular shaft a shear
stress of the same magnitude as the shear produced by a given twisting and a given bending
moment acting simultaneously.
Factory of Safety:
The ratio of the load that would cause failure of a member or structure to the load
that is imposed upon it in service. The term usually has this meaning; it may also be used to
represent the ratio of breaking to service value of speed, deflection, temperature variation, or
other stress producing factor against possible increase in which the factor of safety is provide as
a safeguard (Compare Allowable stress; Margin of safety).
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Factor of Strain:
In the presence of stress raisers, localized peak strains are developed. The factor
of strain concentration is the ratio of the localized maximum strain at a given cross section to the
nominal average strain on that cross section. The nominal average strain behaviour of the
material. In a situation where all stresses and strains are elastic, the factors of stress
concentration and strain concentration are equal (Compare Factor of stress concentration).
Factor of Stress Concentration:

Irregularities of form such as holes, screw threads notches, and sharp shoulders,
when present in a beam, shaft, or other member subject to loading may produce high localized
stresses. This phenomenon is called stress concentration, and the form irregularities that causes it
are called stress raisers. The ratio of the true maximum stress to the stress calculated by the
ordinary formulas of mechanics (flexural formula, torsion formula etc.), using the net section but
ignoring the changed distribution of stresses is the factor of stress concentration for the
particulars type of stress raiser.
Factor of Stress Concentration in Fatigue:

At a specified number of loading cycles, the fatigue strength of a given geometry
depends upon the stress concentration factor and upon material properties. The factor of stress
concentration in fatigue is the ratio of the fatigue strength without a stress concentration. It may
vary with the specified number of cycles as well as with material
Factor of Utilization:
The ratio of the allowable stress to the ultimate strength. For cases in which stress
is proportional to load, the factor of utilization is the reciprocal to the factor of safety.
Fatigue:
Tendency of material to fracture under many repetitions of a stress considerably
less than the ultimate static strength.
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Fibre Stress:
A term used for convenience to denote the longitudinal tensile or compressive
stress in a beam or other member subject to bending. It is sometimes used to denote this stress at
the point or points most remote from the neutral axis, but the term stress in extreme fibre is
preferable for this purpose. Also, for convenience, the longitudinal elements of filaments of
which a beam may be imagined as composed are called fibres.
Fixed (Clamped, built-in, encastre):

A conditioned of support at the ends of a beam or column or at the edges of a
plate or shell that prevents rotation and transverse displacements of the edge of the neutral
surface but permits longitudinal displacements.
Flexural Center (Shear Center):

With reference to a beam, the flexural center of any section is that point in the
plane of the section through which a transverse load, applied at that section, must act if bending
deflection only is to be produced with no twist of the section (Compare Torsional center; Elastic
center; Elastic axis).
Form Factor:
The terms pertains to a beam section of a given shape and means the ratio of the
modulus of rupture of a beam having a section adopted as standard. The standard section is
usually taken as rectangular or square; for wood it is a 2 by 2 in square, with edges horizontal
and vertical. The term is also used to mean, for a given maximum fiber stress within the elastic
limit, the ratio of the actual resisting moment of a wide-flanged beam to the resisting moment the
beam would develop if the fiber stress were uniformly distributed across the entire width of the
flanges. So used, the term expresses the strength –reducing effect of shear lag.
Fretting Fatigue:
Fatigue aggravated by surface rubbing, as in shaft with press fitted collars.
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Guided:
A condition of support at the ends of a beam or column or at the edge of a plate or
shell that prevents rotation of the edge of the neutral surface but permits longitudinal and
transverse displacement (Compare Fixed; Guided; Supported).
Held:
A condition of support at the ends of a beam or columns or at the edge of a plate
or shell that prevents longitudinal and transverse displacement of the edge of the neutral surface
but permits rotation in the plane of bending (Compared Fixed; Guided Supported).
Influence Line:
Usually pertaining to a particular section of a beam, influence line is a curve
drawn; so that its ordinate at any point represent the value of the reaction; vertical shear, bending
moment, or deflection produced at the particular section by a unit load applied at the point where
the ordinate is measured. An influence line may be used to show the effect of load position on
any quantity dependent thereon, such as the stress in a given truss member, the deflection of a
truss, or the twisting moment in a shaft.
Isoclinic:
A line (in a stressed body) at all points on which the corresponding principal
stresses have the same directions.
Isotropic:
Having the same properties in all properties in all direction. In discussions
pertaining to strengths of materials, isotropic usually means having the same strength and elastic
properties (modulus of elasticity, modulus of rigidity, and poisson’s ratio) in all directions.
Korn (Kornal):
The korn is that area in the plane of the section through which the line of action of
a force must pass if that force is to produce, at all points in the given section, the same kind of
normal stress, i.e., tension throughout or compression throughout
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Margin of safety:
As used in aeronautical design, margin of safety is the percentage by which the
ultimate strength of a member exceeds the design load. The design load is the applied load, or
maximum probable load, multiplied by a specified factor of safety. [The use of the term margin
of safety and design load in this sense is practically restricted to aeronautical engineering]
Mechanical Hysteresis:
The dissipation of energy as heat during a stress cycle, which is revealed
graphically by failure of the descending and ascending branches of the stress-strain diagram to
coincide.
Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus):

The rate of change of unit tensile or compressive stress with respect to unit tensile
or compressive strain for the condition of uniaxial stress within the proportional limit. For most,
but not all, materials, the modulus of elasticity is the same for tension and compression. For non-
isotropic material such as wood, it is necessary distinguish between the moduli of elasticity in
different directions.
Modulus of Resilience:
The strain energy per unit volume absorbed up to the elastic limit under the
condition of uniform uniaxial stress.
Modulus of Rigidity (Modulus of Elasticity in Shear):

The rates of change of unit shear stress with respect to unit shear strain for the
condition of pure shear within the proportional limit. For non-isotropic materials such as wood,
it is necessary to distinguish between the moduli of rigidity in different directions.
Modulus of Rupture in Bending (Computed ultimate Twisting Strength):

The fictitious tensile or compressive stress in the extreme fiber of a beam
Mc
computed by the flexure equation σ = , where M is the bending moment that causes rupture.
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Modulus of Rupture in Torsion (Computed Ultimate twisting moment):

The fictitious shear stress at the surface of circular shaft computed by the tension
Tr
formula τ = , where T is the Twisting moment that causes rupture.
J
Moment of Area (First Moment of an Area, Statical Moment of an Area):

With respect to an axis, the sum of the products obtained by multiplying each
element of the area dA by its distance from the axis y; it is therefore the quantity ∫ dAy . An axis
in the plane of the area is implied.
Moment of Inertia of an area (Second Moment of an Area):

The moment of inertia of an area with respect to axis is the sum of the products
obtained by multiplying each element of the area dA by the square of its distance from the axis
∫ dAy
2
y; it is therefore the quantity . An axis in the plane of the area is implied, if the axis is
normal to that plane, the term polar moment of inertia.
Neutral Axis:
The line of zero fiber stress in any given section of a member subject to bending;
it contains the neutral axis of every section.
Notched – Sensitivity Ratio:

Used to compare stress concentration factor kt and fatigue-strength reduction
factor kf, the notch sensitivity ratio is commonly defined as the ratio (k f − 1) / (k t − 1) .It varies
from 0, for some ductile materials, to 1, for some hard brittle materials.
Neutral Surface:
The longitudinal surface of zero fibre stress in a member subject to bending; it
contains the neutral axis of every section.
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Plasticity:
The property of sustaining appreciable (visible to the eye) permanent deformation
without rupture. The term is also used to denote the property of yielding or flowing under steady
load.
Poisson’s Ratio:
The ratio of lateral unit strain to longitudinal unit strain under the condition of
uniform and uniaxial longitudinal unit within the proportional limit.
Principal Axes:
The principal axes of an area for a given point in its plane are the two mutually
perpendicular axes, passing through the point and lying in the plane of the area, for one of which
the moment of inertia is greater and for the other less than for any other coplanar axis passing
through that point. If the point in question is the centroid of the area, these axes are called
principal central axes.
Principal Planes; Principal Stresses:

Through any point in stressed body there pass three mutually perpendicular
planes, the stress on each of which is purely normal, tension, or compression; these are the
principal planes for that point. The stresses on these planes are the principal stresses; one of them
is the maximum stress at that point, and one of them is the minimum stress at that point. When
one of the principal stresses is zero, the condition is one of uniaxial stress.
Product of Inertia of an Area:

With respect to a pair of rectangular axes in its plane, the sum of the products
obtained b multiplying each element of the area dA by its coordinates with respect to those axes
x and y; it is therefore the quantity ∫ dAxy .
Proof Stress:
Pertaining to acceptance tests of metals, a specified tensile stress that must be
sustained without deformation in excess of a specified amount.
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Proportional Limit:
The greatest stress that a material can sustain without deviating from the law of
stress-strain proportionality. (Compare Elastic limit; apparent elastic limit; Yield point; Yield
strength)
Radius of Gyration:
The radius of gyration of area with respect to a given axis is the square root of the
quantity obtained by dividing the moment of inertia of the area with respect to that axis by the
area.
Reduction of Area:
The difference between the cross sectional area of a tension specimen at the
section of rupture before loading and after rupture.
Rupture Factor:
Used in reference to brittle materials, i.e. materials in which failure occurs
through tensile rupture rather than through excessive deformation. For a member of given form,
size, and material, loaded and supported in a given manner, the rupture factor is the ratio of the
fictitious maximum tensile stress at failure, as calculated by the appropriate formula for elastic
stress, to the ultimate tensile strength of the material, as determined by a conventional tension
test.
Section Modulus (Section Factor):

Pertaining to the cross section of a beam, the section modulus with respect to
either principal central axis is the moment of inertia with respect to that axis divided by the
distance from that axis to the most remote point of the section. The section modulus largely
determines the ability of a beam to carry load with no plastic deformation
Anywhere in the cross section (Compare plastic section modulus)
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Set (Permanent set, Permanent deformation, Plastic strain, Plastic deformation):

Strain remaining after removal of stress.
Shakedown Load (Stabilizing Load):
The maximum load that can be applied to a beam or rigid frame and on removal
leave such residual moments that subsequent application of the same or a smaller load will cause
only elastic stresses.
Shear Lag:
Because of shear strain, the longitudinal tensile or compressive bending stress in
wide beam flanges diminishes with the distance from the web or webs, and this stress diminution
is called shear lag.
Singularity Functions:
A class of function that, when used with some caution, permit expressing in one
equation what would normally be expressed in several separate equations, with boundary
conditions being matched at the ends of the intervals over which the several separate expressions
are valid.
Ultimate Strength:
The ultimate strength of a material in tension, compression, or shear, respectively,
is the maximum tensile, compressive, or shear stress that the material can sustain calculated on
the basis of the ultimate load and the original or unstrained dimensions. It is implied that the
condition of stress represents uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, or pure shear, as the case
may be.
Unit Stress:
The amount of stress per unit of area. The unit stress (tensile, compressive, or
shear) at any point on a plane is the limit, as ΔA approaches 0, ΔP / ΔA where ΔP is the total
tension, compression, or shear on an area ΔA that lies in the plane and includes the point.
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Vertical Stress:
Refers to a beam, assumed for convenience to be horizontal and loaded and
supported by forces that all lies in a vertical plane. The vertical shear at any section of the beam
is the vertical component of all the forces that act on the beam to the left of the section. The
shear equation is an expression for the vertical shear at any section in terms of x, the distance to
that section measured from a chosen origin, usually taken at the left end of the beam.
Yield Point:
The lowest stress at which strain increase in stress. For some purposes it is
important to distinguish between the upper yield point, which is the stress at which is the stress-
strain diagram first becomes horizontal, and lower yield point, which is the somewhat lower and
almost constant stress under which the metal continues to deform. Only a few materials exhibit a
true yield point; for other materials the term is sometimes used synonymously with yield
strength (Compare yield strength; Elastic limit; Apparent elastic; proportional limit)
Yield Strength:
The stress at which a material exhibits a specified permanent deformation or set.
The set is usually determined by measuring the departure of the actual stress-strain diagram
from an extension of the initial straight portion. The specified value is often taken as a unit strain
of 0.002.
Slenderness Ratio:
The ratio of length of a uniform column to the least radius of gyration of the cross
section.
Slip Lines:
Lines that appear on the polished surface of crystal or crystalline body that has
been stressed beyond the elastic limit. They represent the intersection of the surface by planes on
which shear stress has produced plastic slip or gliding.
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Strain:
Any forced change in the dimensions of a body. A stretch is tensile strain; a
shortening is a compressive strain; and angular distortion is a shear strain. The word strain is
commonly used to connote unit strain.
Strain energy:
Other wise called as elastic energy, potential energy of deformation. Mechanical
energy stored up in the stressed material. Stress with in the elastic limit is implied; therefore, the
strain energy is equal to the work done by the external forces in producing the stress and is
recoverable.
Strain rosette:
At any point on the surface of a stressed body, strains measured on each of the
intersecting gauge line make possible the calculation of the principal stresses. Such gauge lines
and the corresponding strains are called strain rosettes.
Stress:
Internal force exerted by either of two adjustant parts of a body upon the other
across an imagined plane of separation. When the forces are parallel to the plane, stress is called
shear stress; when the forces are normal to the plane, the stress is called normal stress; when the
normal stress is directed towards the part on which it acts, it is called compressive stress; and
when it is directed away from the part on which it acts, it is called tensile stress. Shear,
compressive, and tensile stresses, respectively, resists the tendency of the parts to mutually slide,
approach, or separate under the action of applied forces.
Stress solid:
The solid figure formed by the surfaces bounding vectors drawn at all points of
the cross section of a member and representing the unit normal stress at each such point. The
solid stress gives a picture of the stress distribution on a section.
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Stress trajectory (isostatic):

A line in a stressed body tangent to the direction of one of the principal stresses at
every point through which it passes id called stress trajectory.
Torsional center:
Otherwise called as center of twist or center of torsion or center of shear. If a
twisting couple is applied at a given section of a straight member, that section rotates about some
point in its plane. This point which does not move when the member twists, is the torsional
center of that section.
True stress:
For an axially loaded bar, the load divided by corresponding actual cross section
area. It differs from the stress as ordinarily defined because of the change in area due to loading.
Twisting moment (torque):

At any section of the member, the moment of all forces that act on the member to
the left of that section, taken about a polar axis through the flexure center of that section. For the
sections that are symmetrical about each principal central axis, the flexural center coincides with
the centroid.
Ultimate elongation:
The percentage of permanent deformation remaining after tensile rupture
measured over an arbitrary length including the section of rupture.
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B Conversion Tables:
B1. Introduction:
The conversion factors in this section include the System International (S.I) Units
as these are now widely accepted as the standard units of measurement.
There are six basics units in the S.I. system. These are follows
The main advantage of the S.I. System is the ease with which mechanical units expressed in
mass length and time can be related to electrical units.
B2. List of Units & Abbreviations:
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Decimal Prefixes:.
The use of double prefixes should be avoided when single prefixes are available.
Basic Units in Stress Analysis
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B3. Conversion Factors Grouped by Category:

The following pages give a list of various conversion factors used grouped by
category
Length:
Area:
Volume:
Force:
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Mass:
Density:
Velocity:
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Force Length Combination:
Moment of Inertia:
Mass Moment of Area:
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Energy:
Acceleration:
Electrical:
Angular:
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Power:
Stress or Pressure:
Temperature:
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Time:
Viscosity:
B4. Miscellaneous Data:
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C. Section Shear Centre:

The shear centre can be defined as that point in the plane of a cross-section
through which an applied transverse load must pass for bending to occur unaccompanied by
twisting. To obtain the shear centre a unit transverse load is applied to the section at that point.
The shear stress distribution, as thus shear flow distribution, thus shear flow distribution is
obtained for each element of the section. Equating the torque given by the shear distribution to
the torque given by the transverse load will produce position of shear centre.
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C1. Location of Shear Centre-Open sections:
Section Constants
I xx
Zx =
I xx I yy − I xy2
I yy
Zy =
I xx I yy − I xy2
I xy
Z xy =
I xx I yy − I xy2
Shear flow in an element

[ ]
q f = ∫ t t (xiV y + y iV x )Z xy − xiV x Z x − y iV y Z y ds + q o
Where q0 is value of q f at s = 0
xi = horizontal distance from the element centroid to the section centroid

yi = vertical distance from the element centroid to the section centroid
Shear force in an element

F f = qi ds
Torque/Moment given by element

Ti = Fi Ri
Centroid chosen as datum point, but it could be any convenient point.
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Horizontal Location of shear Centre:

To Locate the horizontal position of the shear centre, we apply a vertical unit
force through the unknown position of the shear centre x0,y0 ie Vy = 1, and Vx = 0.
∴ qi = ∫ (xi Z xy − y i Z y )t t ds + q 0
Shear forces and total torque ∑ Ti are calculated as defined previously.
Vertical Location Of Shear Centre:

To locate the vertical position of the shear centre, we apply a horizontal unit
through the unknown position of the shear centre x0,y0 ie Vy = 0, and Vx = 1
∴ qi = ∫ ( y i Z xy − xi Z x )t t ds + q 0
0
C2. Shear Centre-curved Web:
Horizontal Location:
θ ⎛ 1 ⎞
qθ = ∫ − y⎜⎜ ⎟⎟tds
0
⎝ I xx ⎠
y = R cosθ ds = Rdθ
t
qθ =
I xx ∫ R cosθ ⋅ Rdθ
t
qθ = R 2 sin θ
I xx
Moment of force of element about 0
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= qds × R
= qRdθ × R
R 4t
sin θdθ
Ix
Total Moment
R 4t π
I xx ∫0
= sin θdθ
R 4t
[− cosθ ]π0
I xx
Vertical component of force of element
qds sin θ
∴ Total Vertical Force
R 3t
=
I xx ∫ sin 2 θdθ
R 3 tπ
=
2 I xx
Taking Moment about 0

R 3 tπ 2R 4t
e=
2 I xx I xx
Horizontal Location,
4R
e=
π
Alternatively for a solid section:
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with q = web shear flow

A = Enclosed area
h = web depth
Vertical Equilibrium
qh = Vy
Moment Equilibrium
2 Aq = Vy × e .
e = 2A / h
C3. Shear centre-Beams with constant shear flow between boom members:
I xx , I yy , I xy evaluated using boom areas only(skin shear carrying only) and Z x , Z y , Z xy using
above values of I xx , I yy , I xy
Shear flow in each element

[ ]
qi = ∑ (xV y + yV x )Z xy − xV x Z x − yV y Z y δA
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Horizontal location:
Firstly set Vy = 1 and Vx = 0
[ ]
Giving qi = ∑ ( x )Z xy − ( y )Z y δA + q(i − 1)
Where x and y are locations to element area δA
Vertical location:
Firstly set Vy = 0 and Vx = 1
[ ]
Giving qi = ∑ ( y )Z xy − ( x )Z x δA + q (i − 1)
Where x and y are locations to element area δA
C4. Shear Centre – Single Cell Closed Section:
For Horizontal Location:

Cut element at 0 and assume q o = 0
Evaluate shear flow distribution around section.
Take moment about 0to give the out of balance moment Mo.
Balance Mo with balancing shear flow qb.
M0
Where qb =
2A
With resultant shear flow distribution; take moments about convenient point to give moment MR.
MR
e=
vy
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For Vertical Location:

Cut element at a and assume q a = 0
Evaluate shear flow distribution around section.
Take moment about 0to give the out of balance moment Mo.
Balance Mo with balancing shear flow qb.
M0
Where qb =
2A
With resultant shear flow distribution; take moments about convenient point to give moment MR.
MR
e=
vy
C5. Shear centre – single cell closed section with booms:
Initially the member is dealt with as a beam i.e. a cut is made at appropriate skin
element thus reducing it from a single cell to an open beam section. Having established the open
beam element shear floes, moments are taken about a convenient point and out of balance
moment Mo established.
Mo
Mo is balanced by shear flow qb =
2A
With resultant shear flow distribution; take moments about a convenient point to give MR.
Shear centre horizontal location and vertical location:
MR M
e= , e= R
Vy Vx
MR calculated independently for unit Vy and Vx.
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C6. Shear Centre for Standard sections:
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D. Warping Constant:
When a torque, is applied to a non-circular beam, the beam will twist with each
section of the beam rotating about torsional centre. The sections of the beam will not remain
plane and will wrap out of plane. Depending on how the beam is constrained the effects of the
applied torque, T will vary.
Consider a torque, T, applied to the section to the right.

The diagrams below illustrate the effects of the torque with different constraints.
The warping constant Γ is calculated by adding Γ1 and Γ2 . The constant Γ1 relates to the strain
in the middle plane of the walls arising from variations of warping of the cross-section along
length due to twist. The constant Γ2 relates to the strain across the thickness, t, of the walls.
Therefore the warping constant is defined by
Γ = (Γ1 + Γ2 )
Consider the following section
We can now show equations for the warping constants based on the generalised section shown
above.
The primary warping constant Γ1 is obtained from the formula
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2
1 A
Γ1 = ∫ (W ) tds − ⎡ ∫ WdA⎤
s 2
0 A ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Where
s
W = ∫ rt ds
0
The secondary warping constant Γ2 is obtained from the formula

1 A
Γ2 = ∫ (rn ts )2 dA in6
12 0
where A = Total cross-section area

s = distance from any free end along middle of wall.
rt = the perpendicular from the shear centre to the tangent of the point defined by s.
rn = distance from the point of rotation to the normal of the tangent line of the
middle of the wall.
A = Total cross-section area
rt = distance from the point of rotation to the tangent line of the centre line of
the section wall at s
s = distance from any free end along the middle of the wall.
Constraint Warping about a Point

It is sometimes necessary to know the warping constant (Γ1 )0 may be obtained by
means of the formula
[Γ1 ]0 = Γ1 + x02 I xx + y 02 I yy − 2 x0 y 0 I xy
The numerical method of calculating Γ for open section is shown,
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D1 Warping Constant – Tables for Typical Sections:
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E. Mechanical properties:
E1. DATA Basis:
A-values:
When applied loads are eventually distributed through a single member within an assembly, the
failure of which would results in the loss of the structural integrity of the component involved,
the guaranteed minimum design mechanical properties (“A” - values) must be met.
At least 99% of the populations of values are expected to equal or exceed the A-value
mechanical property allowable, with a confidence of 95%
Examples of such items are:
Single members such as drag struts, push-pull rods, etc.
B-values:
Redundant structures, in which the failure of individual elements would result in applied loads
being safely distributed to other load-carrying members, may be designed on the basis of 90%
probability.
“B”-values are above which at least 90% of the population of values is expected to with a
confidence of 95%.
Examples of such items are:
Sheet – stiffener combinations.
Multi – rivet or multiple bolt connections.
Thick skin type wing construction.
S-values:
The S-value is the minimum value specified by the governing industry specification of federal or
military standards for the material. For certain products heat treated by the user the S- values
may reflect a specified quality control requirement. Statistical assurance associated with this
value is not known.
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E2. Stress-Strain Data:
The significant properties of material for structural design purposes are

determined experimentally. Tension and Compression coupon tests provide the simplest
fundamental information on material mechanical properties. Experimental data is recorded on
stress – strain curves that record the measures units strain as a function of the applied force per
unit area. Data of importance for structural analysis is derived from the stress –strain as shown
above.
E3. Definition of terms:

Modulus of Elasticity:
Slope of initial straight-line part of the stress-strain curve, E (force per unit area)
Secant Modulus:
Slope of secant line from the origin to any point (stress) on the stress-strain curve
a function of the stress level applied, Es
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Tangent Modulus:
Slope of the line tangent to stress-strain curve at any point (stress) on the stress-
strain curve, Et. The tangent modulus is the same as the modulus of elasticity in the range.
Proportional Limit:
Stress at which the stress-strain curve deviates from linearity, indication of plastic
or permanent set is called proportionality limit. Sometimes defined arbitrarily as stress at 0.01%
offset, Fpl (psi
Yield Strength or Stress:

At 0.2% offset, Fcy, Ftu (psi)
Ultimate Strength or Stress:

Maximum force per unit area, Ftu (psi)
Poisson’s Ratio:
Ratio of the lateral strain measured normal to the loading direction, to the normal
strain measured in the direction of the load. Poisson ratio varies from the elastic value of around
0.3 to 0.5 in the plastic range.
Secant stress:
Stress at intercept of any given secant modulus line with the stress – strain curve
is called secant stress. F0.7, F0.85 are secant lines of 0.7 and 0.85 % of young’s modulus.
Elongation:
Permanent strain at fracture (tension) in the direction of loading e(%). Sometimes
this property is considered a measure of ductility/brittleness.
Fracture Strain:
Maximum strain at fracture of the material, ε e (in/in)
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Elastic Strain:
Strains equal to or less than the strain a t the proportional limit stress, ε e or the
strain to the projected young’s modulus line of any stress level,
Plastic Strain:
Increment of strain beyond the elastic strain at stresses above the proportional
limit.
Shear Properties:
The results of torsion tests on round tubes or round solid section s are sometimes
plotted as torsion stress-strain diagrams. The modulus of elasticity in shear as determined from
such a diagram is a basic shear property. Other properties, such as proportional limit and
ultimate shearing stress, cannot be treated as basic properties because of the form factor.
Bearing Properties:
Bearing strength are of value in the design of joints and lugs. Only yield and
ultimate values are obtained from bearing tests. The bearing stress is obtained by dividing the
load on a pin, which bears against the edge of the hole, by the bearing area, where the area is the
product of the pin diameter and sheet thickness.
The bearing test requires the use of special cleaning procedures as specified in ASTM E 238. In
the “various Room Temperature Property Tables. When the indicated values are based on tests
with clean pins, the values are footnoted as “dry pin” values. Designers should consider the use
of a reduction factor in applying these values to structural analysis.
In the definition of bearing values, t is sheet thickness, D is the hole diameter and e is the edge
distance measured from the hole centre to the edge of the material in the direction of applied
stress.
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E4. Temperature Effects:

Temperature below room temperature generally causes an increase in all strength
properties of metals. However ductility usually decreases below room temperature.
Temperatures above room temperature have the opposite effect which is dependent on many
factors such as time of exposure and the characteristic of the material.
E5. Fatigue Properties:

Practically all materials will break under numerous repetitions of a stress is not as
great the stress required to produce immediate rupture. This phenomena is known as fatigue.
Fatigue crack initiation is normally associated with the endurance limit of a material below
which fatigue does not occur is usually presented in the form of S-N curves, where the cycles
stress amplitude is plotted versus the number of cycles to failure. Another major factor affecting
the fatigue behaviour is the stress concentration caused by detail design of the structure.
Metallurgical Instability:
In addition to the retention of load-carrying ability and ductility a structural
material must also retain surface and internal stability. Surface stability refers to the resistance of
the material to oxidizing of corrosive environments. Lack of internal stability is generally
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manifested by carbide precipitation, spheroidization, sigma-phase formation, temper

embrittlement and internal or structural transformation, depending upon the material and the
condition.
Biaxial and Multiaxial Properties:

Many structural geometries, or load applications, are such that induced stresses
are not uniaxial but are bi-or triaxial. Because of the difficulty in testing, few triaxial test data
exist. However considerable biaxial testing has been conducted. If stresses are referred to as
mutually perpendicular x, y, and z direction of the usual rectangular co-ordinates, a biaxial stress
is a condition such that there are either a positive or negative stress in the x, y directions and the
stresses in the z direction is usually zero.
Fracture Strength:
The occurrence of flaws in a structural component is an unavoidable circumstance
of material processing, fabrication, or service. These flaws may be cracks, metallurgical
inclusion or voids, weld defects, design discontinuities, or combination thereof. If severe
enough, these flaws can include structural failure at loads below those of normal design. The
strength of a component containing a flaw is dependent on the flaw size, the component
geometry, and a material property termed “fracture toughness”. The fracture toughness of a
material is literally a measure of resistance to fracture. It also is considered a measure of its
tolerance or lack of sensitivity to flaws. As with many other material properties, fracture
toughness is dependent on processing variables, product form geometry, temperature, loading
rate, and other environmental factors.
Fatigue-Crack Propagation Behaviour:

Between the crack initiating phenomenon of fatigue and the critical instability of
cracked structural elements as identified by fracture toughness and residual strength lies an
important fact of material behaviour known as fatigue-crack propagation.
In small size laboratory fatigue specimens, crack initiation and specimen failure may be nearly
synonymous. However in larger structural components the existence of a crack does not
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necessarily indicate imminent failure of the component. The structural life during the cycle crack
extension phase is the basis for damage tolerance certification of aircraft structure.
Material Failures:
Fracture of a metal can be very complex, it can occur in either ductile or brittle
state, in the same material depending on the state of stress and the environment. Fracture can
occur after elongation of the metal over a relatively large uniform length, or after a concentrated
elongation in a short length. Shear deformation will also vary dependent on metal and stress
state, because of these variations in magnitude and mode of deformation the ductility of a metal
can have a profound effect on the ability of a fabricated part to withstand applied loads.
E.6 Generalised Stress-Strain Equations:

Introduction:
This section describes a generalised method for representing the stress-strain
curves of materials which exhibits a smooth curves. The method uses a reference stress and a
characteristic index, in addition to the modulus of elasticity, and this section indicates how these
two quantities may be determined
Generalised Equations for Stress-Strain curves:

A smooth continuous stress- strain curve can be represented by the equation
m
εE f 1⎡ f ⎤
= + ⎢ ⎥
fn fn m ⎣ fn ⎦
in which f is the stress, fn is taken to be the stress at which the tangent modulus is one half the
modulus of elasticity and the index m has been found to characterize the shape of the stress-
strain curve and is therefore referred to as the material characteristic. The equation above only
applies if f/fn is positive and this needs to be taken into account in cases where the chosen sign
convention leads to either for ε being of opposite sign to fn
This equation can then be rearranged and the value of Tangent Modulus obtained as
Et (= df / dε )
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in which f is the stress, fn is taken to be the stress at which the tangent modulus is one half the
modulus of elasticity and the index m has been found to characterize the shape of the stress-
strain curve and is therefore referred to as the material characteristic. The equation above only
applies if f/fn is positive and this needs to be taken into account in cases where the chosen sign
convention leads to either for ε being of opposite sign to fn.
This equation can then be rearranged and the value of Tangent Modulus obtained as
Et (= df / dε )
−1
⎡ ⎡ f ⎤ m −1 ⎤
Et = E ⎢1 + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎣ f n ⎦ ⎥⎦
This can be rearranged to give

m
E f f ⎡ f ⎤
= +⎢ ⎥
f n Et fn ⎣ fn ⎦
The secant modulus Es, is the ratio of stress to total strain and may be determined directly from
stress – strain curve equation.
−1
⎡ 1 ⎡ f ⎤ m −1 ⎤
E s = E ⎢1 + ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢⎣ m ⎣ f n ⎦ ⎥⎦
From the above set of equations the simple relationship between Es and Et follows
⎡E ⎤ 1⎡E ⎤
⎢ − 1⎥ = ⎢ − 1⎥
⎣ Es ⎦ m ⎣ Et ⎦
The value of Poisson’s ratio is according to the equation
m −1
1⎡ f ⎤
ve + v p ⎢ ⎥
m ⎣ fn ⎦
v = v p − (E s / E )(v p − ve ) = m −1
1⎡ f ⎤
1+ ⎢ ⎥
m ⎣ fn ⎦
v e = Fully elastic value of Poisson’s ratio
v p = Fully plastic value of Poisson’s ratio
as the material yields Poisson’s ration will increase from its elastic value up to its fully plastic
value
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The plastic value of Poisson’s ratio v p can be assumed to be 0.5 for all aluminium alloys. The
elastic value for aluminium alloys can be assumed to be 0.3.
Determination of m and fn
The value of m, the material characteristic, can be found from standard fitting
procedure if the full stress-strain curve is known. However, it may be estimated, provided that
two points on the non-proportional region of the curve are known, from the equation.
m=
(
log ε R / ε R' )
(
log f R / f R' )
where fR and f’R are known stress values on the stress-strain curve of the actual material and ε R
and ε R' are the strain in excess of the elastic strain corresponding to these stresses. For example ,
if fR and fR’ are the 0.1% and 0.2% tensile proof stresses of the material then ε R and ε R' are
0.001 and 0.002 respectively.
For a known value of m the reference stress, fn, may be evaluated from the equation
−1 / ( m −1)
⎡ mε E ⎤
fn = fR ⎢ R ⎥
⎣ fR ⎦
E.6.1. Problem:
Calculate the strain when a stress of 30000 lb.in2 is applied to sample 2024 T3 aluminium alloy
sheet using B-basis in compression.(0.010<t<0.128 in.thick)
For 2024 T3 Aluminium alloy steel sheet we can obtain the following values from MIL-HDBK-
5
E = 10.5 × 10 6 lb/in2
f= 30000 ld/in2
ε R = 0.002
fR = 3.9 × 10 4 lb/in2
m = 15 (material characteristic as defined in MIL-HDBK-5)
We can calculate fn from
⎛ 1 ⎞
−⎜ ⎟
⎛ mε E ⎞ ⎝ m −1 ⎠
f n = f R ⎜⎜ R ⎟⎟
⎝ fR ⎠
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Therefore fn = 33593.97 lbin2

To calculate the strain, ε , we must simplify the equation
m
εE f 1⎡ f ⎤
= + ⎢ ⎥
fn fn m ⎣ fn ⎦
To give
⎛ f m
⎞
⎜ + 1 ⎡ f ⎤ ⎟f
⎜ f n m ⎢⎣ f n ⎥⎦ ⎟ n
ε=⎝ ⎠
E
Which gives us a strain of 0.003.
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1. PRISMATIC BAR IN TENSION:

For Ductile material yield stress is to be considered during analysis. If material is
brittle or exhibits brittle fracture upon loading, ultimate stress is to be considered for analysis.
Load considered for ultimate analysis is factor of safety times limit load. t2 values are the
maximum permissible tensile stresses for the proof loading condition. ft values are given for the
ultimate loading conditions. In case of a few materials, which have high proof to ultimate
strength ratio, allowance may have to be made for the effects of stress concentration.
1.1 Limit Stress Analysis:

For limit stress analysis t2 is considered. It is then compared with limit stress or actual stress.
Limit load = P
P
Working stress σ =
A
Allowable Proof stress (Or) 0.2% Proof stress = t 2
t2
Reserve factor =
σ
If reserve factor value is greater than 1 the design is considered to be safe.
1.2 Ultimate Stress Analysis:
For ultimate stress analysis ultimate load has to be considered. It has to be compared with UTS
value of the material.
Ultimate Working stress = (factor of safety† X actual proof stress)/A
Allowable Ultimate stress (Or) UTS = ft.
Reserve factor = ft / Actual Ultimate stress
†
factor of safety is generally 1.5 according to MIL-A-8860
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1.3 Problem:
Material BSL 168T6511
t 2 = 370 Mpa
f t = 415Mpa
Limit load P = 1500kg
A = 10mm × 10mm
Limit stress analysis:
15000
Applied proof stress σ = P = = 150Mpa
A 100
Allowable proof stress t2 = 370Mpa
Reserve factor = 370/150 = 2.47
Ultimate stress analysis:

Actual ultimate stress = fos × actual proof stress
= 1.5 × 150 = 225
Allowable ultimate stress = 415
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2. PRISMATIC BAR IN COMPRESSION:

For the stable members in pure compression an ultimate compressive stress equal
to the 0.2% proof stress (c2) is recommended. Where the c2 value is not given tensile values t2
may be used. For thin sections or flanges, consideration should be given to the possibility of
local or Torsional instability. For slender columns buckling load is to be considered. Where
magnesium alloys are used in compression, it is recommended that special test made to be
establish the compressive proof stress values, since they may be as low as 0.5 of the
corresponding proof stresses.
2.1 Compression Stress Analysis: (Block Compression)

For Stress analysis c2 is considered.
Actual Load = P
Working Stress σ = P /A
Allowable stress = c2.
Reserve Factor = c2/ σ
If the reserve factor value is greater than 1 design is safe.
2.1.2 Problem:
Actual load = 1500 kg
A = 10mm × 10mm
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1.5 × 15000
Actual ultimate stress = = 225 N / mm 2
100
Allowable ultimate stress = 370
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2.2 Euler Buckling:
π 2 EI
Buckling stress σ cr =
CL2 A
Pcr value depends upon end fixing condition C:
Hinged - Hinged C = 1
Fixed - Free C = 4
Fixed - Fixed C = (1/4)
Fixed - Hinged C = (1/2)
2.3 For other Buckling cases:
Section Modulus = Z
2.3.1 Buckling for Eccentric Loading:
In an actual structure it is not possible for a column to be perfectly straight or to
be loaded exactly at the centroid of the area. Therefore apart from normal load there will be
additional load due to moment caused by eccentricity.
⎛L P ⎞
Pe sec⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
σ cr
P
= + ⎝2 EI ⎠
A Z
This is a Transcendental in P. The solution will be taken as Pall.
Eccentricity of the load = e in mm.
Moment of inertia = I in mm4.
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2.3.2 Beam - Columns:

A beam is called Beam-Column when it is submitted to both compression and
bending loads. When a structural element similar to a beam is subjected simultaneously to a
normal load and bending moment, superposition theorem cannot be used to determine the
stresses. The lateral deflections appreciably change the moment arms of the compression forces
and deflections are not proportional to the loads. The verification of Beam – Column will
include two steps as following
1 .The study of column.
2. The study of Beam – column if axial load is lower than the critical load calculated in
the previous step.
2.3.2.1 Notations and Conventions:

1. The compressive loads are taken to be positive.
2. A positive bending moment compresses the upper fibres of the beam.
3. A distributed lateral loads leads to the positive moment.
4. A positive lateral load compresses the upper fibre of the beam.
5. The compression stresses are positive.
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2.3.2.2 Terms used:

Compression load =P in N.
Distributed lateral load = q in N/mm.
Applied isolated load = F in N.
Critical buckling stress = σ cr in N/mm2.
Modulus of Elasticity in compression = Ec in N/mm2.
Area of cross section = A in mm2.
Clamping factor = K.
Column effective buckling length = L in mm.
Real column length = S in mm.
2.3.2.3 Calculation of Bending Moment:

Let us consider a beam where the ends are on single supports with compression
loads and bending loads.
Beam with compression and bending loads:

⎡ M Z − M ZA ⎤
The bending moment at X is M Z = M Z A + ⎢ B ⎥ x − (Py ) in N-mm.
⎣ L ⎦
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⎡ ⎛ L ⎞⎤
⎢ M Z B − M Z A cos⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
Final bending moment is M Z = ⎢ ⎝ j ⎠ ⎥ sin ⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ + M cos⎛⎜ x ⎞⎟ in N-mm.
⎢ ⎛ L⎞ ⎥ ⎜⎝ j ⎟⎠ ZA ⎜ j⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎢ sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ j⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎛ L ⎞⎤
⎢ M Z B − M Z A cos⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
Maximum bending moment is at x = jArc tan ⎢ ⎝ j ⎠ ⎥ in N-mm.
⎢ ⎛ L⎞ ⎥
⎢ sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎝ j⎠ ⎦⎥
Common expression for Beam – Column bending moment
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞
M Z = C1 sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + C 2 cos⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + j 2 f ( x ) .
⎝ j⎠ ⎝ j⎠
Where
Et I
j= and several cases can be combined as shown below.
P
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2.3.2.4 Allowable Stress:

Two main cases must be considered when choosing allowable stress
1. Solid beams
2. Thin web beams
Solid beams:
No local buckling phenomenon occurs before general buckling, the allowable stress on
tensional side is equal to σ R .
Thin Web Beams:
A local buckling phenomenon can occur before general buckling. This state does no give
rise to an immediate collapse but can considerably decrease the allowable breaking stress. The
allowable stress on compressive side is equal to σ all = MIN {σ local buckling ;σ R }
For further references refer,

1. Aircraft Structures P.J.Perry Page no 524 – 533.
2. Analysis and Design of flight Vehicle structures by E.F.Bruhn Supplement
page no 2
3. Refer Aircraft Structures for Engineers THG Megson Page no 162-165
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2.3.3 Local buckling: (Thin Walled Structures):

If column is composed wholly or partially of thin material, local buckling may
occur at a unit load less than the required load to cause failure of column as a whole. Thin walled
sections are encountered in aircraft structures in the shape of longitudinal stiffeners. These
elements fall in to two distinct categories – flanges which have a free unloaded edge and webs
which are supported by adjustant plate elements in the column cross section.
2.3.3.1 Flanges:
For long flange having one end fixed and other edge is free.
Modulus of Elasticity = E
Elastic Poisson’s ratio = μ
Thick ness of flange = t
Breadth of flange = b
1.09 E t
Buckling stress f cr = ()
1− μ 2 b
2
For flange having one edge simply supported and other edge is free.
0.416 E t
Buckling stress f c = ()
1− μ 2 b
2
Also refer ESDU DATA sheet 01.01.08.
2.3.3.2 Thin webs:

Long thin web fixed along each edge
5.73E t 2
1− μ 2 b
Simply supported along each edge
3.92 E t
1− μ 2 b
2
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2.3.3.3Plates and Shells:

1) Rectangular plate under equal uniform compression on two opposite edges:
Sides of rectangular plate = a, b

Compressive load = f
E t
Buckling stress f c = K
1− μ b
2
() 2
Where K depend on a/b ratio and end fixing conditions

Table for value of K for various end fixing condition:
Value of K
Manner of Support
For (a/b=1)
All edges simply supported 3.29
All edges clamped 7.7
Edges b simply supported, edges a clamped 6.32
edges b and edge a simply supported and one
1.18
edge a is free
Refer Analysis and design of flight vehicle structures by E.F.Bruhn chapterC5 for K values for
various a/b ratios.
2) Rectangular plate under uniform compression fx on b and fy on a:

Compressive loads = fx, fy.
Poisson’s ratio = μ
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E t
Buckling stress f c = K ()
1− μ b
2
2
3) Rectangular plate under linearly varying stress on edges b:

Compressive load = f0, fv.
E t
Buckling stress f c = K ()
1− μ b
2
2
Where K depend on a/b ratio and α

σ0
Where α =
σ 0 −σ v
Table for value of K for various α:
α 0.5 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 ∞
K(a/b=1) 21.1 9.1 6.4 5.4 4.8 3.29
various a/b ratios.
4) Rectangular plate under uniform shear on all edges:

Shear stress = fs.
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E t
Buckling stress f sc = K
1− μ b
2
() 2

All edges simply supported a/b 1 2 ∞
K 7.75 5.43 4.40
All edges clamped a/b 1 2 ∞

K 12..7 9.5 7.38
various a/b ratios.
5) Rectangular plate under uniform shear on all edges, compression fx on b and fy on a:

Compressive loads = fx, fy.
Shear load = fs.
Buckling stress for all edges simply supported
(
f sc = C 2 2 1 −
fy
C
+2−
fx
C
)(2 1 − Cf + 8 − Cf )
y x
0.823E t
Where C =
1− μ 2 b
() 2
Buckling stress for all edges clamped
(
f sc = C 2 2.31 4 −
fy
C
+
4 fx
−
3 C
)(2.31 4 − Cf + 8 − Cf )
y x
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6) Rectangular plate under uniform shear on all edges and bending stresses on b:

Bending loads = fb,
Shear load = fs.
Buckling stress for all edges simply supported
E t
fb = K
1− μ b
2
() 2
Here K depends on fs/fsmax and on a/b

fs/fsmax 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
K(a/b=1) 21.1 20.4 19.6 18.5 17.7 16 14 11.9 8.2 0
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2.3.3.4 Analysis of Thin Walled Structures:

Rb = (Actual Bending Stress/Allowable Bending Stress)
Rc = (Actual Compressive Stress/Allowable compressive Stress)
Rs = (Actual Shear Stress/Allowable Shear Stress)
Rl = (Actual Longitudinal Stress/Allowable Longitudinal Stress)
For combined Bending and Longitudinal Compression:
Reserve factor Rb1.75 + Rc
For Combined Bending and Shear:
1
Reserve Factor
R + Rs2
2
b
For Combined Shear and Longitudinal direct Stress:

2
Reserve Factor
Rl + Rl2 + 4 Rs2
2.4 Problems:
2.4.1 Problem for Euler Buckling:
Problem 1:
E = 70 × 10 3 Mpa
t = 370
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ft = 415Mpa
Actual load = 2500 kg
Ultimate load = fos× 2500
= 1.5 × 2500
= 3750
end condition = hinged –hinged
C=1
b = 10mm
d = 10mm
l = 100mm
bd 3 10 4
I= = = 833.33
12 12
π 2 EI π 2 × 70 × 10 3 × 833.33
Pcr = = = 57572 N
l2 100 2
Pcr 5757.2
Reserve factor = = = 1.535
Pult 3750
Problem 2:
E = 70 × 10 3 Mpa
t 2 = 370 Mpa
f t = 415Mpa
l = 5000 mm
P = 1000 kg
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Ultimate load = fos× P = 1.5 × 1000 = 1500kg
End condition = hinged –hinged = c = 1

20 + 60 20 60
x1 = = 50mm x2 = = 10mm x 3 = 20 + = 50mm
2 2 2
20 100 20
y1 = = 10mm y2 = = 50mm y 3 = 80 + = 90mm
2 2 2
A1 = 20 × 60 = 1200mm 2 A2 = 100 × 20 = 2000mm 2 A3 = 1200mm 2
A1 x1 + A2 x 2 + A3 x3 1200 × 50 + 2000 × 10 + 1200 × 50 140000

X = = = = 31.82mm
A1 + A2 + A3 1200 + 2000 + 1200 4400
A1 y1 + A2 y 2 + A3 y 3 1200 × 10 + 2000 × 50 + 1200 × 90 220000

Y= = = = 50mm
A1 + A2 + A3 1200 + 2000 + 1200 4400
b1 d13 b d3 b d3
IX X = + A1 h12 + 2 2 + A2 h22 + 3 3 + A3 h32
12 12 12
60 × 20 3 20 × 10 3 60 × 20 3
= + 1200 × (18.18) 2 + + 2000 × 21.82 2 + + 1200 × 18.18 2
12 12 12
= 1780573.22mm4
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d1b13 2 d b3 2 d b3 2
I YY = + A1 h1 + 2 2 + A2 h 2 + 3 3 + A3 h 3
12 12 12
20 × 60 3 100 × 20 3 20 × 60 3
= + 1200 × 40 2 + + + 1200 × 40 2
12 12 12
= 4626666.67mm4
π 2 EI π 2 × 70 × 10 3 × 1780573.22
Pcr = = = 49205 N
Ll 2 1 × 8000 2
4920.5
Reserve factor = = 3.28
1500
Ultimate load = 18150N
18150 18150
Limit load = = = 12100 N
fos 1.5
2.4.2 Problems for Beam – Column:

Problem 1:
Considered a beam with both Transverse and Axial load with moment as shown
in the diagram. The data for the set up is listed below calculate the maximum bending moment
and reserve factor.
Data:
S = 100 mm, a = 30 mm, c =10 mm.
A = 100mm2, I = 833 mm4, F = 700 N, P = 11600 N.
M1 = 12000 N – mm.
M2 = 40000 N – mm.
Material 7075 T 7651
E = 71711 N/mm2.
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Ec = 73800 N/mm2.
σ c 0.2 = 460 N/mm2.
σ 0.2 = 460 N/mm2.
σ R = 525 N/mm2.
e% = 7.
Check for beam does not buckle the action of P alone
π 2 Ec I π 2 × 7380 × 833
σ cr = = = 607 N/mm2.
2
S K A 2
100 × 1 × 100
2 2
K = 1 for given clamping condition

To apply plasticity correction
σ = ησ cr
Et
η=
Ec
Using Ram berg and Osgood model:
nc
σ cr ⎛σ ⎞
ε= + 0.002⎜⎜ cr ⎟⎟
Ec ⎝ σ c 0.2 ⎠
σ cr
Es =
ε
1 n 1 − nc
= c +
Et E s Ec
σ = 411 N/mm2.
P
Stress applied due to axial load σ = = 116 N/mm2.
A
So, it can be deduced that column does not buckle.
Ec I 7380 × 833
Maximum bending moment expression j = = = 728
P 1160
For x ≤ a , Using combination of cases 1 to 4 given in above table.
S b
M 2 − M 1 cos jF sin
j j
C1 = + = 81010 N-mm.
S S
sin sin
j j
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C 2 = M 1 = 12000 N-mm.
x x
M AC = 81010 sin + 12000 cos
j j
For x > a , Using combination of cases 1 and 5 given in above table.
S S
M 2 − M 1 cos jF sin
j j
C1 = + = 34310 N-mm.
S S
sin tan
j j
S
C 2 = M 1 + jF sin = 32410 N-mm.
j
x x
M CB = 34310 sin + 32410 cos
j j
To determine the maximum bending moment
At point A
M A = 81010 sin 0 + 12000 cos 0 = 12000 Nmm
At point C
30 30
M C = 81010 sin + 12000 cos = 43440 Nmm
72.8 72.8
At point B
100 100
M B = 34310 sin + 32410 cos = 40000 Nmm
72.8 72.8
Between A and C
dM AC 81010 x 12000 x
= sin − cos =0
dx 728 728 728 728
The moment is maximum at abscissa point
81010
x = 728 Arc tan = 103.7mm But 103.7>XC
12000
Therefore MAC is maximum at XC
MACmax = 43440 N-mm
Between C and B
dM CB 34310 x 32410 x
= sin − cos =0
dx 728 728 728 728
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The moment is maximum at abscissa point

34310
x = 728 Arc tan = 59.3mm
32410
593 593
M CB max = 34310 sin + 32410 cos = 47200 N − mm
728 728
Therefore, the maximum moment on beam AB is
M AB max = MAX (M AC max ; M CB max ) = 47200 N − mm
Calculate the total stress and the reserve factor
Stress due to the axial load
P
σc = = 116 N / mm 2
S
Stress due to the bending moment
M c
σf =± × = ±283N / mm 2
I 2
Maximum compression stress
σ MAX = σ c + σ f = 399 N / mm 2
Reserve factor
525
R.F. = = 1.32
399
2.4.3 Problem for Local Buckling:

Problem 1:
E = 70 × 10 3 ,a = 10,b = 10,t = 1
All edges are simply supported

Compressed load f = 1000kg
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Actual ultimate load f ult = 1.5 × 100 = 150kg
15000
Actual stress = = 1500 N / mm 2
10 × 1
2 2
E ⎛t⎞ 70 × 10 3 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Allowable stress = K ⎜ ⎟ = 3.29 × ⎜ ⎟ = 2530.27N
1− μ 2 ⎝ n ⎠ 1 − 0.3 2 ⎝ 10 ⎠
2530.27
1500
2.4.3.1 Problem for Combined Bending and Shear:

Problem 1:
E = 70 × 10 3 , a = 10, b = 10, t = 1
All edges are hinged.
Bending load = 100kg, Shear load = 1000kg
My 500 × 0.5 × 12
Actual bending stress = = = 3000 N / mm 2
I 10 × 13
T 10000 × 10
Actual shear stress = = = 500 N / mm 2
2 At 2 × 10 × 10 × 1
2
K6E ⎛ t ⎞ 6 × 70 × 10 3
Buckling stress (bending) = ⎜ ⎟ = (0.01) = 4615.3 N
(1 − μ 2 ) ⎝ b ⎠ 0.91
2
KsE ⎛ t ⎞ 9.5 × 70 × 10 3
Shearing buckling stress = ⎜ ⎟ = (0.01) = 73.0769
(1 − μ 2 ) ⎝ b ⎠ 0.91
3000 500
Rb = = 0.65 , R B = = 0.068
4615.3 7307.69
1 1
( Rb ) + ( Rs )
2 2
(0.65) + (0.068) 2
2
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3. LUG ANALYSIS:
The lug refers to that portion of the fitting that involves the hole for the single
bolt that connects the male and female part of the fitting unit. The simplified assumptions
regarding failing action and the resulting equations have been widely used for quick approximate
check of the lug strength. The failure of the Lug may be due to Tension or shear tear out or due
to bearing. Loading conditions considered are
1. Axial loading
2. Transverse loading
3. Oblique loading
3.1 Failure in Tension:

The above diagram indicates how a plate can be pull apart due to tension stresses
on a section through the centre line of bolt hole. Both the male and female parts of the fitting
must transfer the load past the centreline of the hole, thus both parts must be considered in the
design of the fitting. Refer ESDU Data Sheet 91008 for further details.
Ultimate tensile strength of the material = ft. +
Breadth of the plate = 2R
Thickness of lug = t
Diameter of the hole = d
Limit load = P
1.5P
Ultimate applied stress f u ( tension ) =
(2 R − d )t
+
Allowable Tensile is obtained by detail fatigue analysis.
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The above equation assumes that the tensile stress on the cross section is uniform.
This is not true as the flow of the stress around the hole causes a stress concentration. To take
care of this extra allowance has to be given in reserve factor.
Reserve factor = ft/fu (tension).
3.2 Failure by Shear Tear Out:
The above picture illustrates the manner in which failure can occur by the
shearing tear out of a plate sector in front of the bolt. Due to load P the bolt presses the plate or
lug around bolt - hole edge. Stresses are produced which tends to cause the portion (a) shown in
the figure to tear out. Refer ESDU Data Sheets 81006, 71011, 66011 for details. Usually fs for
ductile material are 0.6 UTS.
Shear out area = As.
Ultimate shear stress = fs.
1.5P
Ultimate applied stress f u ( shearout ) =
2 xt
It is very common practise to take the shear out area As equal to the edge distance
at the centreline of the hole times the thickness t of the plate times two since there are two shear
areas.
This is slightly conservative because the actual shear area is larger and area considered is limited
by the 40o line as shown in the picture.
Reserve factor = fs/fu (shear out)
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3.3 Failure by bearing:
The pull causes the bolt to press against the wall, which in turn presses against the
plate wall. If the pressure is high enough the plate material adjustant to the hole will start to
crush and flow thus allowing bolt and bush to move which results in elongated hole as shown in
the diagram.
Ultimate bearing stress = fb.
Diameter of the bushing = d
Thickness of the plate = t
Bearing factor = Kbr. +
1.5P
Ultimate applied stress f u(bearing) =
dt
Reserve factor = Kbr*fb/fu (bearing)
Usually fb is equal to ft. It is good practise to require a reserve factor of 1.5
+
Refer ESDU Data Sheet 81029, 83033 for further details.
3.4 Lug strength analysis under transverse loading:

Cases arise where the lug of a fitting unit is subjected to only a transverse load.
Bearing area = Abr.
Ultimate Tensile stress = ft.
Efficiency failing coefficient = Kt.
Allowable load Pu(tension) = K t A br f t
Kt depends on 2R/d ratio and upon material used.
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3.5 Lug strength analysis under oblique loading:

Fitting lugs often subjected to oblique loads. It will be resolved in to axial and
transverse components.
1
Reserve factor =
(R 1.6
a + R 1.6
tr )
0.625
Where
Ra = axial component of the applied load divided by ultimate allowable tensile load
Rtr = transverse component of the applied load divided by Pu (tension) of transverse loading.
Allowable stresses used in various loading conditions:
Table for value of ultimate stresses for various condition:
Condition Ultimate stresses

Tension ft.
Shear 0.6 ft.
Bearing 2 ft.
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3.6 Lug analysis (AVRO Method):
The Permissible lug stresses listed down are based on the method illustrated in,
Av.P.970 chapter 404/2. Allowable stresses used in various loading conditions are listed below.
The permissible lug stress for each condition is taken as maximum of values for failing stress.
Tension 0.9 ft.
Shear 0.46 ft.
Bearing 1.85 ft.
For shear if a/d <1.5the allowable shear stress quoted must be factored by K.
a/d Vs K:
a/d 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
K 0.7 0.725 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.875 0.925 0.95 1
Actual stresses
pt
Tension
2ct
pt
Shear
2at
pt
d2
Bearing
pt
dt
Reserve factor = allowable stress/actual stress
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3.7 Problems:
Problem 1:
Figure shows a single pin fitting the lug material is AISI steel heat treated to ft =
125000 Psi. The bolt AN steel ft = 125000 Psi. The bushing is steel with Ft = 125000 Psi .The
fitting is subjected to an ultimate tensile load of 15650 lb .check the fitting for the design load
diameter of bolt is ½’’
A fitting factor is considered = 1.15

Clearance gap = 1/6’’
Applied fitting load = 1.15 × 15650 = 18000lb
Check for bolt shear:

For diameter = 0.5
Ultimate double shear length of bolt is 29400
Applied load (Ultimate) = 18000 lb
Reserve factor = 29400/18000 = 1.62
Failure by bolt bending:

There is strength gap between lugs
∴ b = 0.5t1 + 0.25t 2 + g (Or) b =

t1 + t2 +g
2 4
b = 0.5(7 / 3) + 0.25(3 / 8) + (1 / 64) = 0.218
18000
M = × 0.218 = 1962
2
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MD 1962 × 0.5
Bending stress = = = 159824
2I 2 × 0.003069
Allowable bending stress = 180000
Reserve factor = 180000/159824 = 1.13
Failure by lug portion of fitting:

Failure by tension tear out:
18000
Applied ultimate stress = = 85333
(1.875 − 0.625) × 0.375
Allowable Ultimate stress = 125000
Reserve factor = 125000/85333 = 1.46
Failure by shear tear out

18000
Applied Ultimate stress = = 85348
2 × 0.375 × 0.2812
Allowable Ultimate stress = 110913
Reserve factor = 110913/85348 = 1.3
Failure by bending:
18000
Applied Ultimate stress = = 76800
0.625 × 0.375
Allowable Ultimate bearing stress = 180000
Reserve factor = 180000/76800 = 2.34
Problem 2:
Lug = 7075-T6 = 80ksi
Bush = steel-HT = 180ksi
Pin = steel min.-HT = 200ksi
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Ultimate applied load = 75

Fitting factor = 1.15
Ultimate applied load = 75 × 1.15 = 86.25
Failure by bolt shear:

π × 0.75 2
Allowable ultimate load PU = 2 × A × f s = 2 × × 200 = 176.7
4
Ultimate applied load = 86.25
Reserve factor = 176.7/86.25 = 2
Failure by bolt bending:

t1 t 2
b= + +g
2 4
0.375 0.75
b= + = 0.375
2 4
0.375
M = 86.25 × = 16.17
2
16.17 × 0.75
Applied bending stress = = 390
2 × 0.61553
Allowable bending stress = 200 × 1.15 × 2 = 460
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Failure of lug portion of fitting:

Failure by tension tear out:
8625
Applied ultimate stress = = 59.74
(3.175 − 1.25) × 0.75
Allowable ultimate tensile stress = 80
Reserve factor = 80/59.74 = 1.39
Failure by shear tear out:

86.25
Applied ultimate shear stress = = 46
2 × 0.75(1.875 − 0.625)
Allowable ultimate shear stress = 48
Failure by bending
86.25
Applied ultimate bearing stress = = 30.67
3.75 × 0.75
Allowable ultimate bearing stress = 80
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4. MEMBER IN BENDING
In this section we will discuss the analysis of structures that are under the action
of pure bending. As such, there will be no transverse shear force along the beam section
considered. The problems of beam bending considered here are based on the Euler-Bernoulli
Beam Theory.
In this section we will examine the problems in which the bending moment is
applied either symmetrically or unsymmetrically on homogeneous or non-homogeneous beams.
In addition, we will discuss the elastic and inelastic bending of beams having symmetric or
unsymmetric cross sections. The determination of neutral axis location for elastic and inelastic
beams will also be discussed. The variation of bending-induced normal stresses on the beam
cross section will be shown in several example problems. Finally, in this section we will discuss
the bending of curved beams including the determination of the neutral axis and distribution of
normal stresses.
4.1 Introduction
4.1-1 Rectangular Moments of Inertia and Product of Inertia
4.1-2 Parallel Axis Theorem
4.2 Elastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams
4.3 Elastic Bending of Non-homogeneous Beams
4.4 Inelastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams
4.5 Elastic Bending of Curved Beams
4.6 Miscellaneous Problems
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4.1 Introduction To Bending:

The straight beam section under consideration is in the state of pure bending (i.e.,
transverse shear force is zero along this section). Consequently, as the beam bends, plane
sections remain plane but rotate relative to each other as shown in the figure below.
As illustrated in the figure the top surface of the beam is shortened due to compression, and the
bottom surface is elongated due to tension - both as a result of bending moment M. By
examining the figure below, it becomes apparent that at some location between the top and
bottom surfaces of the beam there is a surface whose length is the same as the original length of
the straight beam. This surface is neither in tension nor in compression, therefore, it is referred to
as the "Neutral Surface". The intersection of the neutral surface with the plane of the beam cross
section is called the "Neutral Axis".
Since the beam cross section only rotates without warping, the slope of the cross sectional plane
is constant, indicating that axial deflection due to bending is linear. This finding implies that in
originally-straight beams in pure bending, the axial strain must also vary linearly with zero value
at the Neutral Axis.
Note: The linearity of axial strain is a consequence of beam being (a) originally straight, and (b)
in pure-bending state. Therefore, no additional restriction such as material property or elasticity
is imposed. Now we impose additional restrictions: (c) bending stresses remain below material's
elastic stress limit, (d) stress-strain relationship is linear.
As a result of restrictions (c) and (d), Hooke's law may be used.
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In summary it can be said that in elastic and homogeneous beams, the Neutral Axis, NA always
passes through the centroid of the cross section with its orientation determined according to the
shape of the cross section and the orientation of the bending moment.
The stress and strain variations for some elastic beams are given below.
Examples
• (a) Elastic, homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section.
• (b) Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section.
• (c) Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section.
I. Elastic, homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section
II. Elastic, homogeneous beam with symmetric cross section
III. Elastic, non-homogeneous beam with doubly symmetric cross section
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4.2 STRESS ANALYSIS OF BEAM:

For robust and stable sections in pure bending the allowable stresses if not give
separately may be taken from the 0.2% proof stress in Tension. For sections in pure bending the
allowable stresses for ultimate analysis may be increased by applying a form factor. This factor
depends upon the shape of the section. It is assumed that the beam section is homogeneous, that
is, made of same material
Applied Load = P
Cross Section Area = A
Neutral Axis = NA
Flange Thickness = b
For ideal section:
Height = h
Flange Thickness = t
Bending Moment = M
Moment of Inertia = I
Shear load = V
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4.3 BENDING STRESS:

4.3.1 Limit Stress Analysis:
Working Stress σy = My/I,
Allowable proof bending stress = be.
Reserve Factor = be/ σy
Shear stress at any layer τxy = VQ/IB
Average Shear Load τavg = V/th
4.3.2 Ultimate Stress Analysis:

Ultimate working Stress = σy* Factor of safety
Allowable ultimate bending stress = fbe* form factor
Reserve Factor = fbe form factor/actual ultimate bending stress.
Form factor for standard sections:
Shape of the section Form factor
Square 1.5
Rectangle 1.5
In x axis 2.343
Equilateral Triangle
In y axis 2
In x axis 2.343
Isosceles Triangle
In y axis 2
Solid circle 1.698
In x axis 1.856
Solid semicircle
In y axis 1.698
Solid ellipse 1.698
For further of form factor refer ESDU data sheets from 01.06.01 to 01.06.03
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4.3.3 Rectangular Moments and Product of Inertia
The second moments of an area, or rectangular moments of inertia, of an area with respect to
the x and y axes - shown in the figure above - are defined as
The product of inertia of this general shape is defined as
In this course, the cross-sectional areas consist of simple geometric shapes, therefore, their
moments of inertia can be calculated by a simple summation as opposed to the integral equations
shown.
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4.3.4 Parallel Axis Theorem

The parallel axis theorem is used for finding the rectangular moment of inertia
about an axis different from the centroidal axis of the section. For the figure below the centroidal
rectangular moments of inertia are determined using
Using the parallel axis theorem, the moments of inertia about axes XX and YY parallel to the
centroidal axes x and y can be determined as
The parallel axis theorem is useful for finding the centroidal moments of inertia of a cross
section composed of several simpler geometric parts as shown below.
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The cross section is broken up into several simple shapes, the individual moments of inertia are
found, then the moments of inertia about the centroidal axes of the entire section are found using
parallel axis theorem.
Usually the broken pieces are made up of rectangles. From mechanics of materials, the x and y
moments of inertia of a rectangle are
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Example 1
For the cross section shown, determine the

(a) Moment of inertia about the horizontal centroidal axis, x
(b) Moment of inertia about the vertical centroidal axis, y
(c) Product of inertia
EQUATIONS USED
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SOLUTION
The cross section is broken up into separate section.
The centroid of the cross section is located at: Note that (2.5) in xbar equation should be (0.25).
The final answer for x bar is correct, however.
The moments of inertia for each rectangular section are
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(a) Now, using the parallel axis theorem, we calculate the moment of inertia of the entire cross
section about the horizontal x axis:
'y' is the distance from the centroid of the cross section to the centroid of each particular
rectangle.
(b) Now, using the parallel axis theorem, we calculate the moment of inertia of the entire cross
section about the vertical y axis:
'x' is the distance from the centroid of the cross section to the centroid of each particular
rectangle.
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(c) The product of inertia is determined as
'x' and 'y' terms in this equation are the same as those defined above. Note that the product of
inertia is zero as the cross section has one axis of symmetry, i.e., the y axis.
EXAMPLE
For the skin-stringer cross section shown, determine the

(a) Moment of inertia about the centroidal x axis
(b) Moment of inertia about the centroidal y axis
Equations Used
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SOLUTION
This is a lumped area cross section. Unless otherwise stated, the moment of inertia of the skin
can safely be ignored, this leaves only the moment of inertia due to the lumped areas.
Often the actual moments of inertia for the individual lumped areas are not given. This is
because the first component in the parallel axis theorem, in comparison to the second, is very
small in such configurations.
To demonstrate this, the moment of inertia will be found using the complete equation, then
found by ignoring the first component of the parallel axis theorem.
With respect to the bottom left stringer, the centroid is located at
The complete moments of inertia are:
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Now by just using the second component in the parallel axis theorem, we get
The error in Ix is 5.9% and that in Iy is 0.5%. In a real situation the difference is around 0.5%.
The product of inertia is
As expected, the product of inertia is zero because of symmetry

Example
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EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
With respect to stiffener 'A', the centroid is located at
The rectangular moments and product of inertia are:
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Because the cross section is not symmetrical about the x or the y axis, the product of inertia is
not zero.
Example

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Equations Used
Solution
With respect to the yellow stiffener with the area of 2 sq in , the centroid is located at
The rectangular moments and product of inertia are
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Because the cross section is not symmetrical about x or y axis, the product of inertia is not zero.
4.4 Elastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams

The general bending stress equation for elastic, homogeneous beams is given as
(II.1)
where Mx and My are the bending moments about the x and y centroidal axes, respectively. Ix
and Iy are the second moments of area (also known as moments of inertia) about the x and y
axes, respectively, and Ixy is the product of inertia. Using this equation it would be possible to
calculate the bending stress at any point on the beam cross section regardless of moment
orientation or cross-sectional shape. Note that Mx, My, Ix, Iy, and Ixy are all unique for a given
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section along the length of the beam. In other words, they will not change from one point to
another on the cross section. However, the x and y variables shown in the equation correspond to
the coordinates of a point on the cross section at which the stress is to be determined.
Sign Convention on Bending Moment Components Mx and My:

As far as the general bending stress equation is concerned, if a moment
component puts the first quadrant of the beam cross section in compression, it is treated as
positive (see the examples shown below). Notice that this is just a sign convention for the
moment components and should not be confused with the sign associated with the bending
stress.
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Neutral Axis:
When a homogeneous beam is subjected to elastic bending, the neutral axis (NA)
will pass through the centroid of its cross section, but the orientation of the NA depends on the
orientation of the moment vector and the cross sectional shape of the beam.
When the loading is unsymmetrical (at an angle) as seen in the figure below, the NA will also be
at some angle - NOT necessarily the same angle as the bending moment.
Realizing that at any point on the neutral axis, the bending strain and stress are zero, we can use
the general bending stress equation to find its orientation. Setting the stress to zero and solving
for the slope y/x gives
(II.2)
A positive angle is defined as counter clockwise from the horizontal centroidal axis.
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Notice that we can use the equation for orientation of NA to examine special cases. For example,
if the cross section has an axis of symmetry, Ixy = 0. In addition if only Mx is applied, then NA
will have angle of zero which is consistent with what we would expect from mechanics of
materials.
From this equation, we see that the orientation of NA is a function of both loading condition as
well as cross sectional geometry.
Example 1
For the cross section and loading shown, determine
• (a) Neutral axis location and orientation,
• (b) Bending stress distribution,
• (c) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.
Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic limit.
Use the Java screen shown below to modify this example and see the results.
Equation Used:
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Solution
(a) As seen in the figure above, the cross section is symmetric about the horizontal axis,
therefore, the product of inertia is zero in this case. Furthermore, with the bending moment
applied about the x axis, the y component of moment is zero. As a result of the previous two
conditions, the NA orientation according to eqn. A13.15 will be horizontal - passing through the
centroid as expected. This problem is an example of symmetric bending.
NOTE: There is no need to find the horizontal position of centroid because there is no need to
calculate the moment of inertia about the y axis as y component of bending moment is zero.
(b) Because of the conditions stated in part (a) of solution, eq. A13.13 reduces to
The bending stress distribution will be linear with a zero value at the NA.
(c) In this case, the maximum stress is at the farthest point from the NA. Because of horizontal
symmetry about the NA, the stress at the top and bottom of the section will have equal
magnitude with the one on top being compressive. To get the maximum value of stress, the
reduced equation given previously will be used.
The moment of inertia about the x axis is
This makes the maximum bending stress
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Example 2
• (b) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.
Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic limit. Also assume that
each lenght shown is measured to the middle of the adjacent member.
Use the Java screen shown below to change the problem data and see the results.
Equations Used:
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Solution
(a) As seen in the figure above, this is a symmetric cross section with
unsymmetric loading. The response will be an unsymmetric bending.
With the product of inertia being zero due to cross-sectional symmetry, we need to calculate the
components of the applied bending moment and the rectangular moments of inertia in order to
determine the orientation of NA.
The components of bending moment are:
By examinning the applied moment, it is clear that both of its components will produce
compression on the first quadrant, hence, they are both positive.
To calculate the rectangular moments of inertia, it is necessary to know the location of the
centroid. Due to horizontal symmetry only the horizontal coordinate of centroid need to be
calculated as its vertical coordinate is known due to symmetry.
The moments of inertia about the x and y axes are
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The neutral axis will pass through the centroid with an angle of
(b) The maximum axial stress is at the farthest point from the NA, either at point A, B, C, or D.
To get the stress values, use equation A13.13 at all four points. With the product of inertia equal
to zero A13.13 reduces to
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The bending stresses at point A, B, C, and D are
The results indicate that the maximum bending stress is at point B
Example 3

• (b) Location and magnitude of the maximum bending stress.
Assume that the stresses due to the applied load do not exceed the elastic limit. Also assume that
each length shown is measured to the middle of the adjacent member.
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Use the Java screen below to change problem data and see the results.
Equations Used
Solution
This problem requires more analysis as both the loading and cross-sectional shape are
unsymmetric. The procedure is similar to the previous example. First need to find the centroid,
moments of inertia about the x and y axes, and the product of inertia.
The centroid is at
and the moments of inertia and product of inertia are
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The components of the applied bending moment are determined as
The x component is negative because it causes tension in the first quadrant.

(a) Since this is a homogeneous section, and it is assumed to be within its elastic limits, the
neutral axis will pass through the centroid. Its angle with respect to the x axis is
(b) The maximum bending stress occurs at the farthest point from the NA, either at point A or B.
Therefore, point B is the location of maximum bending stress.
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Example 4
The skin-stringer wing section shown is subjected to a bending moment Mo which acts in the
vertical plane putting the top surface in compression. Determine:
• (a) the location of the neutral axis (NA) and its orientation;
• (b) the largest permissible value of Mo if the maximum stress in the wing is not to exceed
12 ksi;
• (c) the stresses normal to the plane of the cross section in all stiffeners.
Equations Used:
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Solution
Since the cross section is not symmetric, the product of inertia will not be zero. With the
reference point at stiffener 14, the centriod of this cross section is obtained first. Then the
rectangular moments of inertia and product of inertia are determined.
(a) Since the wing section is elastic, the NA passes through the centroid. Equation A13.15 gives
Note that Mx = Mo and My = 0 in this problem.
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(b) The simplest way to find the largest permissible Mo is to pick out a few candidate stiffeners
that appear the farthest from the NA. Then use equation A13.13 to solve for Mo by fixing the
stress at 12,000 psi. The lowest moment will be the answer as it will not induce a bending stress
at any point above the allowable value of 12,000 psi.
In this case, stiffener 12 will have the maximum stress because it is the farthest from the NA.
Therefore, largest permissible moment is
(c) Use Momax for Mx in Eq. A13.13 to solve for stress in each stiffener.
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4.5 Elastic Bending of Non-Homogeneous Beams

Recall that in pure bending the normal strain variation is linear with a value of
zero at the neutral axis. Before we discuss the relationship between stress and bending moment,
let's first determine the location of NA. The equilibrium condition requires the sum of normal
forces to go to zero. Mathematically, this is expressed as
Considering a section made of two different materials with Young's moduli identified by E1 and
E2 and with stresses below the elastic limit of each material, we can write
Where yB is the distance from the NA to the bottom surface, yi is the distance from the NA to the
material interface and yT is the distance to the top surface. Using the linear equation for strain
variation gives
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Factoring out the common terms and E1 gives
A close examination of this equation reveals that the bracketed term must be equal to zero.
However, the ratio of E2 to E1 in front of the second term inside the brackets indicates that
neutral axis will pass through the centroid of the modified homogeneous section, one with
material 2 replaced with an equivalent material 1. This fact is captured in the figure below with
the condition that E2 > E1.
Notice that only the width of the section is modified while its height is kept the same. This
condition would have been reversed if the bending moment was applied about the vertical axis.
The moment equation is written as
For the case of a section made of two different materials, as shown above, the integral is divided
into two parts, one for each elastic material. Notice that y is measured from the neutral axis.
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Using the linear normal strain variation we get
Factoring out the constant terms and normalizing with respect to E1 we get
The terms inside the brackets represent the moment of inertia of the modified homogeneous
section about the neutral axis, and can be expressed as
Substituting this into the previous equation and solving for the stress gives
This equation can be used to calculate the bending stress only for the portion that is made of
material 1. To calculate the bending stress in the portion that is made of material 2, it should be
multiplied by the ratio of Young's moduli of the two materials as
The procedure described above is known as the Modified Section Method, and is used in the
analysis of elastic non-homogeneous beam sections in bending.
Example Problems
• Example 1 Design of an elastic, non-homogeneous beam under horizontal bending
moment
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Example
A bending moment of 74,734 N-m is applied to a uniform composite beam shown in the figure
below. If the allowable stress for steel is 250 MPa and the allowable stress for aluminum is 100
MPa, what is the minimum width of the 5-mm thick steel plates attached to the aluminum I-
beam. Also determine the neutral axis location and bending stress distribution.
Equations Used:
Solution
Since this is a doubly symmetric cross section, the centroid will be located at the
center. This is true for both the original and the modified cross sections. With the applied
moment acting about the horizontal axis, the NA will be horizontal in this case. From inspection,
it is known that the maximum strain will occur in the steel plates. Also, with steel being the
stiffest of the two materials it is very likely that it will carry more stress.
To calculate the modified moment of inertia, the entire section is modified to all aluminum. The
modified moment of inertia in terms of w is
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Let the steel plates be stressed to their limit. The top plate will have the same stress and strain as
the bottom plate because of symmetry.
Check the stress at the farthest point in the aluminum part.
Use the stress equation and solve for the width
The bending stress distribution for this cross section is
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Alternate Solution
4.6 Inelastic Bending of Homogeneous Beams

In this section we will first dicuss the inelastic behavior of beams in pure bending,
and then elaborate on the method of analysis that we can use in such problems.
Inelastic behavior is possible in beams that are made of ductile materials, and as such can be
loaded beyond the elastic limit or proportional limit of the material. This implies that the
ultimate load carrying capability of a ductile beam is higher than its maximum elastic load. How
much higher depends on mechanical properties of the beam material.
Naturally, the behavior of a beam in inelastic bending depends upon the shape of the material's
stress-strain diagram. If the stress-strain diagram is known, it is possible to determine stress
corresponding to a particular value of strain.
As in previous discussions we will assume that the material can be idealized as an elastoplastic
material with maximum stress being the elastic limit stress, and the maximum strain being
considerably higher than the elastic limit strain. It is possible for the elastoplastic material to
have different characteristics in tension and in compression. For instance the corresponding
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elastic limit values and even the Young's moduli may be different. This tends to complicate the
analysis to a certain degree.
Assumptions:
The analysis of an inelastic beam is based on the assumption that plane cross sections of a beam
remain plane under pure bending, a condition that is valid for both nonlinear and linear
materials. Therefore, normal strain in an inelastic beam varies linearly over the cross section of
the beam.
Restrictions:
a. Beam has a symmetric cross section. It is not necessary for it to be doubly symmetric.
b. Beam is loaded symmetrically, moment is acting about either the x or the y centroidal axis.
Neutral Axis Location:The neutral axis of beams in inelastic bending may or may not pass
through the centroid of the cross section.
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The following diagrams show the variations of bending strain and stress across a rectangular
beam section ranging from fully elastic to fully plastic condition. Notice that the material is
assumed to be elastoplastic with elastic limit in tension equal in magnitude to that in
compression.
Notice that the N.A. conicides with the horizontal centroidal axis even as the beam becomes
fully plastic.
If in the previous example the stress-strain variation in compression was different from that in
tension, then the position of N.A. would no longer coincide with the horizontal centroidal axis as
beam is loaded beyond its elastic limit.
Notice that the resultant axial force is zero as the net compression force balances against the net
tension force acting on the cross section.
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In such beam problems, the location of N.A. coincides with the horizontal centroidal axis when
the beam is elastic. However, as it is loaded beyond the elastic limit, N.A. shift either up or down
relative to the centroid depending on whether the material can carry more tension or
compression. The farthest position of N.A. is determined by checking the cross-sectional stress
variation for a fully plastic condition.
Helpful Observations in Inelastic Bending:
1. If the stress-strain variations in tension and compression are the same, then
a. N.A. coincides with the centroidal axis (same as moment axis) if the cross section is
symmetric about that axis.
b. N.A. does not conicide with the centroidal axis if the cross section is unsymmetric about that
axis.
2. If the stress-strain variations in tension and compression are different, then
N.A. does not coincide with the centroidal axis regardless of cross-sectional symmetry about that
axis.
Determination of a Beam's Moment Capacity:
1. Check the stress-strain variations in compression and tension. Is there a difference between
elastic limit stress in tension from that in compression?
2. Is the moment acting about the axis of symmetry or not?
3.
Case A. Moment is acting about the axis of symmetry and material properties in compression
and tension are the same.
• Maximum elastic moment is determined from the simplified form of Eq. (II.1)
• Inelastic moment for some given value of maximum strain less than fully-plastic strain is
found from the moment equilibrium equation. First determine the strain variation (remember it is
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linear in linearly elastic materials) across the beam. Then relate the strain variation to stress
variation by checking the stress-strain diagram. Finally write the integral relating the bending
moment to the stress distribution across the beam, and solve for the bending moment.
• Fully-plastic bending moment is obtained by drawing the stress pattern over the beam
cross section. Keep in mind that in this case the location of N.A. is the same as centroidal axis or
axis of symmetry in this case. Calculate the resultant force in compression, and resultant force in
tension. Sum moments about the N.A. and find the total bending moment on the beam.
Case B. Moment is acting about the axis of symmetry but material properties in compression and
tension are different.
• Maximum elastic moment is determined from the simplified form of Eq. (II.1).
• Inelastic moment for some given value of maximum strain less than fully-plastic strain is
found from the moment equilibrium equation. However, in this case the N.A. position is
unknown. Therefore, an iterative solution based on a guessed position of N.A. is required. Guess
a position for N.A. relative to the centroidal axis moment is acting about. From linearity of
strain, determine the strain variation, then relate the strains to stresses and use the axial force
equilibrium equation, and see whether the sum of forces goes to zero or not. If it goes to zero,
then the location of N.A. is correct. Otherwise, guess again, and repeat the procedure. Once the
location of N.A. is found, go to the moment-stress integral equation and solve for the value of
moment.
• Fully-plastic bending moment is obtained by drawing the stress pattern over the beam
cross section. Here once again the location of N.A. is unknown. However, we know the maxium
stress in compression as well as in tension. With the stress being constant in the tension side and
constant in the compression side. No iteration is necessary here as the location of N.A. can be
determined by summing the axial forces to zero and determining the height of compression and
tension portions of the cross section. Once N.A. position is known, then proceed with
determining the moment summation about the N.A. to obtain the fully-plastic bending moment.
Case C. Moment is acting about a centroidal axis which is not an axis of symmetry, and material
properties in compression and tension are different. Example 1 below deals with such a problem.
Example
For the beam section and loading shown, determine
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• (a) the maximum elastic bending moment that can be applied

• (b) the inelastic bending moment resulting in a strain of 0.003 at the bottom edge
• (c) the maximum (or fully-plastic) bending moment.
Equations Used
Solution
We must first find the location of centroid and the moment of inertia about the horizontal
centroidal axis (x axis)
The moment of inertia about the x axis is all that is needed because with the product of inertia Ixy
equal to zero and no moment about the y axis, the general elastic bending formula reduces to
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(a) Because the elastic-limit stress in the tension side of the stress-strain diagram is less than that
in the compression side, the tensile limit will be the maximum stress allowable. Since the bottom
side is in tension, let the stress at that location be equal to the limit of 45,000 Pa. This gives a
maximum moment of
Now, check the top to make sure the compressive stress doesn't exceed its limit (60,000 Pa).
Therefore, the maximum elastic moment is
The strain and stress diagrams corresponding to the maximum elastic moment are shown below.
Notice that the NA in this case coincides with the horizontal centroidal axis (x axis).
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(b) We know the elastic-limit strain in tension and compression to be
With the strain at the bottom now at 0.003, the elastic-inelastic interface, so to speak, is at some
location between the NA and the bottom surface. Since stress-strain variations in tension and
compression are different in the inelastic region, the NA will not pass through the centroid.
Therefore, NA will not coincide with the x axis in this case. However, the NA will be parallel to
the x axis. So we know its orientation but not its location. The location of NA is found through
an iterative process.
Assume NA is @ 68.333 mm from the bottom. Through similar triangles, the elastic-inelastic
interface can be found
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If the location of NA is correct, then the summation of forces in the normal direction must be
zero.
Based on the stress diagram shown above, the force equation is written as
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Since the sum of axial force components is not zero, the assumed location of NA is incorrect.
The negative value indicates that the NA must be moved in the compression side as to reduce the
area which is in compression or to increase the area in tension. For the second guess, assume NA
to be @ 80 mm from the bottom surface and repeat the procedure.
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The force sum is now positive indicating that the correct location of NA is somewhere between
the two locations assumed previously. Using linear interpolation, we come up with the third
guess
Using linear interpolation again and finding the summation of forces yields
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The result is satisfactory. Now with the location of the NA known, the moment corresponding to
the strain of 0.003 at the bottom side can be calculated.
(c) To find the fully-plastic moment, we must first determine the location of NA resulting in the
total axial force to go to zero. In this case, there is no linear stress region. The compression and
tension sides are under the state of constant stress equal to the corresponding maximum stress
values.
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Using the stress variation shown above and the corresponding force summation, we find the
location of NA as follows
The fully-plastic moment is found to be
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The results indicate that in this case the fully-plastic moment is 57% larger than the maximum
elastic bending moment. We also saw in this problem that the location of neutral axis changed
depending on the magnitude of M. The two factors having the most influence on the results are:
(a) Different material elastic limits in tension and compression, and (b) Unsymmetric cross
section with respect to the moment axis.
4.7 Elastic Bending of Curved Beams

The discussion, so far of beams in pure bending, has been restricted to beams that
are straight before moment is applied. This is no longer true in this section as the beams are
initially curved. Curved beams are encountered at various places in aerospace structures. For
instance, the frames or rings in airplane fuselage are basically curved beams. To analyze curved
beams we must clarify the assumptions and restrictions of the analysis.
Assumptions:
a. Cross sections of the curved beam remain plane after moment is applied.
b. Material used is linearly elastic.
Restrictions:
a. Beam must have a uniform cross section along its length.
b. Beam segment considered has a constant radius of curvature.
c. Beam cross section must possess at least one axis of symmetry so the product of inertia is
zero.
d. Bending moment is applied perpendicular to radius of curvature of the beam.
e. Bending stresses must remain below the elastic limit.
In general for beams having radii of curvature much longer than their depths, the elastic bending
formula gives fairly reasonable results for bending stresses. However, for more accurate
calculation of stresses especially when the radius of curvature is of the same order of magnitude
as the beam's depth, then we must use Winkler's method of analysis.
In curved beams, the assumption of plane sections remain plane after loading is still valid.
However, since the length of the beam varies from its top surface to the bottom surface, the
strain variation is no longer linear, instead it is hyperbolic. This is evident by the equations
below.
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Euqations To Remember
These two equations show that stress and strain vary hyperbolically along the cross section.
Unlike in the case of straight elastic beams, the neutral axis does not pass through the centroid of
the cross section. Rather, it is located somewhere between the centroid of the cross section and
the center of curvature of the beam. Its exact location can be determined by the equation given
below.
The differnetial area 'dA' is chosen in such a way that makes the evalution of the integral in the
denominator fairly easy. The closed form equation for 'R' for some simple cross-sectional shapes
are given in the figure below.
The radius of curvature, measured from the center of curvature to the centroid of the cross
section, is determined by
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Using the moment equilibrium equation along with the Hooke's law, the bending stress in terms
of moment is obtained as
where
or
The sign associated with the moment is positive if the moment tends to increase the curvature. It
is negative if it tends to decrease the curvature, or flatten the curved beam.
Strain is determined from Hooke's law as
Although the stress and strain variations along the cross section of the curved beam are
hyperbolic, Hooke's law is still valid because the material is linearly elastic, i.e., stress-strain
relation is linear.
4.8 Miscellaneous Problems:

Problem 1:
Material 168T6511
Allowable stress = 370Mpa
For simply supported beam
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∑ F = R A + RB = 12100N
∑MA = 0
12500 × 305 − 610RB = 0
12100 × 305
RB = = 6050 N
610
RA=6050
Bending Moment diagram at B = 0
at c = 6050 × 305 = 1840000N − mm
at A = 6050 × 610 − 12100 × 305 = 0
M for limit load at mid section is 1840000N-mm
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My My
b2 < orI >
I b2
y = 50 / 2 = 25mm
1840000 × 25
Required I x > = 124324 = 124000 mm 4
370
Design I x should be greater than require I x
Let t = 5, b = 50
bd 3 b1 d13 50 4 50 × 40 3
Ix = − = − = 254000mm 4
12 12 12 12
Allowable stress = 370Mpa
My 1840000 × 25
Actual stress = = = 181Mpa
I 254000
Form Factor
Z x y0
Ix
td12 5 × 40 2
Zx = + bt (d1 + t ) = + 50 × 5 × 45 = 13250
4 4
13250 × 25
Form factor = = 1 .3
254000
370
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4.8.1 Bending Stress in Symmetrical Section:
Example 1:
Rectangular beam 300mm deep is simply supported for a span of 4m What a UDL of the
beam may carry , if the bending stress is not to exceed 120N/mm2 Take I = 8*106 mm4.
Given Data:
d = 300mm l = 4000mm I = 8 × 10 6 mm 4
d
y= = 180 mm f = 120 N mm 2
2
M = Bending Moment
wl 2 w(4000) 2
M for udl and Simply Supported beam at centre beam M = = = 2 × 10 6 w
8 8
Also
fI 120 × 8 × 10 6
M = = = 6.4 × 10 6 N − mm
y 150
2000000 × w = 6.4 × 10 6
w = 3.2 N mm 2
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Example 2:
A timber beam of rectangular section is to support a load of 8 tonnes of UDL over a span
of 3.6m. If the depth is twice the breadth and stressing timber not to exceed 70 Kg/cm2. Find the
dimension of cross-section. How the cross-section is modified if there is a concentrated load
placed at the centre with same ratio of breadth and depth
Given Data :
w = 2t f = 70 kg cm 2 d = Depth = 2 × b
l = 3.6m = 360cm b = Breadth y=d =b

2
M = Moment at centre of beam
bd 2 b × (2b) 2 2b 3
Z = Section modulus = = =
6 6 3
wl 2 wl 2 2 × 3.6 2
For UDL Moment at centre of beam M = = = = 3.24t − m
8 8 8
= 324 × 10 3 kg − cm
140b 3
M = fZ = 70 × 2b 3 3 = kg − cm
3
140b 3
= 90 × 10 3
3
3 × 90 × 10 3
b3 = = 1928.6
140
b = 12.5 d = 25
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For concentrated load

wl
M = = 1.8 = 180 × 10 3 kg − cm
4
140b 3
= 180 × 10 3
3
3 × 180 × 10 3
b3 = = 3857
140
b = 16cm
d = 32cm
4.8.2 Bending Stress in Unsymmetrical Section:

Example 1:
A beam of I section shown is subjected to a bending moment of 500 kg-m at its
neutral axis .Find the maximum stress induced in the beam.
Sl.no. Area y Area × y

1 6 × 2 = 12 12 + 2 2 = 13 156
2 10 × 2 = 20 2 + 10 2 = 7 140
3 10 × 2 = 20 2 2 =1 20
∑ 52 21 316
∑( Area × y )
y=
∑( Area)
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Sl.no. bd 3 12 A h b2 Ah 2 Ah 2 + bd 3 12
1 6 × 23 12 13- 49 588 588+4 592
=4
12 6=7
2 2 × 10 3 20 7-6=1 1 20 20+166.67 186.67
= 166.67
12
3 10 × 2 3 20 6-1=5 25 500 500+6.67 506.67
= 667
12
∑ 1285.34
I = ∑( Ah + bd 3 12) × 1285cm 4
Distance of upper extreme fibre y C = 14 − 6 = 8
Distance of lower extreme fibre yT = 6

∴y=8
Example 2:
A simply supported beam and its cross-section are shown the beam carries a load
P=1000kg self weight is 350 kg/cm (UDL). Calculate normal stress at a-a. Also find out
maximum stress in beam.
Taking moment about A

RB × 3.6 = 1000 × 2.4 + 350 × 3.6 × 3 2
4668
RB = = 1297 kg
3 .6
R A = (1000 + 350 × 3.6) − 1297 = 963kg
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Moment about a-a

M = 963 × 1.2 − 350 × 1.2 × 1.2 2 = 903.6kg − m =90360 kg-cm
Sl.no. Area Y Area*y

1 30 × 20=600 30/2=15 9000
2 − (π 4 × 15 2 ) = −176.7 20 -3534
3 423..3 5466
∑( Area × y ) 5466
y= = ≈ 13
∑( Area) 423.3
Sl.no. bd 3 12 A h h2 Ah 2 bd 3 12 + Ah 2
1 20 × 30 3 12 = 45000 600 (15- 4 2400 47400
13)=2
2 π × 15 4 64 = 2485 -176.7 (20- 49 8658.3 -11143
13)=7
∑ 36257

∴ y = 17
M f M 90360
= , f = y = × 17 = 42.6kg / cm 2
I y I 36257
To find out maximum stress in beam
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M max = 1304.4
1304
f = × 17 = 61.2kg / cm 2
36257
Example 3:
A cross-section of beam is shown in the figure. The beam is made of material
with permissible stress in compression and tension equal to 1000 kg/cm2 respectively. Calculate
the moment of resistance of the cross-section when subjected to a moment causing compression
at top and tension bottom.
Also calculate compression at top flange and tension in bottom flange corresponding to this
moment.
f C = 1000 kg / cm 2
f T = 1400kg / cm 2
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Sl.no. Area y Area × y bd 3 / 12 h h2 Ah 2 bh 3

+ Ah 2
12
1 20 × 8=160 32+8/2=36 5760 20 × 8 3 / 12 24- 144 23040 23893
= 8533 36=12
2 28 × 6=168 4+28/2=18 3024 6 × 28 3 / 12 24- 36 6048 17024
= 10976 18=6
3 10 × 4=40 4/2=2 80 10 × 4 3 / 12 24- 484 19360 19413
= 53.3 2=22
∑ 368 8864 60330
∑( Area × y ) 8864
y= = = 24cm
∑( Area) 368
I = ∑(bd 3 / 12 + Ah 2 ) = 60330cm 4

y=24
M = fI / y
fC 1000
M1 = ×I = × 60330 = 3770625kg − cm
yC 16
fT 1400
M2 = ×I = × 60330 = 3519250kg − cm
yT 24
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Moment of resistance of cross section will be least of M1 and M2

∴ It is 3519250 kg-cm
for M=3519250
M 3519250
fC = y= × 16 = 933.3
I 60330
Stress at bottom of top flange = 933 × 8 / 16 = 466.5kg / cm 2
Stress at top of bottom flange = 1400 × 20 / 24 = 1167.6kg / cm 2
Compression in top flange:

Area = 20 × 8 = 160cm 2
Total compression = Area × Average compression stress
933 + 466.5
= 160 × = 111960 kg
2
Tension in bottom flange:

Area = 4 × 10 = 40cm 2
Total tension =Area × Average tensile stress
1400 + 1167.6
= 40 × = 51352 kg
2
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4.8.3 Beams of Uniform Strength:

Example 1:
A horizontal cantilever beam 3m long is having a rectangular cross section 60mm
wide of throughout its length and depth varying uniformly from 60mm at free end to 180mm at
fixed end. Find the position of higher stressed section and value of maximum bending stress
induced neglect the self weight of cantilever at X.
Given Data:
L = 3 × 10 3 mm W = 4 × 10 3 N
M X = (4 × 10 3 ) × ( x × 10 3 ) = 4 × 10 6 xN − mm
180 − 60
Depth = 60 + x = 60 + 40 x
3
Section Modulus
Z = bd 2 6 = 60 × (60 + 40 x) 2 6
= 4000(3 + 2 x) 2 mm 3
M = fZ
4 × 10 6 x 10 3 x N
f =M = =
Z 4000(3 + 2 x) 2 (3 + 2 x) 2 mm
2
For f to be maximum
df
=0
dx
10 3 x
d( )
(3 + 2 x) 2
=0
dx
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2 (3 + 2 x ) = 0
x = 1.5
10 3 × 1.5
f max = = 41.67 N
(3 + (2 × 1.5 ))
2
mm 2
4.8.4 Beams of Composite Section:

Example 1:
A Composite beam made of steel and timber has a section shown. Determine the
moment of resistance of beam.
Given Data:
f S = 1000 kg / cm 2 f T = 50kg / cm 2
For timber For Steel
b = 6cm b = 1.5cm
d = 20cm d = 20cm
f = 50kg / cm 2 f = 1000kg / cm 2
2
Z = bd
6
6 × 20 2
ZT = 2 × ( ) = 800cm 3
6
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M = f ×Z
M T = 50 × 800 = 40000kg − cm
M S = 1000 × 100 = 100000kg − cm
Total Moment = M T + M S = 140000kg − cm
Example 2:
A Timber beam 100mm wide and 200mm deep is strengthened by a steel plate
100mm wide and 10mm thick screwed at the bottom of the surface as shown. Calculate the
moment of resistance of beam, safe stress in timber and steel are 10N/mm2 and 150N/mm2, ES =
20ET.
Given Data:
For Timber For Steel
b = 100mm b = 100mm
d = 200mm d = 10mm
f = 10 N f = 150 N
mm 2 mm 2
E S = 20 ET
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Stress in steel will be 20 times the stress in timber resistance offered by steel =
20 × Resistance offered by timber, So steel is converted into equivalent timber
100 × 20=2000mm.
Sl.no. Area y A× y bd 3 h h2 Ah 2 bd 3
12 + Ah 2
*103 *103 12
*103
1 2000*10 10/2=5 100 2000 × 10 3 57.5- 56.25 5625 1291.67
=20000 12 50=7.5
= 166666.67
2 100 × 200 10 + 2200 100 × 200 3 110- 2756.3 55125 121795

=20000 200/2 12 57.5=
=110 = 66.67 × 10 6 52.5
∑ 40000 2300 123.09 × 10 6
∑( Area × y )
y= = 57.5
∑( Area)
I = 123.09 × 10 6
Distance of upper extreme fibre = 210-57.5 = 152.5
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Distance of lower extreme fibre = 57.5

Stress in upper extreme fibre = 10N/mm2
10 × 57.5
Stress in lower most fibre = = 3.77 N / mm 2
152.5
Actual stress in steel at this fibre = 3.77 × 20 = 75.4N/mm2
fI 10 × 123.09 × 10 6
M = = = 8.07 × 10 6 N-mm.
y 152.5
4.8.5 Bending of Unsymmetrical Section about Principal Axis:

Example 1:
Find the bending stresses at section A-A of beam for unsymmetrical section
bending about principle axes.
M X = 2400 × 20 = 48000
M Y = −600 × 20 = −12000
2 × 63
IX =
12
6 × 23
IY =
12
M X y M Y x − 48000 y 12000 x
fb = − − = + = 3000 x − 1333 y
IX IY 36 4
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x,y (-1,-3) (1,-3) (1,3) (-1,3)

f b = 3000 x − 1333 y 1000 7000 -1000 -7000
To find Neutral axis , f b = 0
M X y MY x
− − =0
IX IY
3000 x-1333 y = 0
When x = 1, y = 2.25
When x = -1, y = -2.25
4.8.6 Bending of Unsymmetrical Section about Arbitrary Axis:

Problem 1:
Find the bending stresses at points at A,B,C of beam cross section shown.
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slno Area x y Ax Ay bd 3 db 3 h y bd 3 db 3 Ah x h y
+ +
12 12 hx 12 12
Ahx2 Ah y2
1 4*2 11 2 88 16 2.67 10.6 5 3 202.67 82.67 -120

=8 7
2 12* 6 5 144 120 288 8 0 0 288 0 0
2=
24
3 4*2 1 8 8 64 2.67 10.6 -5 3 202.67 82.67 -120
=8 7
∑ 40 240 200 693.34 173.34 -240
∑( Area × x) 240
x= = =6
∑( Area) 40
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∑( Area × y ) 200
y= = =5
∑( Area) 40
bd 3
I x = ∑( + Ahx2 ) = 693.34
12
db 3
I y = ∑( + Ah y2 ) = 173.34
12
∑ Ah x h y = 240.00
M xIxy − M yIx M yIxy − M xIy

fb = 2
x+ 2
y
IxIy − I xy IxIy − Ixy
100000(−240) − 10000(693.34) 10000(−240) − 100000(73.34)

= x+ y
(693.34 × 173.34) − (−240) 2
(693.34 × 173.34) − (−240) 2
(−24 × 10 6 ) − (693.34 × 10 4 ) (−24 × 10 6 ) − (17.33 × 10 6 )

fb = x+ y
62583.55 6258.53
f b = −494 x − 315 y
To find Neutral axis

fb = 0
− 494 x − 315 y = 0
− 495
y= x
315
y = −1.568 x
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( x, y ) (1,6) ( − 5,6 ) ( − 5,4 ) ( − 1,−6 ) (5,-4) (5,-6)
f b = −494 x − 315 y -2384 580 1210 2384 -1210 -580
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Problem 2:
Find shear flow in webs of beams shown in figure .Each of the four flange members has an area
of 0.5 sq.in. The webs are assumed to carry no bending stress. Find the shear centre for the given
area.
Given Data:
V
q = f sb =
I ∫ ydA
I = n × A× x2
= 4 × 0.5 × 5 2 = 50
10000
qa b = (5 × 0.5) = 500
50
10000
qb c = ((5 × 0.5) + (5 × 0.5)) = 1000
50
10000
qc d = {(5 × 0.5) + (5 × 0.5) − (5 × 0.5)} = 500
50
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Taking moment about c

10000e = 500 × 4 × 10
e=2
Similar solid c section of thickness 1 is considered with similar loading case. find the shear flow
in members.
V
q = f sb =
I ∫ ydA
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Slno Area x y Ax Ay bd 3 db 3 hx hy bd 3 db 3
+ +
12 12 12 12
Ahx2 Ah y2
1 3 ×1 = 3 9.5 2.5 28.5 7.5 0.25 2.25 4.5 1.65 0.25+60.75 2.25+8.2
=61 =10.5
2 10 × 1 = 10 5 0.5 50 5 83.3 0.83 0 0.35 8.33+0 0.83+1.2
=83.3 =2
3 3 ×1 = 3 0.5 2.5 1.5 1.25 0.25 2.25 4.5 1.65 0.25+60.75 2.25+8.2
=61 =10.5
∑ 16 80 13.75 205.3 23
10000
205.3 ∫
q= ydA
10000
qa b = (4.5 × x) = 219 x
205.3
10000 25 y 2
qb c = {[ 4 × 1 × 4.5] + [ − ]}
205.3 2 2
10000
= [30.5 − y 2 2]
205.3
= 1485.6 − 24.35 y 2
10000
qc d = [4.5 x] = 219 x
205.3
I = 205.3
x qa b
0 0
4 876
y qb c
5 876
0 0
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-5 876
x qc d
0 0
4 873
Taking moment about c

10000e = 876 × 10
876 × 10
e=
10000
e = 0.876
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5. MEMBER IN TORSION
In this chapter we will consider analysis of structural members under pure torsion.
The only exception appears in the discussion of members in differential bending where cross-
sectional warping is prevented. We begin with a review of mechanics of materials and discuss
torsion of members with circular cross sections. Both elastic and inelastic stress states are
considered for both homogeneous and non-homogeneous members. We then proceed with the
elastic torsional analysis of members with solid or hollow non-circular cross sections. This is
followed by the elastic torsional analysis of thin-walled members with open cross sections such
as an I or a T. Next we examine the torsion of thin-walled structures with closed cross sections.
We conclude this section with the torsional analysis of multi-cell, thin-walled stiffened
members, typical of wing and fuselage structures.
5.1 Torsion of Circular Bars
• 5.1-1 Elastic and Homogeneous
• 5.1-2 Elastic and Non-homogeneous
• 5.1-3 Inelastic and Homogeneous
• 5.1-4 Inelastic and Non-homogeneous
• 5.1-5 Residual Stress Distribution
• 5.1-6 Power Transmission
5.2 Torsion of Non-Circular Bars
5.3 Elastic Membrane Analogy
5.4 Torsion of Thin-Wall Open Sections
5.5 Torsion of Solid Non-Circular Shapes
5.6 Torsion of Thin-Wall Closed Sections
5.7 Torsion-Shear Flow Relations in Multiple-Cell Closed Sections
5.8 Shear Stress Distribution and Angle of Twist for Two-Cell Thin-Wall Closed Section
5.9 Shear Stress Distribution and θ for Multiple-Cell Thin-Wall Closed Section
5.10 Torsion of Stiffened Thin-Wall Closed Sections
5.11 Effect of End Restraint
5.12. Miscellaneous problems
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5.1 Torsion of Circular Bars:

Applications:
Rotating Machinery
• Propeller shaft
• Drive shaft
Structural Systems
• Landing gear strut
• Flap drive mechanism
Characteristic of Circular Bars:

When a circular bar is twisted, its cross section remains plane and circular. This
characteristic is due to axisymmetric shape of the cross section, and applies to circular bars that
are solid or hollow, homogeneous or non-homogeneous, elastic or inelastic. When a straight
cylindrical bar is subjected to two equal but opposite Torsional couples, the bar twists and each
section is subjected to a shearing stress. Due to these shear stresses there will rotation in the
section. This rotation at any section will be proportional from the fixed support.
T= (П/16) fs D3
Twist θ = TL/GJ
Shear Strain Calculation:

Based on the characteristic stated above, the shear strain variation is linear, and is
described by the equation
where r is the radial position measured from the center of the cross section and c is the radius of
the cross section.
Hollow Bars and Tubes in Torsion:
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For bars and tubes of circular cross section, the Torsional stress is calculated from
16 D
the formula Torsional − stress = * Torque Where D and d are respectively the
π (D 4 − d 4 )
external and internal diameters of the torsion members. Torsional 0.1% proof stress and
Torsional Ultimate stress can be obtained for specific material from data books. Where for
specific material do not appear in the tables and no test information is available, an approximate
estimate of basic Torsional stresses may be obtained from the values of t1 and ft.
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Rule of Thumb:
The torsion-induced shear strain is always a linear function of r with the
maximum value at the edge of the cross section. This is true for all possible conditions, whether
the bar is elastic or inelastic, homogeneous or non-homogeneous as shown in these examples.
Shear Stress and Angle of Twist Calculations:

Four possible scenarios are considered for shear stress and angle of twist
calculations. In each case the equations used for these calculations are explicitly described. It
should be obvious that in all of these calculations we are dealing with members having circular
cross sections. As you will see the degree of complexity in the analysis grows as we proceed in
the following sequence
• 5.1-1 Elastic and Homogeneous
• 5.1-2 Elastic and Non-homogeneous
• 5.1-3 Inelastic and Homogeneous
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• 5.1-4 Inelastic and Non-homogeneous

• 5.1-5 Residual Stress Distribution
• 5.1-6 Power Transmission
Restriction: The applied torque(s) must be in a plane(s) perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
5.1-1 Elastic and Homogeneous:
The torsion-induced shear stress variation in an elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic bar is
determined by
where T is the internal torque at the section the shear stress is being calculated, r is the radial
position of the point on the cross section the shear stress is solved for, and J is the polar moment
of inertia of the entire cross section. For solid bars 0 < r < c and for hollow bars ci < r < co.
The above shear stress equation is known as the elastic torsion formula, and we call it El-
Hocir. This acronym helps us to easily remember under what conditions we can use the elastic
torsion formula, viz, elastic, homogeneous, and circular.
The shear stress equation shows that for an elastic bar (i.e., when the maximum shear stress is
less than the proportional limit shear stress of the material), the stress varies linearly with radial
position. Thus, the maximum shear stress in this case would be at the edge of the cross section
(i.e., at the farthest distance from the center). Here are some examples of elastic and inelastic
stress variations for homogeneous and non-homogeneous circular bars made of elastoplastic
materials.
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The angle of twist at one section relative to another can be found in two ways:
Or
In the first equation we are using geometric relationship between angle of twist and shear strain.
This is a very powerful equation as it tells us that we don't need to know the torque or the
resulting shear stress in order to calculate the relative twist angle. If we know the maximum
shear strain at section B and know the distance L between sections A and B, then we can
calculate the relative twist angle using this formula. Notice that this equation can also be written
in terms of shear strain at any radial position. What is needed is the value of r and its
corresponding shear strain.
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The second equation is useful when we don't know the shear strain, but we do know the internal
torque at section B. Then using this equation we can determine the relative angle of twist.
Total angle of twist at section B is determined by
5.1.2 Elastic and Non-homogeneous:

The linear strain variation is valid as stated before; however, since the bar is non-homogeneous,
i.e., made of two or more materials, we cannot use El-Hocir. This problem is statically
indeterminate in the sense that we don't know how much of the torque is being carried by each
material. The general torque formula in its integral form must be broken up into two or more
parts depending on the material make up of the bar. Also, since the bar is totally linearly elastic
(i.e., stresses are below the proportional limit), Hooke's law may be used to relate stress to strain
in each respective region in the cross section. Here is what the torque equation looks like for a
bar made of two materials:
Where 0 and 1 limits in the first integral denote the radial boundaries of the core material, while
1 and 2 denote those for the shell material. The subscripts 'C' and 'S' correspond to the core and
shell materials, respectively.
Knowing the maximum shear strain, we can use the above equation to solve for the torque at a
given section, or vice versa. Notice that we used the same linear equation for stress-strain
relations in both integrals with shear modulus being the only difference. Examining this equation
more carefully, we realize that while maximum shear strain always occurs at the farthest distance
from the center of the bar, it is not necessary for maximum shear stress to be at the same
location. The difference between the shear moduli of the core and the shell could be such that the
shear stress in the core at the interface of the shell and core might be higher than that at the edge
of the bar near its outside surface.
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Rule of Thumb:
Maximum shear strain occurs at r = c regardless of whether the shell material has higher or
lower shear rigidity. Maximum shear stress occurs in the material with the highest shear rigidity
regardless of its location. Here are some examples:
Since the core and the shell are assumed to be perfectly attached at the interface, the angle of
twist is the same for both materials; therefore,
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5.1.3 Inelastic and Homogeneous:

As mentioned earlier, the shear strain pattern is linear eventhough the member has been stressed
beyond the elastic limit and into the inelastic range. For a linearly elastic material, shear stress
variation is linear up to the radial distance corresponding to the elastic rim shown in the figures
below. Beyond this distance, Hooke's law canNOT be used to relate stress to strain variation.
Once again the material is assumed to be elasto-plastic.
Let's see how torsional analysis is performed for a circular bar as the internal torque is increased
from zero to that corresponding to the fully-plastic bar. Notice that we are examining only one
section (slice) of the bar along its length. Therefore, depending on which section we cosider the
internal torque may be different.
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If at the section of interest the maximum shear strain is below the elastic-limit shear strain of the
material, then the bar is fully elastic and the corresponding torque can be obtained as shown in
(1). If the maximum shear strain reaches the elastic shear strain, then the bar has reached the
elastic limit state, and the torque calculated according to (2) is referred to as the "elastic-limit
torque". As the torque is increased beyond the elastic-limit torque, the internal shear stress
moves into the inelastic range. In that case we must first locate the elastic rim by calculating re.
Once that distance is known, then we can calculate the internal torque corresponding to the
specified max. shear strain according to (3). Note that in this case, the material is assumed to be
elasto-plastic, which implies that beyond the elastic limit, stress remains constant at the elastic
limit value. If the torque is increased until the cross-section is completely in the inelastic range,
then the maximum inelastic or fully-plastic torque is found according to (4).
The angle of twist at a given section in an inelastic circular bar is found by
or
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where
which corresponds to the angle of twist at the onset of yield (when the elastic radius = radius of
bar, c )
5.1.4 Inelastic and Non-homogeneous :

Here, we are dealing with a circular bar that is made of two or multiple materials distributed in
the radial direction. The bar is twisted beyond the elastic limit of at least one of the materials. It
is not necessary for all materials to be stressed beyond their respective elastic limits. In this case,
the shear strain variation is still linear and the torque equation is broken up at the material
interface and at the point where the transition from elastic to inelastic region takes place.
Let's consider the case where the bar is composed of two different materials. There are several
possibilities that need to be investigated: (1) The inner material (core) may become inelastic
while the outer shell is still elastic; (2) the outer shell may become fully plastic while the core
remains far below its proportional limit; etc. Here is an example of a non-homogeneous circular
bar in a state of inelastic stress and strain.
It is obvious that the analysis of this type of problem requires more rigor than those dealing with
elastic torsion.
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Analysis Procedure:
Analysis of circular non-homogeneous bars in which max. shear strain is
specified. Notice that this is a statically indeterminate problem as we don't know what
percentage of the resultant torque is being carried by each material.
1. Knowing that the max. shear strain occurs at the farthest distance from the center of
circular cross section, we calculate the actual shear strain at the material interface using
the linear equation. Now we know the max. shear strain in each material.
2. Next, we calculate the elastic-limit shear strain of each material from the strain-stress
diagram or material properties provided in the problem, and compare it with the
corresponding actual shear strain. For inelastic torsion problem, the max. shear strain in
one of the materials must exceed its corresponding elastic limit value.
3. With this information, we can proceed with plotting the stress variation across the cross
section of the bar. This gives us a map that we can use to set up the integral form of the
torque equation. The integral would be split into several segments depending on the
variations of stresses and materials.
4. First we consider the core. Based on the stress variation in the core, we may need up to
two separate integrals. Then, we examine the shell. Again, depending on the stress
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variation, we may need up to two separate integrals - one for the elastic part and another
for the inelastic part.
5. Once we identify the limits on each integral, and correctly write the integrand in each
case, we can proceed with the integration to find the torque that corresponds to the
specified max. shear strain in the problem statement.
6. Notice that the integrals correspond to the portion of the resultant torque carried by the
core and the shell. So once we have calculated these values, we can determine the
percentage of torque carried by each constituent.
7. The angle of twist is calculated in the same manner specified in the previous section. The
main assumption is that the two materials are perfectly bonded at the interface.
5.1.5 Residual Stress Distribution in Homogeneous Circular Bars

When a circular bar is torqued beyond its elastic limit, upon the removal of the
applied torque, the shear stress may not completely disappear. This remaining stress is known as
residual shear stress and is calculated as follows based on the method of superposition.
In the figure above, the first diagram on the left reflects the elastoplastic behavior of the material
during the loading phase (1), and the second diagram in the middle shows the linear behavior of
the same material during the unloading phase (in the stress-strain diagram of a linearly elastic
material the unloading path is always linear and parallel to the elastic line) (2). By superposing
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the two stress diagrams, we obtain the residual stress distribution (3). Although there is residual
stress without the presence of any external torque, the bar remains in the state of equilibrium as
the positive area under the curve equals the negative area. Notice that the three diagrams are not
drawn to scale.
If the bar is torqued beyond the elastic limit, there will be a permanent twist upon removal of the
torque. This angle of twist is the difference between the angle of twist due to loading and that
due to unloading, and is expressed as
where the recovered angle of twist - upon unloading - is determined as
5.1.6 Power Transmission

Circular bars or shafts are commonly used for transmission of power. Circular
cross section is used because, as explained in the previous section, it will not get distorted under
torque. From design stand point, it is necessary for the shaft to be strong enough to transmit
power safely without exceeding the shaft material's elastic limit. We recall from physics that for
angular motion:
Work = Torque x Angular Displacement
Power = d/dt (Work)
If torque is not a function of time, then the equation for power simply becomes:
P=Tw
where w is the angular velocity of the shaft. This is the relationship between the torque in the
shaft and the power transmitted through it from one end to the other.
It is important that we use consistent units for P, T, and w. Power is commonly specified in
horsepower, HP. In that case we can convert HP to ft-lb/sec by multiplying it by 550, and to in-
lb/sec by multiplying it by 6600. Angular velocity is usually given in revolutions per minute or
RPM. It should then be converted to rad/sec. To do this multiply the value in RPM by 2 pi and
divide by 60. Therefore, to get the units of in-lb for torque, the conversion factor becomes:
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T = HP x 63025 / RPM.
Mechanical Coupling
Mechanical coupling is commonly used to extend the length of a shaft or to
connect the shaft to another component. An example of this can be found in flap mechanism as
well as in the propeller shaft. The figure below shows that with two disks in contact, the applied
torque will tend to rotate one relative to the other. This relative displacement, if prevented, will
lead to the creation of shear stress and strain at the surface of contact. These types of disks are
typically bolted together. In that case, the torque will put the bolts in the state of plane shear.
In problems of mechanical coupling, it is commonly assumed that the surface of

contact is frictionless and that the entire torque is transmitted through the bolts which are
distributed in a circular pattern at a particular distance from the center. As in the case of a
circular shaft, the shear strain varies linearly from the center of the cross section. Since the
diameters of bolts are usually much smaller than that of the coupling plate, it is commonly
assumed that the shear strain is constant along the bolt's cross-sectional area. Starting from the
original equation for torque we can derive the special form for the mechanical coupling
problems as follows:
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Shaft Coupling
In shaft coupling, we are concerned with the number and size of bolts to be used
in order to keep the stress in the bolts below the allowable value. As a designer we have a choice
of materials, size, number, and distribution pattern for the coupling bolts. This freedom allows us
to examine different ways that a coupling can be designed such that it is efficient from the stand
point of design as well as manufacturability and cost.
We need to balance the number and size of bolts being used. Is it better to use a
large quantity of small bolts or few large bolts. We also need to keep in mind the damage
tolerance issue. If we use too few bolts, then what would happen in the case one gets sheared off.
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Will the remaining bolts carry the desired load? Questions like this would have to be answered
by the designer before the design can be accepted for production.
Below we see the equations used for the coupling analysis.
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5.2 Torsion of Non-Circular Bars

The observations made for torsion of members with circular cross sections do not
hold for those with non-circular cross sections. Consider the following facts for members with
non-circular cross sections:
1. The shear stress is not constant at a given distance from the axis of rotation. As a result
sections perpendicular to the axis of member warp, indicating out-of-plane displacement.
2. The theory of elasticity shows that the shear stress at the corners is zero.
3. Maximum shear strain and stress are not at the farthest distance from the rotational axis
of a homogeneous non-circular member.
Members with rectangular cross sections:

For a rectangular member under torsion the corners do not distort; the corner
square angles remain square after torque is applied. This indicates that shear strain is zero at the
corners since there is no distorsion. This fact is illustrated in this figure.
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St. Venant was the first to accurately describe the shear stress distribution on the cross section of
a non-circular member using the Theory of Elasticity. Theory of Elasticity shows that:
• the maximum shear strain and stress occur at the centerline of the long sides of the
rectangular cross section
• the shear strain and stress at the corners and center of the rectangular cross section are
zero.
• the strain and stress variations on the cross section are primarily nonlinear.
The theory of Elasticity has been applied to find analytical solutions for the torsion of
rectangular elastic members. The resulting equations for shear stress and angle of twist are as
follows:
5.3 Elastic Membrane Analogy:

Prandtl showed that the Laplace equation describing the torsion of an elastic
member is identical to that used to describe the deflection of an elastic membrane subjected to a
uniform pressure.
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The elastic membrane analogy allows the solution of a torsion problem to be determined in a
simpler way than that found by the theory of elasticity which requires the availability of the
warping function.
Elastic Membrane and Twisted Bar Relationships:

Consider a tube which has the same cross-sectional boundary as the bar. For
example, if the bar has a solid square cross section of side dimension b, then the tube will have a
hollow square cross section of side dimension b as well. Next we stretch an elastic membrane
over the tube's cross section and apply internal pressure. The deflected shape of the membrane
helps us visualize the stress pattern in the bar under torsion.
The analogy can be viewed as follows:
1. Lines of equal deflection on the membrane (contour lines) correspond to shearing stress
lines of the twisted bar.
2. The direction of a particular shear stress resultant at a point is at right angle to the
maximum slope of the membrane at the same point.
3. The slope of the deflected membrane at any point, with respect to the edge support plane
is proportional in magnitude to the shear stress at the corresponding point on the bar's
cross section.
4. The applied torsion on the twisted bar is proportional to twice the volume included
between the deflected membrane and plane through the supporting edges.
Examples
Keep in mind that the slope at a point on the deflected membrane, and not the
displacement from the base, is the parameter that is related to the shear stress in the bar. In all of
the following examples, the slope is zero at the very top of the membrane, therefore the stress is
zero, not the maximum, at the same location on bar's cross section.
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5.4 Torsion of Thin - Wall Open Sections :
The sections shown below are extruded sections
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Example
Use the formulas based on the theory of elasticity to find the maximum shear stress and angle of
twist per unit length of a bar having the cross sectional shape shown below.
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EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
First, need to find the b/t ratio. Because this is a formed section, the lengths 'b' are found this
way
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Since b/t is greater than 10, we can let alpha and beta be 1/3. Therefore maximum shear stress is
Angle of Twist per unit length is
5.5 Torsion of Solid Non – Circular Sections:

In a noncircular section the shear stresses are not distributed uniformly. For
example when a rectangular bar twists, the shear stresses are not constant at the same distances
from the axis of the rotation and thus the ends of segments cut through the bar would not remain
parallel to each other when bar twists or in other words warping of the section takes place.
Torsional Stress = Tn/J
Twist θ = TL/JG
J = Polar moment of inertia
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Were J and n are the functions of the cross section. For some standard sections these values are
listed below.
Formula for shear

Form of cross Polar moment of
Formula for n stress
sections inertia
Solid circular 2T 1 4
n=r πr
section πr 3 2
Solid elliptical 2a 2 b 2T πa 3 b 3
n=
section a2 + b2 πab 2 a2 + b2
Solid square 0.601T
n = 1.3519a 2.25a 4
section a3
Solid triangular
3a 20T 3a 4
section n=
4 a3 80
(equilateral)
Symmetrical 4I x
TC
Refer a 16 I x
Aerofoil K 1+
AU 2
For further details refer

a) Roark’s Formulas for stress and strain table 10.7 page no 401
b) Structural Principles and Data by Dowty table 12.5 page no 122
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Working stress = Tr/J in n/mm2.
Torque = T
Polar moment of inertia = J
Allowable Proof Torsional Stress = q1 in N.mm2.
Reserve Factor = q1/Actual Torsional stress

Ultimate working stress = Factor of safety * T*r/J
Allowable Ultimate Torsional Stress = fq.
Reserve Factor = fq/Actual Ultimate Torsional stress.
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5.6 Torsion of Thin - Wall Closed Sections:

So far, we have considered the torsion of solid and hollow circular sections, thin-
walled open sections, and solid noncircular sections. Now we would like to consider the torsion
of thin-walled closed sections of various geometry, typical of aircraft wing and fuselage. As
before we are interested in calculating the shear stress distribution and overall angle of twist due
to applied torque(s). Such analysis can be used to determine, based on a specified material and
loading condition, (a) the margin of safety for an existing structure, or (b) the structural sizing
such as wall thickness necessary to safely carry the applied loads. Here are some examples of
typical shear stress distributions in thin-walled, single- and multi-cell closed sections under pure
torsion.
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Derivation
Consider a thin-walled member with a closed cross section subjected to pure torsion.
Examining the equilibrium of a small cutout of the skin reveals that
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Angle of Twist
By applying strain energy equation due to shear and Castigliano's Theorem the angle of twist for
a thin-walled closed section can be shown to be
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Since T = 2qA, we have
If the wall thickness is constant along each segment of the cross section, the integral can be
replaced by a simple summation
Here is an example.
Important Observations:
In thin-walled structures failure is governed by buckling instability; therefore, the limiting stress
is not necessarily the elastic limit stress.
Example Problems:
Example 1 Maximum shear stress and angle of twist in a single-cell section
Consider the single cell, thin-walled section shown made of aluminum with the given properties.
With the torque T=134,400 in-lb, determine
(a) the shear flow distribution,
(b) the maximum shear stress and its location,
(c) the angle of twist if L=100 in.
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EQUATIONS USED
SOLUTION
(a) Since this ia a single-cell section, there will only be one shear flow of constant magnitude
along all webs. Note that in calculating the cell area the wall thickness is ignored.
The direction of shear flow is consistent with that of the resultant torque at the section of
interest.
(b) Because the skin has two different thicknesses, there will be two different shear stresses.
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Notice that the maximum shear stress occurs in the thinest web. This is always true with pure
torsion of single-cell thin-walled sections.
(c) Knowing the shear flow distribution, we can calculate the angle of twist as
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5.7 Torsion - Shear Flow Relations in Multiple-Cell Thin- Wall Closed Sections
The torsional moment in terms of the internal shear flow is simply
Derivation
For equilibrium to be maintained at a exterior-interior wall (or web) junction
point (point m in the figure) the shear flows entering should be equal to those leaving the
junction.
Summing the moments about an arbitrary point O, and assuming clockwise direction to be
positive, we obtain
NOTE: It is important to realize that point "O" can be anywhere in space, interior or exterior of
the cross-section. As long as we can determine the area enclosed by the ends of each web and
point O, we can relate the torque to the shear flow in the web and the enclosed area.
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The moment equation above can be simplified to
Notice that in this equation the shear flow of the interior wall is not explicitly shown because it
is a function of the shear flows in the exterior walls. Also notice that the terms in the right hand
side of the equation are independent of moment point "O". This is a very important fact, and
should be kept in mind when solving single- or multi-cell, closed, thin-walled sections under
pure torsion.
5.8 Shear Stress Distribution and Angle of Twist for Two-Cell Thin-Walled Closed Sections
The equation relating the shear flow along the exterior wall of each cell to the
resultant torque at the section is given as
This is a statically indeterminate problem. In order to find the shear flows q1 and q2, the
compatibility relation between the angle of twist in cells 1 and 2 must be used. The compatibility
requirement can be stated as
where
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Note that each closed integral deals with the boundaries of an individual cell, which involve the
exterior wall as well as the interior wall separating the two cells. Also notice that the shear flow
along the interior wall is the difference between q1 and q2. Now by setting the right hand sides of
the two angle of twist equations equal to each other, we arrive at the second equation, which
together with the torque-shear flow equation result in the following closed form equations for the
two shear flows.
where
and
The shear stress at a point of interest is found according to the equation
To find the angle of twist, we could use either of the two twist formulas given above. It is also
possible to express the angle of twist equation similar to that for a circular section
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with the polar moment of inertia expressed as
A careful scrutiny of the equations for shear flow indicates that the first term in the numerator is
all that is different between the two. Therefore, if we have a two-cell thin-walled section in
which a10A2 = a20A1, then the two shear flows would be equal.
Example Problems:
• Example 1 Shear flow distribution, Maximum shear stress, and angle of twist in a two-
cell section
Consider the same cross section as in example 1 in section I.6, with the same properties and
applied torque of 134,400 in-lb. However, an interior web is added as shown in the figure below.
Determine:
• (a) the shear flow distribution,
• (b) the maximum shear stress and its location,
• (c) the angle of twist if L=100 in.
EQUATIONS USED
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SOLUTION
(a) First, write the torque equation.
So far we have obtained one equation in two unknowns. To solve for the two unknowns we need
a second equation in terms of the same two unknowns. We use the angle of twist relationship,
that is the twist of both cells is the same. Writing the angle of twist equation for both cells and
setting them equal to each other gives
Now by substituting this relation into the torque equation we can solve for q1 and q2, and by
taking the difference between these two shear flows we can obtain q3 to be
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NOTE: q3 was determined by subtracting q2 from q1, hence, positive value for q3 indicates that
this shear flow is in the same direction as q1, which in this problem is found to be counter-
clockwise.
(b) The shear stress along each web is constant, and is equal to the shear flow along the web
divided by the web thickness. There are three different web thicknesses and three different shear
flows, hence, there will be three different shear stresses
NOTE: The maximum shear stress occurs in the web which has the maximum q/t value and not
necessarily minimum t. As can be seen in this example, the interior web has the minimum
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thickness, but not the maximum stress. This is obviously because, unlike single-cell sections, the
shear flow is not constant everywhere.
Compared to example 1 in section I.6, the maximum shear stress is in the same place, but it is
smaller. In this case the interior web relieved the shear stress carried in wall (2), and increased
the stress in wall (1), while reducing the overall angle of twist. The conclusion that can be drawn
is that the presence of interior wall increased the torsional stiffness of the thin-walled section.
(c) Substituting the values of the shear flows back into the angle of twist equation gives
Suggested Exercise:
Rework this example problem by letting t1 = t2 = .06 in., and examine the changes in the results.
5.9 Shear Stress Distribution and Angle of Twist for Multiple-Cell Thin-Wall Closed
Sections:
In the figure above the area outside of the cross section will be designated as cell (0). Thus to
designate the exterior walls of cell (1), we use the notation 1-0. Similarly for cell (2) we use 2-0
and for cell (3) we use 3-0. The interior walls will be designated by the names of adjacent cells.
From section A6.9, the torque of this multi-cell member can be related to the shear flows in
exterior walls as follows
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For elastic continuity, the angles of twist in all cells must be equal
The direction of twist chosen to be positive is clockwise.
NOTE: Since the exterior walls in each cell have equal shear flows, we can factor the shear flow
out and multiply it by the sum of the quotient S/t of the exterior walls.
The above equations for angle of twist together with the torque equation provide a total of 4
linear equations which can be solved simultaneously for the 3 unknown shear flows (i.e., q1, q2,
and q3) and 1 unkown angle of twist.
5.10 Torsion of Stiffened Thin-Wall Closed Sections:

Types of Stiffeners
• Open
Offer very little torsional rigidity; their contribution may be neglected in the torsional
analysis.
• Closed
Offer more torsional rigidity; their contribution may be included in the torsional analysis.
Their presence basically leads to a "multiple-cell" box beam. The influence of stiffeners
is included in the analysis in the following manner:
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5.11 Effect of End Restraint
The equations derived earlier, for pure torsion of bars with non-circular cross sections, were
based on the assumption that at any point along the length the cross section is allowed to have
out-of-plane displacement or warping. However, when an end of the bar is fixed, it is restrained
from warping - as a result normal stresses are created on the cross section, and the assumption of
pure torsion is no longer valid.
To better understand this behavior let's consider a thin-walled bar, with an "I" cross section,
fixed at one end and free at the other where a torque is applied. In the vicinity of the fixed end
the upper and lower flanges of the bar act as short beams, therefore, have considerable bending
stiffness, and prevent the cross section from warping under the applied torque. Hence, the torque
is carried mainly in the form of transverse shear in these flanges. As a result the upper and lower
flanges deflect laterally in opposite directions - referred to as differential bending. In this case,
the torque can be represented by a couple of force H acting in each flange
At the other extreme point, near the free end, the applied torque is carried mainly in the form of
torsional shear or pure shear as the cross section is free to warp. This is because, near the free
end, the flanges are basically long beams with less bending stiffness, therefore, shear rigidity
dominates in this case.
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At some distance x between the two ends of the bar, the torque can be represented as the sum of
(a) the torque taken up by pure shear and (b) the torque taken up by transverse shear.
For angle of twist due to torsion in (a), from the analysis in section A6.6, we can write
where the length of each rectangular portion of the cross section is assumed to be much greater
than its thickness.
For angle of twist due to torsion in (b) we use the relationship between the lateral deflection of
the flanges and the angle of twist as
Now, from mechanics of materials we can relate the flange deflection to transverse shear force H
in the flange as
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Combining the pevious equations we determine angle of twist
Since the two angles of twist are equal, the right hand sides of the two equations can be set equal
to determine the ratio between the portion of the torque taken up by transverse shear and portion
taken up by pure shear.
Example 1
A wing spar has a cross-sectional shape shown below. It is fixed at the root, i.e., x=0 and free at
the tip, i.e., x=200 in. What is the percentage of torque due to bending to that of the total torque,
at x=2", x=20", and x=200"? If T=1000 in-lb, what would the angle of twist be at each value of
'x'?
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EQUATIONS USUED
SOLUTION
The equation for the ratio of TB to TT was derived earlier in the discussion. With the material
properties and geometric parameters known, we calculate the torque ratio for different values of
x as follows:
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To find the percentages, it takes a little manipulation, but the results are:
Notice the rapid decrease in the percentage of T carried in the form of differential bending of
flanges as x increases.
The angle of twist at different spanwise stations is calculated by using the angle of twist equation
with different values of x. Note that we can use either the angle of twist based on TT or TB, the
result would be the same.
The angle of twist increases going from the fixed end to the free end.
This example is used to show that in the presence of an end restraint, the load in the bar is
carried differently at the free and fix ends. It also shows how the load is carried in between the
extreme points in the problem.
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5.12 Miscellaneous problems:

5.12.1 Problems for Torsion on Circular Section:
Problem 1:
A solid shaft is to transmit a torque of 10000kg-m. If shearing stress is not to
exceed 450kg/cm2. Find the maximum diameter of shaft
Given Data:
T=10000kg-m = 1000000kg-cm
f q = 450kg / cm 2
D = Diameter of shaft
π
T= f s D3
16
π
1000000 = × 450 D 3
16
1000000 × 16
D3 =
π × 450
D = 22.45cm .
Problem 2:
A bar of material BSL168TS11 of diameter 100mm is subjected to an torque of
30 × 10 6 N − mm.
Given Data:
t 2 = 370 Mpa
q 2 = 370 × 0.6 = 222 Mpa
f t = 415Mpa
f q = 415 × 0.6 = 249Mpa
r = D / 2 = 50mm
π
J= D4
32
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Allowable torsional stress = 222Mpa.
T ×r
Actual torsional stress =
J
T ×r 30 × 10 6 × 50 × 32
= = = 152.78Mpa.
π π × 100 4
× 0.4
32
Reserve Factor = 222/152.78=1.45

Allowable torsional stress = 249Mpa.
Actual torsional stress = factorofsafety × Tr J
= 1.5 × 152.78
= 229.17
Reserve Factor = 249/229.17
= 1.1
Problem 3:
A figure illustrates an aileron control surfaces consisting of circular torque tube
outer diameter of 32mm supported on 3 hinge brackets and with control rod fitting attached to
the torque tube above the centre support bracket. Find the maximum torsional shearing stress in
the tube if the air load on the aileron is shown also calculate the angle of twist of the tube
between horn section and end of aileron.
A load on strip of aileron 1mm wide = 729.6KN/mm2.
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To find w.
1
76w + [ w × 305] = 729.6 KN / mm 2
2
w = 3KN / mm 2
P1 = 3 × 76 = 228 KN
∴Moment about hinge point = 228 × (76 / 2) + 457 × (1 / 3)305 = 37797.67

Torsional moment = 37848.5 N-mm
Max. Torque at centre of aileron = 37848.5 × 661
= 25017858.5
≅ 25 × 10 6 N − mm .
π (D 4 − d 4 ) π (32 4 − 29.5 4 )
J= = = 893.5
32 D 32 × 32
Tr 25017858.5 × 160
τ max = = = 4479974.5
J 893.5
TL 25Mpa × 661 180
θ= = × = 0.013 deg rees.
GJ 807.6 × 10 6 π
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5.12.2 Problems for Torsion in Non Circular Section:

Problem 1:
A beam of length .300mm having rectangular cross section as shown in diagram
is subjected to a limit torque of 1000000 N-mm. Calculate maximum shear stress and angle
of twist at that point material BSL 168T b511.
T (3a − 1.8b)
τ max =
8a 2 b 2
1000000(45 − 18)
τ max =
8 × 15 2 × 10 2
= 150Mpa.
Allowable stress = 0.6t2

= 0.6 × 370
= 222 kg/m2
Reserve Factor = 222/150
= 1.48
Ultimate stress analysis
Ultimate stress = 1.5× 150

= 225Mpa
Allowable ultimate stress = 0.6× UTS
= 0.6× 415
= 249Mpa
Reserve Factor = 249/225 = 1.12
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5.12.3 Problems for Torsion in Open Section Composed of Thin plates:

Problem 1:
An beam of angle section and length of 500mm as shown in the figure is
subjected to an torque of 150000 N-mm. Calculate τ max and twist of the section material BSL-
168T6511.
T
τ max =
dbt 2
T
θ=
φbt 3G
α , φ value depends on b/t value
b / t = 150/15 = 15
for b/t > 10 α , φ = 0.3333or1 / 3
3T 3 × 100000
∴τ max = = = 200 N − mm.
bt 2 15 × 10 2
For BSL-168 T6511
E = 70 × 10 3 Mpa , Poisson ratio = 0.3
m(70 × 10 3 ) 0.3(70 × 10 3 )
G= = = 8076 Mpa.
2(m + 1) 2(1 + 0.3)
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3TL 3 × 100000 × 500 180

θ= = ×
bt 3G 150 × 10 3 × 8076 π
= 0.0007 deg.
Problem 2:
Calculate shear stress and twist for the given section to an torque of 1000000 N-
mm. Find τ max and twist.
Stress on leg 1.
3Tt1 3Tt1
τ b1 = = 3
∑ bt 3
b1t1 + b2 t 23 + b3 t 33
3 × 100000 × 5
= = 53.3
25(100 + 75 + 50)
3 × 100000 × 5
τ b2 = = 53.3
25(100 + 75 + 50)
Unit twist
3T 3 × 1000000 180
θ= = × = 0.0756 deg .
Gt (b1 + b2 + b3 ) 8076 × 125(225) π
3
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5.12.4Problems for Torsion on Thin Walled Closed Section (Symmetrical Section):

Problem 1:
Calculate the shear stress in the member of the section shown in the diagram
(Berth Batho Method).
πr 2 π × 25
Area of section 1. = = = 39.3
2 2
2. = b 2 = 100
3. = b 2 = 100
ds
Line integral a= ∫
t
π × 10
a10 = = 629
2 × 0.025
10
a12 = = 200
0.05
20
a20 = = 667
0.03
10
a23 = = 333
0.03
20 10
a30 = + = 917
0.03 0.04
Twist
q ds
θt = ∫
2 AG t
for cell 1.
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1
2Gθ 1 = [629q1 + 200q1 − 200q 2 ] eq.1
39.3
for cell 2.
1
2Gθ 2 = [200q 2 − 200q1 + 6679q 2 + 333q 2 −333q3 ] eq.2
100
for cell 3.
1
2Gθ 3 = [333q3 − 333q 2 + 917q3 ] eq.3
100
Considering θ is equal through out
i.e. θ 1 = θ 2 = θ 3
Equating equation 1 and 2,2 and 3,3 and 1.
1 1
[629q 1 +200q1 − 200q 2 ] = [200q 2 + 200q1 + 667q 2 + 333q 2 − 333q3 ]
39.3 100
1 1
[200q 2 − 200q1 + 669q 2 + 333q 2 − 333q3 ] = [333q3 − 333q 2 + 917q3 ]
100 100
1 1
[333q3 − 333q 2 + −917q3 ] = [629q1 + 200q1 − 200q 2 ]
100 39.3
16q1 + 5q1 − 5q 2 = 2q 2 − 2q1 + 6.67 q 2 + 3.37q 2 − 3.33q3
− 200q1 + 1200q 2 − 33q3 = 1250q3 − 333q 2
12.5q3 − 3.3q 2 = 16q1 + 8q1 − 5q 2

comparing above 3 equation
we get
q1 = 143.4lb / in
q 2 = 234.1lb / in
q3 = 208.8lb / in
T = 2 A1 q1 + 2 A2 q 2 + 2 A3 q3
= 2 × 39.3 × 143.4 + 2 × 234 × 100 + 2 × 208.8 × 100
= 100000 lb-in.
≈ 11300000 N-mm.
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Stress in members:
m10 = q1 / t10 = 143.5 / 0.025 = 5720lb / in 2 = 41.6 N / mm 2
m12 = (q1 − q 2 ) / t12 = (234 − 143) / 0.05 = 1812lb / in 2 = 13.2 N / mm 2
m20 = q 2 / t 20 = 234 / 0.03 = 7800lb / in 2 = 56.6 N / mm 2
m23 = q3 − q 2 / t 23 = (234 − 208.8) / 0.03 = 840lb / in 2 = 6.1N / mm 2
m30 = q3 / t 30 = 208.8 / 0.03 = 6900lb / in 2 = 50.6 N / mm 2
Problem 2:
Determine the internal shear flow of the system for the two cell tube shown in
figure. When subjected to an torque of 20000lb-in. (Method of successive connection)
C.o.factor cell 1 and cell 2
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( L / t ) web(1 − 2) 10 0.05
Co.(1− 2) = = = 0.40
∑( L t )cell 2 10 30
+
0.05 0.1
( L t ) web(2 − 1) 10 0.05
Co( 2−1) = = = 0.25
∑( L t )cell1 40 0.05
2 A1 2 × 100
q1 = = = 0.25
∑( L t )cell1 40 0.05
2 A2 2 × 100
q2 = = = 0.4
∑( L t )cell 2 10 30
+
0.05 0.1
q1I = (CoF ) 2−1 × q 2 = 0.25 × 0.4 = 0.1
q 2I = (CoF )1− 2 × q1 = 0.4 × 0.25 = 0.1
q1II = (CoF ) 2−1 × q1I = 0.25 × 0.1 = 0.025
q 2II = (CoF )1− 2 × q 2I = 0.4 × 0.1 = 0.04
q1III = (CoF ) 2−1 × q 2II = 0.25 × 0.04 = 0.01
q 2III = (CoF )1− 2 × q1II = 0.025 × 0.4 = 0.01
q1IV = (CoF ) 2−1 × q 2III = 0.25 × 0.01 = 0.0025
q 2IV = (CoF )1−2 × q1III = 0.40 × 0.01 = 0.004
Final q 2 = q1 + q1I + q1II + q1III + q1IV

= 0.25+0.1+0.025+0.01+0.0025=0.3875
Final q 2 = q 2 + q 2I + q 2II + q 2III + q 2IV
= 0.4+0.1+0.04+0.01+0.004=0.554
2 A1 q1 = 2 × 100 × 0.3875 = 77.5
2 A2 q 2 = 2 × 100 × 0.554 = 110.8

T = 77.5+110.8 = 188.3
0.3875
q1 for T = 20000 = × 20000 = 41.2
188.3
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0.554
q 2 for T = 20000 = × 20000 = 58.5
188.3
Shearflow 41.2
Shearstress1 = = = 824
Thickness 0.05
Shearflow 58.5
Shearstress 2 = = = 585 .
Thickness 0.1
Problem 3:
Find the shear flows in all webs of box beam shown in figure .The section is
symmetrical about horizontal axis through centroid
Moment of inertia about neutral axis I = 4 × 0.5 × 5 2 + 2 × 1 × 5 2 = 100
Difference in bending stress between two cross section unit distance a part is
Vy 10000 × 5
= = 500
I 100
To obtain shear flow moment about f is taken
1
Area3 = × 10 × 10 = 50
2
π × 10 2 1
Area1 = + × 20 × 10 = 139.25
8 2
Areea2 = 239.25-189.25=50
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Taking moment about

1000 × 8 = 2 × 139.25 × q 0 + 2 × 50(90 − 250) + 2 × 50(q0 − 500)
8000 = 278.5q 0 + 100q0 − 25000 + 100q0 − 25000
135000 = 178.5q 0
135000
q0 = = 324
478.5
5.12.5 Problems for Torsion in Thin walled Sections (Unsymmetrical conditions):

Problem 1:
Find the shear flow in the webs of the beam shown in the diagram.
I x = 2 × 3 × 52 + 2 × 1× 52
= 200
I y = 2 × 3 × 10 2 + 2 × 1 × 10 2
= 800
I xy = 1 × 2 × 10 × 5 − 2 × 3 × 10 × 5
= -200
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Vz = 10000
Vx = 4000
Change in bending moment
V z I xz − V x I x V I − Vz I z
Δf b = x + x xz z
I x I z − I xz
2
I x I z − I xy2
10000(−200) − 4000(200) − 800000 − 8000000

= x+ z
200 × 800 − 200 2
120000
Δf b = −23.3x − 73.33 z
Loading in flanges =(-23.33x-73.33z)Af
Flange Flange Coordinates -23.33x -73.33z Δf b Loading

Area x z on
flanges
a 3 -10 5 233.3 -366.7 -133.3 -400
b 1 10 5 -233.3 -366.7 -600 -600
c 3 10 -5 -233.3 366.7 133.3 400
c 1 -10 -5 233.3 366.7 600 600
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Taking moments about centroid

2 × 50 × q 0 + 2 × 50 × (q 0 − 400) + 2 × 50 × (q 0 − 1000) + 2 × 50 × (q 0 − 600)
400q 0 − 40000 − 100000 − 60000 = 0
400q 0 = 200000
200000
q0 = = 500
400
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6. TRANSVERSE SHEAR LOADING OF BEAMS WITH SOLID OR OPEN CROSS

SECTIONS:
The topics discussed in this section deal with transverse shear loading of beams
that have (a) solid; or (b) open cross sections. In the case of (b) the beam could also be either
thin-walled or stiffened as in skin-stringer sections. Cross-sections with one, two, or no axis of
symmetry are analyzed for shear flow distribution, shear center location, and maximum shear
stress.
Topics covered: Flexural shear stress, shear flow, and shear center
Restrictions: The beam sections considered in this chapter are all homogeneous and elastic.
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Shear Center
6.3 Flexural Shear Stress and Shear Flow
6.4 Shear Flow Analysis for Symmetric Beams
6.5 Shear Flow Analysis for Unsymmetric Beams
6.6 Analysis of Beams with Constant Shear-Flow Webs (i.e., skin-stringer type sections)
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6.1 Introduction:
In previous discussion on pure bending of beams the transverse shear forces and
corresponding shear stresses were absent. That absence simplified the flexure problem as the
applied loads (i.e., bending moments) only produced flexural normal stresses. In this chapter our
focus is on a more general loading condition - one that involves both bending moment and
transverse shear force. The existence of the latter indicates that we no longer have pure bending
problem.
Recall from mechanics of materials that in beam bending transverse shear forces and bending
moments are related to each other. This relationship was displayed in drawing the shear and
moment diagrams for various beams and loading conditions.
We first are going to revisit the problems that we encountered in mechanics of materials course.
In order to do that we must recall problem restrictions and the method of analysis that was used
in the solution of those problems.
Restrictions:
1. Shear stress at every point in the beam must be less than the elastic limit of the material
in shear.
2. Normal stress at every point in the beam must be less than the elastic limit of the material
in tension and in compression.
3. Beam's cross section must contain at least one axis of symmetry.
4. The applied transverse (or lateral) force(s) at every point on the beam must pass through
the elastic axis of the beam. Recall that elastic axis is a line connecting cross-sectional
shear centers of the beam. Since shear center always falls on the cross-sectional axis of
symmetry, to assure the previous statement is satisfied, at every point the transverse force
is applied along the cross-sectional axis of symmetry.
5. The length of the beam must be much longer than its cross sectional dimensions.
6. The beam's cross section must be uniform along its length.
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6.2 Shear Center:

Consider the figure below showing a cantilever beam with a transverse force at
the tip. Under the action of this load, the beam may twist as it bends. It is the line of action of the
lateral force that is responsible for this bend-twist coupling. If the line of action of the force
passes through the Shear Center of the beam section, then the beam will only bend without any
twist. Otherwise, twist will accompany bending.
The shear center is in fact the centroid of the internal shear force system. Depending on the
beam's cross-sectional shape along its length, the location of shear center may vary from section
to section. A line connecting all the shear centers is called the elastic axis of the beam. When a
beam is under the action of a more general lateral load system, then to prevent the beam from
twisting, the load must be centered along the elastic axis of the beam.
The two following points facilitate the determination of the shear center location.
1. The shear center always falls on a cross-sectional axis of symmetry.
2. If the cross section contains two axes of symmetry, then the shear center is located at
their intersection. Notice that this is the only case where shear center and centroid
coincide.
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If the cross section contains no axis of symmetry or only one axis of symmetry, the
determination of the exact location of shear center requires a more detailed analysis which we
will discuss in following sections.
6.3 Flexural Shear Stress and Shear Flow:

Derivation:
Consider a cantilever beam with a symmetric cross section subjected to a lateral
(or transverse) force P at the tip. The shear and normal stresses induced by this force are required
to be below the corresponding elastic limits of the material.
Next, we consider a transverse section located at some distance x from the free end of the beam
as shown above. The bending moment at this section is related to the normal stress according to
the equation
In order to go any further, we need to know how x varies along the section. Recall from
previous chapter that if the section is in the state of pure bending, then the normal strain vaires
linearly. Furthermore, if the section is in elastic condition and the material is linearly elastic,
then according to Hooke's law, normal stress would vary linearly as well. With that in mind, we
need to determine whether the normal strain varies linearly in the presence of transverse shear
force. Without getting too deep into the theory of elasticity, it suffices to say that if the beam is
long compared to its cross section, then the normal strain does vary linearly. On the other hand,
if the beam is short, then normal strain variation is in fact nonlinear when transverse shear force
is present.
So we either have to limit our analysis to long beams or assume that the normal strain variation
is linear regardless of the length of the beam. With the requirement of elastic condition and the
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use of linearly elastic materials, the general elastic bending formula described in the previous
chapter can be used. In the presence of one moment component and zero product of inertia, the
normal stress equation reduces to
The distance y is measured from the centroidal z axis (which in this case coincides with the
neutral axis), Iz is the moment of inertia of the section about the z axis.
Relating the bending moment to the applied shear force P gives
The maximum normal stress, at section x, will occur at the farthest distance from the neutral
axis. In this case the stress distribution indicates that distance to be to the top surface of the
section as shown below.
To examine the shear force and associated shear stress created as a result of transverse force P,
let's consider a beam segment highlighted in the figure below. While the left edge of the beam
segment is free from any force in the x direction, the right edge is not due to the presence of x.
The question is how can equilibrium be maintained in this case? This points to the existance of a
horizontal shear force H along the bottom surface (longitudinal surface) of the highlighted
segment. The important point to notice first is that a transverse shear force results in the creation
of a longitudinal shear force.
Now the equation for equilibrium of forces in the x direction is written as
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where A* represents the area of the beam section from y1 to c. Making appropriate substitutions
and simplifying the resulting equation gives
The integral term represents a geometric quantity referred to as the moment of area,and is
denoted by Qz. The subscript z indicates that the moment of area is obtained about the z axis.
The equation for H can be written as
This equation indicates that the longitudinal shear force is an explicit function of x and an
implicit function of y through the moment of area. At the tip section x is zero, hence H is zero
for any value y. However, for any positive value of x, the variation in H depends on the location
of y1. It can be shown that for y1 = 0, H reaches its maximum value whereas at y1 corresponding
to the top and bottom surfaces, H goes to zero. Therefore, the longitudinal shear force H varies
linearly with respect to x and quadratically with respect to y.
Now, divide both sides of the equation by x
Note that P times x represents the moment Mz at position x, and that in the limit as x approaches
zero, Px/x simply represents the change in the bending moment which is simply equal to the
transverse shear force at that location. Therefore, we can rewrite this equation as
The ratio of H over x represents the quantity known as the shear flow denoted by q. In this case,
shear flow is acting along the longitudinal surface located at distance y1. For the problem
described here, the shear flow can be written as
At a given position x, q varies according to the variation of Q. The equation for Q reveals that at
the NA corresponding to y1 = 0, Q reaches its maximum value, and at y1 corresponding to the
top and bottom surfaces, it will be zero.
To obtain the flexural shear stress along the longitudinal surface corresponding to y = y1, we
simply divide q by the width of the longitudinal surface. If this dimension is denoted by t, then
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The subscripts on indicates that the longitudinal surface has a normal vector in the y direction
and that the shear stress component is in the direction of x axis. Since shear stress in the
longitudinal plane must be equal to that in the transverse plane, then the two subscripts can
change places without any change in the right hand side of the equation. The equation above is
known as the average flexural shear stress formula.
Although the value of shear flow is always maximum at the neutral axis location, we cannot
conclude that shear stress will also be maximum there. The reason is that t may vary from one
point to another, and that it is possible for a point other than the neutral axis to have the
maximum shear stress. In order to calculate the maximum shear stress, the following relationship
should always be followed.
Restrictions:
Before we can apply the average flexural shear stress formula, we must consider
the restrictions that apply to this equation:
1. The section has to be homogeneous (made of a single material).
2. The section has to have an axis of symmetry, therefore, product of inertia is zero.
3. The shear force V passes through the shear center of the section, and is parallel to one of the
two principal centroidal axes.
4. The shear stress at every point is below the corresponding elastic limit of the material.
Pop Question:
What if the longitudinal surface we considered in above derivation was not parallel to z axis?
What would change in that case?
Answer:
To answer these questions, consider the figure shown below.
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In the case of horizontal longitudinal surface, we will be calculating the yx or xy component of

shear stress. To calculate Qz we use the area above the longitudinal surface. t in this case is equal
to the distance from the left edge to the right edge of the top section. In the case of the vertical
longitudinal surface, we will be calculating a different component of shear stress, i.e., zx which
is the same as xz on the transverse surface. In this case Qz can be found by considering the area
to the right side of the longitudinal surface, and t would be equal to the flange thickness. This
difference is demonstrated in the following discussion:
If V is along z direction, then the moment of inertia is that about the perpendicular axis or y axis
in this case. For Vz loading, the flexural shear stress formula can be written as
Therefore, at a given point on the cross section we can calculate two components of shear stress
depending on the orientation of the longitudinal surface. Generally speaking, one component is
always much larger than the other thus, that would be the one of most interest in the analysis.
Table below gives equations for maximum shear stress for specific cross sections. The distance e
is defined as the distance from the neutral axis to the point of maximum shear stress. The shear
force V is normal to the NA and it acts along the vertical axis of symmetry, hence through the
shear center. The maximum shear stress is given in terms of the ratio V/A.
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Shear Stress Variation:

If we obtain the equation that describes the shear stress as a function of position on the cross
section, it would be easy to find how shear stress varies from point to point as shown in the
example figure below.
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Knowing that the ratio V/I is constant for a given section, we need to only concentrate on the
variation described by Q/t. For example, if we follow the derivation steps, we find the average
flexural shear stress variation for a beam with rectangular cross section, as shown above, will be
parabolic according to the equation
Shear Flow Variation:

The shear flow distribution at a given cross section is determined by writing the
equation VQ/I, which is basically the shear stress multiplied by 't'. The shear flow distribution
calculation can be seen in the example problems given at the bottom of this page.
Here are some examples of shear flow diagrams for sections with at least one axis of symmetry.
Each of these cases show the shear flow when the shearing load passes though the shear center.
In each of these shear flow diagrams, the maximum shear flow occurs at the neutral axis, which
passes through the centroid of the section. This will also be the location of the maximum shear
stress as the wall thickness is constant. Also notice how the shear load is perpendicular to the
NA.
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Example 1
A cantilever beam with T cross section is loaded at the tip by a vertical force. Determine at
section n-n:
• (a) Maximun compressive stress.
• (b) Maximum tensile stress.
• (c) Maximum shear stress.
Note: Stresses induced by the tip load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material used.
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EQUATIONS USED
Solution
Using line b-b as reference, with positive direction downward, the y centroidal coordinate is
determined as
Since the beam is elastic, the netrual axis will pass through its cross-sectional centroid. The
moment that force P produces is about the horizontal axis, therefore, neutral axis coincides with
the horizontal centroidal axis in this problem as shown in the figure below.
The applied load puts the portion above the NA in tension and the one below in compression.
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The moment of inertia about the horizontal centroidal axis is the only one that is needed to be
calculated here, and is determined as
(a) The maximum compressive stress will occur at the farthest point from the NA, on the
compression side. At section n-n the bending moment is
The corresponding compressive stress will be
(b) The maximum tensile stress will occur at the farthest point from the NA on the tension side.
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(c) As was explained earlier, the shear stress should be viewed as the ratio (V/I) times the ratio
(Q/t). At a given section along the length of the beam (V/I) is constant. This means that the
maximum shear stress will occur at the point on the cross section which results in the largest
(Q/t) value.
Without any exception, the first moment of area, Q is always maximum at the NA. Since in this
cross section the width t is also minimum at the NA, we can conclude that the maximum shear
stress will occur there.
Side Note:
Based on the above discussion, it is quite possible for the maximum shear stress
to occur at a point other than the NA. You must always be aware of this fact when analyzing a
beam under transverse shear loads.
To determine Q, cut the cross section horizontally at the NA and choose either the top or the
bottom portion, it doesn't matter which because the same answer will result using either portion.
Therefore, it makes sense to pick the portion with the simplest shape to calculate Q, in this case
the bottom portion.
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The maximum shear stress on the transverse plane n-n is found to be
The shear stress distribution over the entire cross section was not asked for in the problem
statement, but it is shown below for completeness.
Notice that the shear stress distribution shows only one component of shear stress (i.e., the
vertical component). While this component is the dominant one along the vertical flange, it is the
smallest one along the horizontal flanges. To determine the dominant component of shear stress
along the top flanges (i.e., horizontal component), we must make a vertical cut along either the
left or the right flange (due to symmetry) and calculate Q/t along the flange. The variation of
shear stress will be linear with the largest flange shear stress occuring near the junction of the
three flanges. We will see this difference in later example problems. However, in this problem
the overall maximum shear stress at section n-n is the one found earlier.
It is also important to point out a couple of things about the shear stress distribution shown. First,
notice that the variation of shear stress is quadratic. This is governed solely by the equation for
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Q. Second, notice the discontinuity at the junction. This is because as we go from top to bottom
surface, the thickness suddenly changes at the junction. The sharp reduction in thickness is
responsible for the sharp increase in the shear stress.
Example 2
A beam with the cross section shown is acted upon in its plane of symmetry by a 3 kN force. For
points A and B located at section n-n, shown in the figure below, determine the average shear
stress. The moment of inertia and centroid location are given in the figure.
Note: Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the corresponding material.
Equation Used
Solution
First the vertical shear 'V' at n-n is determined from the free body diagram shown below
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The moment of area Q at point A, for a horizontal cut is given as
Thickness 't' is defined by the width of the 'cut' which in this case is 100 mm. Hence, the average
shear stress at point A is
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Notice this is the vertical component of shear stress at point A. The moment of area Q at point B,
for a horizontal cut is given as
Point B is at the intersection of the web and the flange. The width of the cut is 20 mm, making
the shear stress
The shear stress at a point is mostly dependent on the thickness of the member at that point.
Usually, in thinner members more shear stress will be present as demonstrated by this example.
Shear Stress Components τYx And τZx
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The T section shown below is used to explain the difference between the two components of
shear stress, i.e., yx and zx. Let's assume that the transverse shear force is along the y axis
(passing through the shear center of the section) and that Vy = 1000 lb.
Solution:
With the shear force along the y axis, the average flexural shear stress formula for the two
components of interest is written as
Although the general form of the equation is the same for both components, there is a difference
in the way Qz and t are found in each case. With Vy given, we proceed with the calculation of
centroidal position.
The centroid is located at 3.25 in. from the bottom edge of the section. The moment of inertia
about the z axis is found as
To calculate the yx component of shear stress, the longitudinal surface has to have a normal in
the y direction. The intersection of this longitudinal surface and the transverse surface is shown
by a solid blue line in the figure below.
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Depending on the position of the longitudinal surface along the y axis, the corresponding value
for Qz is found as
The equation for Qz is quadratic. Qzmax = 5.28 in3, and it occurs at the NA (y2 = 0). The variation
of Qz is shown below.
With the variation of Qz known, yx is found as
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Keep in mind that t is the width of the longitudinal surface. Along -3.25 < y <
0.75, t = 1 in. and along 0.75 < y < 1.75, t = 4 in. As is shown in the figure above, there is a
discontinuity in the shear stress at y = 0.75 in. due to the discontinuity in t. The maximum value
of yx is found to be 290.64 psi and it occurs at the NA. The values of yx over the longitudinal
surface are equal in magnitude to the corresponding xy values on the transverse surface.
It is crucial to pay attention to yx variation at the junction. The value of 68.81 psi found in the
analysis refers to the shear stress in the horizontal flanges just above the junction point. As there
can be no shear stress on a free surface, the shear stress yx and its counterpart xy are zero at
points B and C but not at point A. As indicated by its plot, yx is more significant in the vertical
flange as opposed to horizontal flanges.
To calculate the zx component of shear stress, the longitudinal surface has to have a normal in
the z direction. The intersection of this longitudinal surface and the transverse surface is shown
by a solid blue line in the figure below.
Depending on the position of the longitudinal surface along the z axis, the corresponding value
for Qz is found as
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The equation for Qz is linear in this case. At the section intersecting the corner of the horizontal
and vertical flanges i.e., zz = +/-0.5, Qz = 1.875 in3. The variation of Qz is shown below.
The blue dashed line gives the Qz variation at the junction of the horizontal and vertical flanges.
This value is used to find the shear flow at that location.
With the variation of Qz known, zx is found as
Keep in mind that t is the width of the longitudinal surface. Along -2 < z < -0.5, t = 1 in. As is
shown in the figure above, zx reaches its maximum value of 103.21 psi in the horizontal flanges
at the junction with the vertical flange. In the vertical flange this component of shear stress is
zero as shown below.
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Notice that there is a counterpart shear stress ( xz) on the transverse surface. Also in this case
zx is more significant in the horizontal flanges as opposed to the vertical flange.
key observation:
At any point on the boundary the resultant shear stress is parallel to the boundary. This fact helps
us to sketch the figures shown below as a general depiction of shear flow and shear stress
variations in this example.
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Derivation of the average flexural shear stress equation for a rectangular section under a
vertical transverse shear force:
We start with the formula for the average flexural shear stress
where in this case 'V' is the vertical shear force at the section, 'I' is the moment of inertia about
the horizontal centroidal axis, 't' is the width of the section, and 'Q' is the first moment of area
about the horizontal centroidal axis.
For this derivation we need to isolate a portion of the section. We make a horizontal cut at a
distance 'y' from the horizontal centroidal axis (in this case also the neutral axis) as shown in the
figure below.
'V' force is usually a known quantity so we do the derivation in terms of V.

The moment of inertia about the horizontal centroidal axis of the rectangular cross section is
Next we write the equation for the moment of area of the shaded portion.
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Substituting these equations into the average flexural shear stress equation we get
The cross sectional area of the beam is 'A=2bc', this gives the final form of the equation
The plot of this shear stress variation is shown below.
For this narrow beam, the maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis. Also, at the very top
and bottom the shear stress is zero.
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6.4 Shear Flow Analysis for Symmetric Beams:
Shear Flow Calculation:

To calculate the shear flow over a section of interest we must have the value of
transverse shear force V that is acting along a principal axis. This force is either given or should
be obtained from the shear diagram. Then we need to have the moment of inertia about an axis
that is perpendicular to the direction of the transverse shear force. For example, if V is along y,
we need to have Iz, or if V is along z, we need to calculate Iy. With Vz/Iy or Vy/Iz known, we
calculate the first moment of area, Q. If V is along the y direction, we need to calculate Q about
the z axis. To do this a segment of the cross section is isolated from the rest, and its moment
about the z axis is calculated. The way we isolate a segment is by cutting it perpendicular to its
thickness. We will see how this is done in the example problems at the end of this section. An
example of a shear flow diagram is shown below.
Notice that in this example, the transverse shear load is in the vertical direction. Thus, the
moment of inertia about the horizontal centroidal axis is used for the calculation of shear flow.
The shear flows along the top flange and the web are calculated as
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The direction of shear flow has to be consistent with that of the resultant shear force, in this case
Vy.
We can also calculate the shear force acting in each member. To do this, we simply integrate the
shear flow along each member.
Key Observation:
If we examine the internal shear force distribution we observe the following facts.
Since the resultant shear force is in vertical direction, the two flange forces (in horizontal
direction) will add up to zero as they should. However, if we compare the force in the vertical
web, F2 to Vy we find that they are not the same. Although this may indicate that force
equilibrium is violated, the fact is otherwise. We know from previous discussion that shear stress
at a given point is represented in terms of its two perpendicular components. We also said that
usually one component is much larger than the other. In this case the vertical component of shear
stress in top and bottom flanges is much smaller than its horizontal component but not
necessarily zero. If we were to consider the vertical component of shear stress in the two flanges
and calculate the corresponding shear force, we will find that they added with F2 will be equal to
Vy.
The reason we don't go through the trouble of calculating these forces is because they are much
smaller than F2. In fact we can see that if b > > t, then F2 is > 90% of Vy. It is important to know
this fact when doing bending analysis under transverse loads.
Shear Center Calculation:
The shear center is found using moment equilibrium. We show the resultant
transverse shear force acting at the shear center which is at some distance e from the point of
reference, usually the centroid of the cross section. We then write the moment produced by the
resultant shear force V, set it equal to the sum of moments produced by individual internal force
components, F1, F2 and F3, and solve for the unknown distance, ez in this case. Paying attention
to the direction of each moment, we can write
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Beam Sections Not Loaded Through the Shear Center:

If the applied shear force does not pass through the shear center, it will force the
beam to twist as it bends. This eccentricity produces a torque, that will cause an additional shear
flow and shear stress. The analysis used for torsion of beams with open cross sections (I.4) can
be used here to find the constant shear flow and corresponding shear stress at a desired point on
the cross section.
In analysis of such sections, the shear force is replaced by an equivalent force-couple at the shear
center. The final shear stress diagram will be the superposition of 1. the shear stress with the
shear force passing through the shear center,and 2. the shear stress induced by the associated
torque about the shear center.
An example of this kind of loading is shown below. Note that in this case, the maximum shear
stress occurs at a point on the neutral axis which is on the left edge of the vertical flange.
Shear Force in Fasteners:

In many applications, beam sections consist of several pieces of material that are
attached together in a number ways: bolts, rivets, nails, glue, weld, etc. In such so called built-up
sections we are interested in knowing the amount of shear stress and the resulting shear force at
the cross section of fasteners or over the glued surface.
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The figure shown below gives an example of two rectangular members that are attached by
means of mechanical fasteners. In this case, we want to know the amount of shear stress as well
as shear force carried by each fastener. The fasteners are spaced evenly at a distance of s. Each
fastener has a cross-sectional area denoted by Af.
Note that the surface of contact or joint is treated as a frictionless surface. Therefore, the shear
flow is carried entirely by the fasteners.
If at a given section, there are more than one fastener, the shear flow will maintain the same
value, but the shear force and shear stress will change depending on the number and size of
fasteners used. For example, if at a given section there are two identical fasteners as shown
below, then the force in each is found as shown below.
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Example Problems
Example 1
For the beam and loading shown, determine:
• (a) the location and magnitude of the maximum transverse shear force 'Vmax',
• (b) the shear flow 'q' distribution due to 'Vmax',
• (c) the 'x' coordinate of the shear center measured from the centroid,
• (d) the maximun shear stress and its location on the cross section.
Stresses induced by the loads do not exceed the elastic limits of the material. Assume the
transverse force passes through the shear center of the beam at every cross section.
Equations Used
Solution
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(a) To find the maximum transvere shear, the shear at each section along the beam between
sections A and D must be found. This means that we need to draw the shear diagram. To do this
we have to take the following steps: From the free body diagram, the reactions at A and D are
The transverse shear variation along the section with distributed force can be found by using the
integral equation
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The resulting shear diagram shown below indicates that the maximum shear force is Vmax =
55.8 kN and it occurs along portion CD.
(b) For the shear flow analysis we must consider a beam section with maximum shear force. In
this case any section along portion CD will satisfy this requirement. To obtain the shear flow,
first draw the picture of the cross section. Since the moment of inertia about the horizontal
centroidal axis (perpendicular to the direction of V) is already given, we can go directly to the
moment of area (Q) calculation. Begin at the free end of the top right flange where we know the
shear flow is zero, and consider a portion of length s as shown in the figure below.
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Write the equation for the shear flow in terms of the moment of area of the portion of length s.
Notice that the moment of inertia is that of the entire I cross section about the horizontal
centroidal axis, which is perpendicular to the direction of V.
Due to symmetry about the vertical centroidal axis, the shear flow in the top left flange will be
the same as the flow in the top right (same magnitude, opposite direction). Also due to symmetry
about the horizontal centroidal axis, the shear flow in bottom flanges will be the same as the
ones on top (same magnitude, opposite direction).
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In the web, the shear flow doesn't start from zero, like it did in the flanges. This is because the
starting point of the web is a junction and not a free end. The starting shear flow for the web is
shown in the figure below.
Using the fluid flow analogy the flow coming into the web-flange junction from flanges must
leave the junction through the web.
To determine the shear flow variation along the web, isolate a section of length w along the web
as shown in the figure below.
Write the shear flow equation by writing the starting value which is 128.96 kN/m, and adding to
it the contribution of the web. V/I ratio stays the same (as it should), and all that remains to be
calculated is the moment of area of length w along the web.
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The complete shear flow diagram is shown below. The shear force in the web is found by
calculating the area under the q diagram. This gives a value of 54.626 kN which represents
approximately 98% of the total shear force which is 55.8 kN. The rest of it (not shown), as
explained before, will be carried by the top and bottom flanges.
(c) Since this is a doubly symmetric cross section, the shear center is located at the intersection
of the axes of symmetry which is the centroid.
(d) The maximum shear stress will occur at the point on the cross section where the ratio (q/t) is
maximum. In this problem that point is located on the neutral axis.
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In summary, the maximum shear stress in the flange is 6.829 MPa and occurs at the intersection
of the flange and the web (i.e., s = 61 mm). The minimum shear stress in the web is 21.493 MPa
and the maximum shear stress is 30.511 MPa.
Example 2

Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material. The transverse force
passes through the shear center of the beam at every cross section.
Equation Used
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Solution
we have to take the following steps:
From the free body diagram, the reactions at A and D are
The transverse shear can be found by using the integral equation from mechanics of materials
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55.8 kN and it occurs along portion CD.
Notice that the answer to part (a) is the same as the one found in Example 1. This is because the
beam supports and loading condition dictate the transverse shear force variation along the length
of the beam. The shape of the beam cross section has no effect on this variation.
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(b) For the shear flow calculation, with the shear force and the moment of inertia about the
horizontal centroidal axis known, we again begin from a free end where we know the shear flow
is zero. In this case, we start from the free end of the top right flange. Note that we could have
chosen any of the three free ends of the cross section. The final variation would come out to be
exactly the same regardless of which flange tip we started from.
For the segment of length s, write the moment of area equation and put it in the shear flow
equation as given below.
Due to symmetry about the vertical centroidal axis, the shear flow in the top left flange will be
the same as the flow in the top right (same magnitude, opposite direction).
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For the web, begin at the web-flange junction. What pours into the web is what enters the
junction from each flange.
Consider the segment of length w along the web. Write the equation for its moment of area, and
put it in the shear flow equation as in Example 1.
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The final shear flow diagram is shown below. Note the linear variations in horizontal flanges and
quadratic variation in the vertical flange.
If we integrate the shear flow equation for the vertical flange we obtain a shear force of 55.02
kN. This is approximately 99% of the total shear force of 55.8 kN. The remaining 1% is carried
by the horizontal flanges.
(c) Do to symmetry about the vertical axis, the shear center falls along that axis, but not at the
centroid as was the case with doubly symmetric I cross section of beam in Example 1. With the
shear center falling on the vertical axis of symmetry its x-coordinate measured from the centroid
is obviously zero.
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(d) The maximum shear stress will occur at the point on the cross section where (q/t) is
maximum. In this case maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis and its value is
To summarize, the maximum shear stress in the horizontal flanges occur at their respective
junction with the vertical flange. This shear stress is 9.02 MPa. The minimum shear stress in the
vertical flange is 28.39 MPa and the maximum shear stress is 35.99 MPa.
EXAMPLE 3
• (b) the shear flow 'q' distribution due the 'Vmax',
Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material.
NOTE:In this problem the applied transverse shear force passes through the centroid of the
cross section, and not its shear center.
Equations Used
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Solution
we have to take the following steps:
From the free body diagram, the reactions at A and D are
The transverse shear can be found by using mechanics of materials
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55.8 kN and it occurs along portion CD. Notice once again that the diagram is exactly the same
as those found in the previous two example problems as the loads and boundary conditions have
not changes.
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(b) For the shear flow analysis we need to have the moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
perpendicular to the shear force, in this case the horizontal centroidal axis. The dimensions of the
cross section are measured to the middle of each adjacent member for simplicity. Hence, the
cross section can be treated as
The moment of inertia is found as
Notice that in this problem the applied lateral load does not pass through the shear center. This
means that as a result of this loading, the beam will twist while bending. The principle of
superposition allows us to break this problem into two parts. In the first part we will determine
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the shear stress due to V through the shear center, and in the second part we will determine the
shear stress due to accompanying torque as was explained earlier. For the shear flow due to V
passing through the shear center, we start at the free end of the top right flange by isolating a
portion of length s along the flange, same as in previous examples.
Write the equation for the moment of area of the isolated section, and put it in the shear flow
equation as given below.
For the web start from the web-flange junction and write the shear flow equation considering the
moment of area of w portion along the web.
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The bottom flange will have the same shear flow as the top flange due to horizontal centroidal
symmetry of the cross section.
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NOTE: always check your final value of q to make sure that at the free end you get zero. The
shear flow diagram shown is only due to V through the shear center and does not represent the
final or true shear flow variation. However, this is the variation we need in order to find the
location of shear center.
(c) Because of symmetry about the horizontal centroidal axis, the shear center must be located
on that axis. Therefore, its 'y' coordinate is known. The 'x' coordinate of shear center can be
determined by summing moments about the centroid. First, we need to find the force in each
flange and the web. The force along each member is just the area under the shear flow curve.
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The force in the flange is the area of the triangle (the height and length would be 488.5 and .12).
But as long as the equations are available, it's easier to just integrate.
Always calculate the summation of vertical and horizontal forces, and check them against the
resultant force. With only a vertical force acting on the section, the sum of horizontal forces
should add up to zero, as they do. Notice that the vertical force along the web is almost 99.7% of
V with the remaining 0.3% carried by the flanges as explained before. Summing moments about
the centroid gives the horizontal coordinate of the shear center. Since the answer came out
positive, it means that the shear center is to the left of the web as assumed.
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(d) The shear flow diagram shown above is only the contribution of the force through the shear
center.
There is also a shear flow induced by the torque about the shear center. Knowing the location of
shear center, we can now calculate the torque as shown in the figure below.
The value of torque is determined as
Recall from the discussion of thin-walled sections in pure torsion and the elastic membrane
analogy that the shear stress contours along each member can be shown as in the figure below.
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To use the equation for torque-induced maximum shear stress, we first need to calculate the a/t
ratio. Since all members have the same thickness, the maximum shear stress due to torque occurs
in the middle of the longest member, in this case the web.
Looking at the shear stress contours, we observe that near the inside edge of the web the shear
stress is downward, therefore, it would add to the one caused by the shear force through the
shear center. With both components being maximum at the neutral axis, the calculation of the
overall maximum shear stress would be performed as
The maximum shear stress occurs at the NA, on the inside edge of the web.
6.5 Shear Flow Analysis for Unsymmetric Beams:

In chapter II, a general equation for the bending stress was introduced. It was
further shown that this equation could be used on any cross section, symmetric or unsymmetric,
under symmetric or Unsymmetric bending moment. There is a similar general equation for shear
flow. It too can be used for any cross section, symmetric or unsymmetric, under symmetric or
unsymmetric transverse shear force. This equation is derived from Eq. (II.1), and is given as
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When the section is symmetric there will be no product of inertia, and if only a vertical shear
force is applied, this equation reduces to what we have used previously for determining shear
flow distribution at a given section.
The analysis procedure for unsymmetrical cross sections is as follows:

• Determine, as needed, the centroid, moments of inertia, and the shearing load in the
problem.
• Consider the two parts of the general shear flow equation separately.
• Determine the shear flow resulting from each part.
• Combine the two parts together to get the final shear flow distribution.
When using this equation, it is important to consider the 'signs' on the transverse shear force
components, Vx and Vy. The sign convention used is as follows:
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Example
• (a) the location and magnitude of the maximum transverse shear force,
• (c) the 'x' coordinate of the shear center measured from the centroid of the cross section.
Stresses induced by the load do not exceed the elastic limits of the material. The transverse shear
force is applied through the shear center at every section of the beam. Also, the length of each
member is measured to the middle of the adjacent member.
Equations Used
Solution
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With the cross section being unsymmetric about the centroidal axes x and y, we need to calculate
the product of inertia. However, first we need to know where the centroid is located. Then we
can calculate the moments of inertia Ix, and Iy, and the product of inertia, Ixy. The calculations
lead to the following answers:
(a) To find the maximum transvere shear force, the shear at each point between A and D must be
found. From the free body diagram, the reactions at A and D are
The transverse shear can be found from mechanics of materials
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From the diagram, the maximum shear force is found to be
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(b) To find the shear flow use equation A14.14. With only a vertical force acting on the section,
whatever the sign, the magnitude of the shear flow will not change with the choice of sign. But
to be consistent with the discussion on the sign convention, the shear force is negative along
portion CD of the beam, as shown in the shear diagram.
Notice that in the above equation Vx is zero, as there is no horizontal force acting on the section.
Work on one part of the general shear flow equation at a time.
Part 1
Obtain the shear flow variation by considering the summation of xA which constitutes the
moment of aera Q in this case.
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The equation for the vertical flange is linear, and it would be easy to plot. The horizontal flange
would be a little harder to plot accurately as it is parabolic, we also need to obtain more
information. For example, what are the roots of the shear flow equation (corresponding to a zero
shear flow, which indicates a change in shear flow direction), and where is the slope of the shear
curve zero (corresponding to the location of maximum shear flow along the horizontal flange).
With all the necessary information determined, the shear flow distribution corresponding to part
1 of the general shear flow equation can be plotted as shown below.
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Notice that the shear flow never took a zero value, except at the free ends, hence no change in
sign (i.e., direction) was observed.
Part 2
For this part we need to calculate the moment of area due to summation of yA.
With the picture shown above, the moment of area can be calculated and put into the part 2 of
the general shear flow equation as shown below.
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With the flow variation along the vertical flange being parabolic this time, we need to examine
the equation along the vertical flange to see if shear flow goes to zero anywhere along its length.
The shear flow from part 2 is shown below.
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Now, combine the two parts together by adding (algebraically) the shear flow components along
each flange as.
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Vertical Flange
Check to see if there is a change in direction of shear flow along this flange.
Horizontal Flange
Check to see if there is a change in direction of shear flow along this flange.
As the calculations indicate, there is infact a point along the horizontal flange where the shear
flow switches direction. This is captured in the final shear flow distribution shown below.
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To make sure that the values found are correct. We must check the equilibrium of forces in x and
y directions, individually.
The equilibrium is satisfied. Therefore, we can presume that our analysis is correct.
(c) The 'x' component of the shear center is determined by summing the moments about an
arbitrary point, here we choose point 'G' at the intersection of vertical and horizontal flanges.
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With the resultant force along each flange passing through the corner of the angle section, they
produce no moment about point G, therefore
If we look at this angle section carefully, we observe that with the two flanges being identical,
and separated by 90 degrees, an axis of symmetry is created along the 45 degree line between the
two flanges passing through the corner. Hence, as before the shear center is located on the axis
of symmetry. Notice also since this axis of symmetry was not along x or the y axes, the product
of inertia Ixy did not vanish. Something to ponder upon!
6.6 Analysis of Beams with Constant Shear Flow Webs:

The discussions of flexural shear stress and shear flow, so far, have been focused
on sections which are fully effective in bending. This means that the entire cross section was
used in calculation of centroid and moments of inertia. The shear flow varied either linearly or
non-linearly along each member of the cross section. As such the calculation of shear flow was
somewhat involved.
In this section our focus shifts to built-up beams (with open section) that are composed of thin
web(s) supported by stiffeners (or stringers). In the analysis of such beams the following
assumptions are made.
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Assumptions:
1. Calculations of centroid, symmetry, moments of area and moments of inertia are based
totally on the areas and distribution of beam stiffeners.
2. A web does not change the shear flow between two adjacent stiffeners and as such would be
in the state of constant shear flow.
3. The stiffeners carry the entire bending-induced normal stresses, while the web(s) carry the
entire shear flow and corresponding shear stresses.
Analysis:
Let's begin with a simplest thin-walled stiffened beam. This means a beam with
two stiffeners and a web. Such a beam can only support a transverse force that is parallel to a
straight line drawn through the centroids of two stiffeners. Examples of such a beam are shown
below. In these three beams, the value of shear flow would be equal although the webs have
different shapes.
The reason the shear flows are equal is that the distance between two adjacent stiffeners is
shown to be 'd' in all cases, and the applied force is shown to be equal to 'R' in all cases. The
shear flow along the web can be determined by the following relationship
Important Features of Two-Stiffener, Single-Web Beams:

• Shear flow between two adjacent stiffeners is constant.
• The magnitude of the resultant shear force is only a function of the straight line between
the two adjacent stiffeners, and is absolutely independent of the web shape.
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• The direction of the resultant shear force is parallel to the straight line connecting the
adjacent stiffeners.
• The location of the resultant shear force is a function of the enclosed area (between the
web, the stringers at each end and the arbitrary point 'O'), and the straight distance
between the adjacent stiffeners. This is the only quantity that depends on the shape of the
web connecting the stiffeners.
• The line of action of the resultant force passes through the shear center of the section.
For multi-stiffener, multi-web beams the shear flow never changes direction in the web between
the adjacent stiffeners. But it can change direction at a stiffener separating two adjacent webs.
Example 1
For each of the constant-shear-flow web sections shown, determine:
• (a) the magnitude of the resultant shear force,
• (b) the location of the resultant force (same as shear center), with respect to point 'O'
shown with each section.
• (c) the direction of the resultant force.
Let q=100 lb/in in each section.
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Equations Used
Solution
At a glance all of the three sections look very different, but once we do the analysis, we will be
able to see the similarities.
Maybe this is a good place to make an educated guess. With respect to magnitude, location, and
direction of the resultant force how similar are these sections?
Section 1:
The straight distance between the stringers at the ends of the web is
The magnitude of the force is therefore given as
The direction of the force is parallel to 'h'. The location of the force from point 'O' is
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The area A is shown by the hashed region.

Notice that the line of action of the resultant force passes through the shear center of the section.
You may ask the question, how would I know by using the scalar equation for 'e' which side of
line 'h' the force should be shown?
The answer is simple. Remember that the resultant force should produce the same moment about
point 'O' as the components. Looking at the shear flow direction shown for section 1, the shear
flow produces a counter clockwise moment about point 'O'. Therefore, the resultant shear force
must do the same. The arrow on the resultant force vector is consistent with the direction of the
shear flow along the web, or the shear force in each segment of the web (i.e., the vertical parts
and the horizontal part).
Section 2:
The magnitude of the force is given as
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The direction of the force is parallel to 'h'. The location of the force measured from point 'O' is
The area 'A' is shown by the hashed region.
Notice that the same reasoning as before can be used to show the correct direction and location
of the resultant shear force.
Section 3:
The magnitude of the force is given as
The direction of the resultant shear force is parallel to 'h'. The location of the resultant shear
force requires the use of equation for 'e'.
Note that for the previous two sections when we drew straight lines from each stringer to
reference point 'O', the resulting region produced a single enclosed area. With the shape we have
here, when we connect the ends of the web to point 'O' by two straight lines, the result is two
instead of one area. Hmmm! Interesting! What should we do now?
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Well we don't give up this easily. We just have to interpret equation we use for 'e' a bit more
carefully. In situations such as this, when more than one cell is created, the direction of moment
of shear flow in the two areas may be opposite. As is the case here. So we look at the expanded
form of equation for 'e'. We calculate 'e' associated with each cell from the equation e=2A/h,
then we add them together by paying attention to the direction of moment the shear flow in each
cell produces about point 'O'.
Here, the bigger cell produces a counter clockwise moment, whereas the smaller one produces a
clockwise moment. The location of the resulant force is, hence, determined as
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Now, when we compare the three sections, we realize in all three, the magnitude of the resultant
shear force was exactly the same. The difference in these sections appeared only in magnitude of
'e'. Also note that in all sections, the shear flow was directed in northwest direction, and as can
be seen so was the direction of the resultant shear force. Finally, the resultant force in each
section passes through the shear center of the section.
Example 2
For the multi-web, multi-stringer open-section beam shown, determine
• (a) the shear flow distribution,
• (b) the location of the shear center.
Equation Used
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Solution
The location of the centroid with respect to stringer 4, and moments of inertia are
(a) With no horizontal shear force, and with the above information, equation A14.14 reduces to
Starting at stringer 1 and working around to stinger 6, the shear flow due to the vertical shear is
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The shear flow diagram and the location and direction of each force component for this section
are shown below.
It is important to pay attention to the location of each force, especially the ones for the
semicircular webs.
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(b) To determine the 'x' coordinate of the shear center the web forces need to be calculated. Then
the moments are summed about stringer 4 with clockwise positive.
To find the 'y' coordinate of the shear center, a fictitious horizontal shear force 'Vx' is applied to
the beam, then the same analysis is repeated.
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Now calculate the force in each web.
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Use the moment equilibrium to determine the y-coordinate of the shear center.
The shear center location is shown in the figure below.
7. TRANSVERSE SHEAR LOADING OF BEAMS WITH CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS:
The topics discussed in this section deal with transverse shear loading of
unstiffened or thin-walled stiffened beams with CLOSED cross sections. Such beams are
generally referred to as BOX Beams. The methods of analysis discussed here are relevant to
airplane wing, tail, and fuselage structures. However, more reference is given to aircraft wing
structures composed of a single-cell or a multiple-cell closed box beam.
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Topics covered:
Flexural shear stress, shear flow, shear center of unstiffened and thin-walled
stiffened sections. Sections 1 through 4 deal with uniform beams whereas sections 5 and 6 deal
primarily with no uniform and tapered beams in which the cross-sectional moments of inertia are
not constant.
Restrictions: The beams are considered to be homogeneous and elastic.
7.1 Single-Cell Unstiffened Box Beam: Symmetrical About One Axis
7.2 Statically Determinate Box Beams With Constant-Shear-Flow Webs
7.3 Single-Cell Multiple-Flange Box Beams. Symmetric and Unsymmetric Cross Sections
7.4 Multiple-Cell Multiple-Flange Box Beams. Symmetric and Unsymmetric Cross Sections
7.5 The Determination of the Flexural Shear Flow Distribution by Considering the Changes in
Flange Loads (The Delta P Method)
7.6 Shear Flow in Tapered Sheet Panels
7.1 Single Cell Beams:

Shear flow distribution in beams having open cross sections. We used the general
shear flow equation to determine the shear flow variation starting from a free edge where we
know q = 0. In beams having closed cross sections, however, there is no free edge.
Consequently, the shear flow analysis for closed-section beams is slightly more complicated than
that for the open-section beams. For this analysis we will rely, to some extent, on the techniques
discussed previous chapters.
Two types of closed-section shear flow problems are discussed here.

In case 1, the resultant shear force passes through the shear center of the closed section.
Therefore, we know that in such a loading, the beam will bend without twisting. This is referred
to here as the bending problem.
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In case 2, the resultant shear force does not pass through the shear center. As a result, the beam
will twist as it bends. This is referred to here as the bend-twist problem.
There are two different methods to solve these types of problems. Method 1 is known as the
direct method, and method 2 is known as the indirect or shear center method. These two
methods of analysis are explained below.
Case 1: Bending Problem:

In these problems we know that the transverse shear force passes through the shear center of the
section. How do we know that? There are two possibilities. This fact may be explicitly stated in
the problem statement. Else, it may be realized by examining the geometric shape of the beam
cross section and where the applied load is shown to be acting. Therefore, it is obvious that beam
should bend without twisting.
To start the analysis, assume the shear flow is zero at an arbitrary point. This implies that the
section has been "cut" longitudinally at that point, thus creating a free edge. Then, we use the
general shear flow equation to find the "preliminary" shear flow distribution along each wall. We
designate this shear flow by q'. The reason we call this the preliminary shear flow is that it is
based on the assumption that shear flow is zero at the selected point. Also, with this being a
bending problem, the shear flow should result in the angle of twist of zero. If we were to use q'
to solve for the twist angle, it would not result in zero twist. This tells us that the shear flow q' is
not the true shear flow distribution.
To satisfy the zero-twist requirement, a constant shear flow of unknown magnitude q0 is added
to the shear flow distribution q' found previously. Recall the angle of twist equation for closed
sections discussed in Chapter I. We use that equation with q along each side being q' of that side
+ or - q0 depending on whether they are both in the same or opposite direction. By setting the
angle of twist to zero we find the constant shear flow q0. This value is then added to q' values
found previously to determine the final shear flow distribution, q.
These steps are graphically shown in the figure below for a doubly symmetric cross section
under a vertical transverse shear force through the shear center (which in this case coincides with
the cross-sectional centroid). Note the symmetry in the shear flow pattern. This is the
consequence of force acting along an axis of symmetry.
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Case 2: Bend-Twist Problem:

1. Direct Method
If we are just interested in determining the shear flow distribution due to the
resultant shear force with no interest in the location of shear center, then this is the easiest
method to use. In using this method, it does not matter whether or not the transverse shear force
is acting through the shear center.
As in the previous case, we begin the analysis by selecting a point and assuming that q' = 0.
Then we use the general shear flow equation to determine the preliminary shear flow distribution
q' all around the section. This shear flow distribution will satisfy the force equilibrium but not
the moment equilibrium. To satisfy the moment equilibrium a constant shear flow q0 must be
added to the preliminary shear flow system. The magnitude of this constant shear flow is found
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from moment equilibrium. That is the sum of moments due to the shear flow system of q'+q0
about an arbitrary point must balance the moment produced by the resultant shear force about the
same point. With one equation in one unknown, the magnitude of q0 will be determined.
Note that the shear center location will remain unknown or unimportant throughout the solution.
For our rectangular section example with the shear force shifted near the right edge, this
approach yields the final shear flow pattern as shown below
2. Shear Center Method

We use this method if in the process of calculating the shear flow distribution due
to the applied load we also want to determine the location of the shear center. To explain this
procedure let us consider the same example used for the direct method. We can represent the
resultant force acting at some arbitrary location in terms of an equivalent force-moment system
acting at the shear center of the section. We don't know the magnitude of the moment as we do
not know the location of the shear center, but we can write it as the force times its moment arm,
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measured from the point of application of the force to the shear center as shown in the figure
below.
Now we solve the problem in two parts. First we determine the location of the shear center by
determining the shear flow distribution due to force through the shear center. The procedure is
exactly the same as the one described above in the bending problem.
At the conclusion of this part, we know the location of the shear center. If the location of shear
center is exactly along the line of action of the applied force as specified in the problem (i.e., d =
0), then the solution is finished. Otherwise, we calculate the moment shown in the figure as T =
Vd. This moment has a shear flow associated with it which can be found using the relation T =
2qA. From this relation we solve for the constant shear flow shown in the figure as qbar. This
shear flow has to be superimposed over the one found previously, in the shear center calculation,
in order to get the final shear flow distribution corresponding to the actual loading condition.
Example
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For the thin-walled single-cell rectangular beam and loading shown, determine
• (a) the shear center location (ex and ey),
• (b) the resisting shear flow distribution at the root section due to the applied load of 1000
lb,
• (c) the location and magnitude of the maximum shear stress.
Equations Used
Solution
(a) Due to vertical symmetry of the cross section, the shear center will lie on the centroidal y
axis, hence ex = 0 in this case. However, with no symmetry about the horizontal centroidal axis,
the value of ey is unknown. Here is how we calculate the vertical coordinate of the shear center:
We consider the root section and apply a fictitious horizontal shear force Vx through the shear
center. Note that the applied vertical load must be removed for this analysis. In this part we
demonstrate the solution procedure described in case 1. With no vertical force and no product of
inertia, the general shear flow equation reduces to
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Because of vertical cross-sectional symmetry and symmetric loading, the neutral axis will pass
through the centroid as shown below.
In order to use the general shear flow equation, we assume q = 0 at an arbitrary point. This
assumption models the cross section as an "open" section. The resulting shear flow distribution
is designated by q' to indicate that it only represents a preliminary and not the final shear flow
distribution. We decided to assume q' = 0 at the upper left corner. We start from that point and
go around the section and determine the preliminary shear flow distribution.
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The resulting preliminary shear flow distribution due to Vx is shown below.
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Since Vx passes through the shear center, the section will not twist. Using the angle of twist
equation from chapter I and setting it to zero we obtain the constant shear flow q0 required to
keep the section from twisting.
The negative sign on the shear flow q0 implies that its direction is opposite to that assumed in
the figure above. The constant shear flow q0 is added to the preliminary shear flow system found
previously to determine the final shear flow distribution (not shown here) due to Vx.
The direction of positive shear flow is arbitrary, in this case we chose it to be in the counter
clock-wise direction. The fact that the shear flow found in the analysis using the general shear
flow equation and the shear flow found using the angle of twist equation were in opposite
directions is important. They oppose each other.
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Now, by summing the moments about point 'A' at the corner, we determine the vertical location
of the shear center. Remember that the force associated with the shear flow is just the area under
the shear flow curve. It can either be found by integrating the shear flow equation or, if the curve
is simple, like a triangle, it can be solved for directly.
The shear center is located at (0", 0.6") from the centroid.

For this part the direct method will be used.
The resultant shear force will be equal to the vertical load at the tip. With no horizontal shear
force and no product of inertia, the general shear flow equation reduces to
Again, assume q = 0 at a point (i.e., cut the section at corner 'A') and work around the cross
section, finding the preliminary shear flow distribution.
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Each one of these equations should be checked for its maximum value location and whether
there are any sign changes, indicating a change in the shear flow direction. To find a change in
sign, set the equation to zero and solve for 'w'. If the result is within the limits of 'w' along that
particular web, then there is a sign change. To find the location of the maximum value, take the
derivative of the equation with respect to the 'w' and set the equation equal to zero. This part is
just for quadratic or higher degree equations. The maximum for the linear equations will be at
one end or the other. The analysis of one equation is shown here.
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With this part done, the shear flow for the open section can be drawn as shown below.
Sum the moments about corner 'A' to get the shear flow q0 needed to balance the moments. This
time the forces along 'CD' and 'DA' are found by integration.
Add this constant shear flow to those found previously to get the final q distribution.
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These equations should be analyzed again to determine any shear flow direction changes and
locations of maximum shear flow. Two in particular are segments 'BC' and 'DA'. The location
for the change in direction should be the same. Notice that in the above shear flow equations w2
and w4 are measured in opposite directions.
The final shear flow distribution is
Notice that although the cross section is symmetric about the y axis, the shear flow distribution is
not. This is because the vertical shear force is not on the axis of symmetry.
It is always a good idea to check equilibrium equations to make sure they are satisfied. In this
case the summation of horizontal forces add up to zero as they should, and the summation of
vertical forces add up to very close to 1000 lb. The slight difference is due to the fact that the
vertical component of the shear in the horizontal webs have been ignored. This idea was first
discussed in the discussion of transverse shear loading of open sections in chapter III. Also if we
were to take moments about any point, we will find the sum of moments due to shear forces
balance the one due to external force.
By examining the shear flow distribution and thickness variation, it is clear that the maximum
shear stress is in segment 'AB' at w=3.377".
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7.2 Statically Determinate Box Beams with Constant-Shear-Flow Webs:

The box beam shown in the figure below has three stiffeners and three constant-
shear-flow webs, as a result, there are 6 unknown loads (i.e., 3 shear flows qAB, qBC, qAC and
3 axial forces FA, FB, and FC).
Since for a non-concurrent, non-coplaner (general) force system we have 6 equilibrium

equations, we should be able to use these equations to solve for the 6 unknown loads.
Hence, in statically determinate box beams, we do not need to use the procedure involving the
general shear flow equation as described in previous section. If we were to modify the box beam
by including an additional stiffener, then the problem becomes statically indeterminate as there
would be 8 unknown loads to solve for as opposed to 6 in the previous case.
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Under these conditions, we rely on the procedure described in the previous section based on the
general shear flow equation. The solution procedure becomes much simpler, however, as the
shear flow along each web is constant.
The example below describes the method of solution for statically determinate stiffened box
beams. The discussion of statically indeterminate box beams will be given in the next section.
Example
For the single cell, 2-flange cantilever beam shown, determine:
• (a) The shear flow distribution at the root section due to the vertical load of 500 lb acting
at the tip.
• (b) The axial load carried by flanges A and B if the beam has a length of 100 in.
• (c) The horizontal position of the shear center, ex.
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Equations Used
and equations of equilibrium

Solution
In this problem there are 4 unknown force quantities, 2 shear flows and 2 axial loads. Therefore,
we can use the equations of equilibrium. But first, the force in each web must be determined.
Recall from section A14.9 that the magnitude and location of the resultant force of the shear
flow in a web are found using
For this problem, it is nessecary to leave 'R' in terms of the shear flow 'q'.
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Now sum the moments about point 'o'. Note that since R1 passes through this point, q1 will not
appear in the moment equilibrium equation. Hence, we can directly solve for q2.
Now sum the vertical forces to solve for q1.
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The shear flow diagram is shown in the figure below.
The calculation of axial forces in the flanges or stringers is fairly straight forward. We first draw
the free-body diagram of the box beam by separating the webs and flanges as shown in the figure
below.
Knowing the direction of shear flow in each web, the direction of shear flow in the flanges can
be determined. The axial force in each flange will be the sum of shear flows acting on it
multiplied times the length. Notice that there is no axial force at the tip end of each flange.
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Now we have determined all the unknowns asked for in the problem statement. Take a moment
to go back and review the solution procedure to make sure you understood all the steps involved.
You should have noticed that we only used three of the six equilibrium equations. It would have
been possible to calculate the forces PA and PB without having to draw the free-body diagrams.
We could have just summed forces along the length of the box beam to obtain one equation in
terms of PA and PB. This equation would have indicated that PA = PB immediately. Then, we
would have used a moment equation about a horizontal line perpendicular to the length of box
beam and passing through either point A or B. This way we could find the magnitude of the
unknown force. Try this approach to make sure you will get the same answer as shown in the
solution.
To determine the horizontal position of the shear center, we assume that the vertical force of 500
lb is acting at a distance of ex to the right of stiffeners. The following procedure is used to
determine the value of ex.
Recall that by definition, if a transverse force passes through the shear center of a section, it will
cause the beam to bend without twisting. Therefore, if the 500 lb force is passing through the
shear center, as considered in this section, then the angle of twist, theta, should be zero.
We begin by writing the summation of moments about point A
500(ex) - R1(3) - R2(2 pi) = 0
=> 500 ex - 24 q1 - 50.27 q2 = 0 (1)
Next, we sum forces in the vertical direction.
R1 - R2 - 500 = 0
=> 8 q1 - 8 q2 - 500 = 0 (2)
The last equation is that for the angle of twist
(5+5)q1/.05 + (4pi)q2/.032 = 0
=> 200 q1 + 392.7 q2 = 0 (3)
Solving equations (1) through (3) simultaneously gives
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ex = -.133 in, q1 = 41.41 lb/in, & q2 = -21.09 lb/in.

Now, we have found the horizontal position of the shear center. The negative sign indicates that
the shear center is to the left of stiffener A and not to the right as originally assumed. We have
also determined the values of the shear flows in the two webs when the transverse shear resultant
passes through the shear center.
7.3 Single Cell- Multiple Flange Beams: Symmetric and Unsymmetric Cross Sections:
This section deals with statically indeterminate box beams with constant-shear-
flow webs. For example, a single cell box beam with four stiffeners and four webs. The shear
flow analysis in such box beams is basically the same as that discussed in section IV.1 for closed
sections.
We cut the cross section at a particular web in order to start the solution at a point with a known
shear flow (i.e., q' = 0), and work around the cross section using the general shear flow equation.
Then, we replace the cut web and show a constant shear flow qo around the closed cell. This
unknown shear flow is the actual value of shear flow in the web that was originally cut. Both the
shear center and direct method can be used to solve for the unknown shear flow. The shear flow
between stringers can be calculated as in previous section. Remember that for these problems,
the shear flow between two adjacent stringers is constant in both magnitude and direction. The
change in direction can only occur at a stringer location.
The example below shows the analysis procedure.
Example
For the single-cell skin-stringer closed section shown, determine
(a) the shear flow distribution for a vertical transverse shear force of Vy passing through the
shear center,
(b) the horizontal position of the shear center ex, (c) the shear flow distribution for a horizontal
transverse shear force of Vx passing through the shear center, (d) the vertical position of the
shear center ey.
Note: show the shear center location position relative to the centroid.
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Equations Used
Solution
The centroid of the cross section is located at
Notice that since the stiffeners are assumed to carry the bulk of bending in skin-stringer sections,
only the areas of the stiffeners are used in calculating the centroid as well as the moments of
inertia.
(a) Apply a load Vy in the downward direction. We begin by removing the skin between
stringers #7 and #1 so we can start from a point with a known shear flow (i.e., zero) and be able
to use Eq. A14.14. With Vx = 0, equation A14.14 reduces to
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The moments of inertia are
Start at stringer #1, and work around the section.
Note that the value of q' found for each web would have been the true value of shear flow if the
original section was an OPEN section (i.e., with no web between stiffeners 1 & 7). This would
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be similar to the problems discussed previously in Chapter A14. However, in this problem we
are dealing with a closed section so the q values found from Eq. A14.14 are NOT the actual
shear flows, and that is why we use the variable q' to make that distinction.
Now, replace the skin between stringers #7 and #1. Since the resultant shear force passes though
the shear center, the twist angle must be zero. We use the angle of twist equation set to zero.
This equation allows us to find the value of shear flow qo that once is algebraically added to q'
values would give the true shear flow in each web.
This is the required shear flow to keep the closed section from twisting. Note that it is in terms of
Vy.
By algebraically adding qo to q' in each web, we will come up with the actual shear flow
distribution for the case when Vy is passing through the shear center
To find the horizontal location of the shear center, we sum the moments about the position of
one of the stringers. Here we choose stringer #2.
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ex is measured from the centroid of the cross section.

To determine the shear flow distribution for V = Vx and Vy = 0, we pretty much follow the same
procedure as used in part (a). Again, remove the skin between stringer #7 and #1. With Vy = 0,
equation A14.14 reduces to
As before, work all the way around the section to find q' in each web.
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Use the angle of twist equation set to zero to solve for qo.
By algebraically adding qo to q' in each web, we will come up with the actual shear flow
distribution for the case when Vx is passing through the shear center
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Note the direction of shear flow around the section. To check the validity of the shear flows, we
can sum forces along the x direction to make sure it comes out to be equal to Vx which is the
resulant force of all shear flows.
Finally, we sum moments about the position of stringer #2 to solve for dy and ey.
Therefore, the shear center is located at 5.85" to the left and .08" below the centroid as shown in
the figure below. Just for the curiosity sake, where would the shear center be if there really was
no skin between stringers #7 and #1, making this an open skin-stringer section?
It can be easily found by using the q' values in the above analysis in the equation for the
summation of moments. Use the q' in part (a) to find the ex and use the q' in part (c) to find ey in
this case. The shear center would be located at
This location is consistent with the location of the shear center for a channel section.
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7.4 Multiple-Cell Multiple-Flange Beams: Symmetric and Unsymmetric Cross Sections:

For finding the shear flow distribution and shear center location in two-cell or multiple-cell (i.e.,
more than 2 cells), multiple-flange beams the same methods demonstrated in section IV.1 can
still be used. Keep in mind that such beams are always statically indeterminate, and we must use
either the direct method or the shear center method to solve for the shear flow distribution.
However, following the procedure described in section IV.1 does not provide us with sufficient
number of equations to solve for all the unknown shear flows. An important fact to remember in
these problems is that all the cells will twist the same amount.
This will help us establish sufficient number of equations to solve for the unknown shear flows.
The equation for the angle of twist is the same as the one used before for closed-section beams
with constant-shear-flow webs.
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Example
For the uniform two-cell, skin-stringer cantilever box beam and loading shown;
• (a) determine the shear flows in the webs and the axial forces in the stringers at the root
section,
• (b) determine the shear and normal stresses at the root section,
• (c) determine the shear center location,
• (d) determine the deflection at the tip which includes vertical and horizontal
displacements and twist.
Equations Used
Solution
At first glance, we can tell that this is a statically indeterminate problem. There are 7 unknown
forces and shear flows, but we only have 6 static equilibrium equations to work with.
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However, if we include the angle of twist equation, there will be sufficient equations to solve for
all the unkowns in the problem. Start by summing the vertical and horizontal forces and the
moments about stringer A using the view shown in the figure below.
The equilibrium equations are
Now write the angle of twist equation for each cell. Since the angle of twist in the two cells must
be equal, we can set the right hand sides of these equations equal to each other and obtain an
additional equation in terms of the unknown shear flows.
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We now have 4 equations and 4 unknowns. Solving them gives the shear flows as
The axial forces are found by breaking up the wing section and drawing the shear flows on the
panels and stringers.
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The shear stresses in the webs are found simply by dividing the shear flow in the web by the
corresponding web thickness. The normal stress in each stringer is found by dividing the axial
force by the area of that stringer.
To find the x coordinate of the shear center, we must apply a vertical force of arbitrary
magnitude. In this case, we apply a vertical force of 2500 lb. The location of the shear center is
assumed to be to the left of the vertical web between stringers A and B as shown below. We
write the force and moment equilibrium equations along with the equation for angle of twist in
each cell. Since the force is passing through the shear center, there cannot be any twist.
Therefore, each twist equation is set equal to zero.
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We have 5 equations and 5 unknowns. Solving for ex yields
To find the y coordinate of the shear center, we apply a horizontal force, which in this case is
chosen to be 500 lb in +x direction. Following the same procedure as used previously, we find ey
as follows.
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(d)
With the cross section having no centroidal axis of symmetry, we cannot directly solve for the
vertical tip deflection based on the formula
This equation gives the correct answer only if x and y are principal axes. In this problem x and y
are not the principal axes as Ixy is not zero. Hence, what we need to do is to first locate the
principal axes, then calculate the corresponding moments of inertia. Then by transforming the
forces in the directions of principal axes, we solve for the tip deflection.
The cross-sectional centroid is located at (7.2",5") from flange B. The corresponding moments of
inertia are calculated to be Ix = 25 in4, Iy = 207.36 in4, and Ixy = -36 in4. Using the equations for
the principal plane and corresponding moments of inertia, we obtain Ixp = 214.21 in4 and Iyp =
18.15 in4 with yp axis being at 10.77 degrees counter-clockwise from the x axis. Transforming
the applied forces in xp and yp directions gives Pxp =-2,362.49 lb, and Pyp = 958.47 lb. Now
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using the deflection equations for the tip-loaded cantilever beam, we obtain 4.34" and 0.15" in -
xp and yp directions, respectively. These values correspond to E = 10 Msi. These results
translate into a tip deflection of (x,y) = (-0.67,4.3"). Therefore, the tip would deflect upward and
to the left (as viewed from the root) as a result of the loads and the cross-sectional geometry.
If we calculate the tip deflection by disregarding the facts stated above, we would end up with a
tip deflection of (x,y) = (.08",3.33"). This would result in error of 22.6% in vertical deflection.
The twist at the tip is found by using the angle of twist equation for either of the two cells; the
answer will come out the same, regardless of which cell is used.
NOTE:
In this example problem we used the equations of equilibrium along with the
angle of twist equation to solve for the unknown shear flow and axial forces. Here is the
procedure for solving for the shear flows using the direct method:
As before we need to remove some webs to create an open section. The choice of which webs to
remove is arbitrary so long as once these webs are removed the section will be fully open. For
example if we remove the curved and flat webs connecting stringers A and B, we will have an
open section consisting of only two webs and three stringers. Now, we use the general shear
flow equation to solve for the preliminary shear flow q' along the remaining webs. Note that we
have to do this once with only Vy as the resultant shear force, and another time with Vx as the
only resultant force.
Once the q' values are found, we will replace the webs that were removed earlier. Because of
having two cells, we show two constant shear flows qo1 and qo2 in cells one and two,
respectively. We write the angle of twist equation for each cell with q along each web being the
algebraic sum of q' and qo. By setting the angle of twist in both cells equal, we will have one
equation in two unknows qo1 and qo2. Next, we write the equation for the summation of
moments about an arbitrary point. This will give another equation in terms of qo1 and qo2.
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Solving them simultaneously gives the two constant values. The actual values of the shear flows
are found by algebraic addition of qo's and q' values in all webs. We have to pay attention to the
sign of each component in finding the actual shear flows.
Having found the shear flows in the webs, we can then draw the free-body diagram of the beam
to solve for the axial forces in the stringers as was done in the solution above. The described
procedure is what we would use in the case of multiple-cell multiple-flange box beams to be
discussed next.
7.5 The Determination of the Flexural Shear Flow Distribution by Considering the
Changes in Flange Forces (The Delta P Method):
The method of solution based on the general shear flow equation is valid for
beams with uniform cross section (constant moments of inertia). However, in aircraft structures
it is common to encounter nonuniform beams. The wing box is a good example. In such
problems the general shear flow equation could lead to erroneous values for shear flows. This is
because this equation assumes Ix, Iy, and Ixy are all constant along the length of the beam
whereas in a nonuniform beam that is not the case. Therefore, we must use a different method of
analysis when dealing with nonuniform beams.
The Delta P method described in this section is what we would use for nonuniform beams. Note
that nonuniformity could be in different forms. For example, we could have a skin-stringer box
beam with stringer areas varying along the length of the beam causing the moment of inertia to
be a function of position along the length. We could also have webs of varying dimensions, i.e.,
tapered . The shear flow analysis using the Delta P method is more tedious than using the
general shear flow equation and is not recommended for uniform beams.
The example problem below shows the procedure for using the Delta P method. Let's consider a
square beam of 100 in. in length subject to a 100 lb load at its tip passing through the centroid.
There are four stringers at the corners, each with an area of 1 sq. in. We'd like to find the shear
flow pattern by using the Delta P method.
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The final shear flow pattern is shown above. The following solution steps show how this pattern
was obtained.
With Delta P method we must identify two adjacent sections along the length of the beam. The
section at which the shear flows are sought is called section A-A, and the adjacent section, some
distance away along the length, is called section B-B.
We proceed by calculating the normal force in each stringer at section A-A. To do this we need
to use the general bending stress equation. First, we need to identify whether there is any
symmetry with respect to horizontal or vertical centroidal axes. This is done by examining the
stringer areas and their distribution. Also determine how many components of bending moment
are present at section A-A. In this case the cross section is doubly symmetric, so obviously the
product of inertia is zero. Also with the force at the tip acting in the vertical direction, there is
only one moment at the root, that is Mx. Once the stress in each stringer is determined, the force
in each stringer is determined by the product of stress times the cross-sectional area.
These steps are repeated at section B-B. Notice that this section is closer to the tip, therefore, the
bending moment at this section is less than that at the root, section A-A. Since there is no change
in cross-sectional geometry, the centroidal location and the moment of inertia do not change.
The forces in stringer at section B-B are obtained and shown below.
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The difference between the axial force at each end of the stringer is determined next. This is
where the name Delta P comes from.
As in previous method of solution based on Eqn. A14.14, we must begin at a point with known
shear flow. So we cut the box beam along one web which would make shear flow zero there.
Then we start with stringer A and calculate the shear flow along the 5" length (i.e., the distance
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between sections A-A and B-B) by dividing the Delta P of stringer A by 5". This shear flow has
to be equal to that in the adjacent web at the top. Since the web is untapered, the shear flow
along all four sides would be equal. We march around the entire section and find the shear flow
in each web. Notice that equilibrium is maintained in each stringer and in each web as it must.
Please note carefully the directions of the forces and shear flows. You can click on the picture
for a more detailed drawing of the stringers. Each stringer and web is in equilibrium, this can be
proven by summing the forces.
Next, we close the section by replacing the cut web. To calculate the shear flow along the web
that was set to zero, we use the moment equilibrium equation. This equation gives the constant
shear flow qo. This value is then added (with attention to direction) to other shear flows to obtain
the final shear flow pattern at the root, section A-A.
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What we just did is the Delta P method in a nut shell. Notice how the shear flows are exactly the
same as found before. Because this beam has no taper along its length, we could have taken
station B-B to be anywhere along the length and still get the same shear flows at the root. This,
however, is not the case in tapered beams, as we will discover next.
Delta P METHOD: Application Procedure:

1. Identify the section (ie station A-A) along the beam where the shear flow is to be
determined (usually the root for a cantilever beam).
2. Choose another station (ie station B-B) in the vicinity of the first one. For tapered beams,
the closer the better.
3. Determine the bending moments at station A-A and station B-B.
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4. Determine the normal stress in each stringer, using equation A13.13, at each station.
5. Determine the normal component of the force in each stringer at each station.
6. Calculate the difference between the axial forces at the two stations for each stringer.
This is the dP for each stringer.
7. If the beam has a closed cross section, modify it to an open section.
8. Evaluate the q' variation at station A-A based on Delta P/Delta L
9. Replace the removed web(s), and calculate the necessary constants (i.e., q01, q02,
q02,...q0n, where n = no. of cells).
10. The vector addition of q' and q0 in each cell gives the final shear flow distribution at
station A-A.
Example
For the uniform single-cell, skin-stringer cantilever box beam and loading of example 1 in
sections A15.9 & A15.10 determine the shear flows in the webs at the root section using the
Delta P method.
Equations Used
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Solution
First define stations A-A and B-B. Since we are looking for the shear flow at the root, let that be
station A-A. This is a cantilever beam with constant cross section, therefore station B-B can be
anywhere between station A-A and the tip. Since the cross-sectional properties are constant
along the length of the beam, the magnitude of the shear flows will be independent of the
location of station B-B. In this example, station B-B is placed at 50 inches from the tip.
Using equation A13.13, the normal stress in each stringer is found (remember that the stringer
coordinates are in reference to the centriod).
The normal force is just the stress times the area.
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Now repeat the procedure for B-B. If this cross section and/or the stingers varied with the length,
then the moments of inertia and centroid would need to be calculated again. But in this case they
don't. We just need to recalculate the bending moments as the moment arms are different for
station B-B.
The delta P's (i.e., the difference in the axial forces at the ends of each stiffener between stations
A-A and B-B) are:
Remove the necessary webs to make this an open section. Webs AB (the quarter circle) and web
AB (the interior web) are removed in this example. Now calculate the shear flow for the cross
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section. Here is the way of finding the shear flows. Starting at 'A', show the dP found earlier in
the proper direction.
In order to maintain equilibrium, there must be another force in the opposite direction. This force
can either be represented as a force or a shear flow along the right edge of stringer A where it is
attached to a web.
The shear flow in the web that is attached to stringer A is of equal magnitude but of opposite
direction due to equilibrium requirements. The same is seen in stringer C. Note that since the
web is rectangular, the shear flow along all four sides would be equal.
Stringer C has a shear flow of 250 lb/in on the left side. In addition, it has a dP of 694.44 lb.
Hence, in order to maintain equilibrium there is a need for another shear flow along the right
edge of stringer C. This shear flow is calculated in the figure below.
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This new shear flow is passed onto the bottom web, then onto stringer 'B' which already has a dP
acting on it.
Since B is the last stringer having a free edge on the left, the force acting along that edge should
come out zero. If it doesn't, then something is wrong in the calculations.
It is important to note that the shear flows calculated so far are not the final answers. This is
evident by the fact that these shear flows satisfy only the force equilibrium and not the moment
equilbrium. Now, we replace the webs that were removed earlier and write the angle of twist
equation for each cell in terms of the two unknown constant shear flows (one for each cell) q1
and q2. Since the angle of twist in cell one is the same as that in cell two, we get one equation at
the end in terms of q1 and q2 only.
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Next, we sum the moments about 'A' to get another equation in terms of the two constant shear
flows. Notice that the moment due to external forces is zero due to the location of the moment
center.
Solving the two equations simultaneously gives q1 and q2. The final shear flows at the root
section are given below:
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7.6 Shear Flow in Tapered Sheet Panels:

From aerodynamic, structural, and performance efficiency standpoints it is very
common to find tapered wings in both civilian and military aircraft. Tapered wings have an
advantage over non-tapered wings. From an aerodynamic standpoint, they have lower drag
which allows for faster speeds and a better lift distribution over the surface of the wing. Tapered
wings are structurally more efficient with root section, having to support more load, being the
section with the largest moment of inertia. Tapered wings are also used for improved
maneuverability in military aircraft.
In tapered web-stringer sections, the stringers relieve some of the shear load carried by the webs.
This can be shown by the following example.
Below is a planview of a flat, rectangular stiffened web. By simple summation of moments and
forces, the axial forces in the stringers and shear flow in the web can be determined.
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Now, for a tapered stiffened web of the same length we have
We observe that while stringer B has no slope in x-y plane, stringer A does. As a result, the axial
force in stringer B is the same as its x component, while the axial force in stringer A is the
summation of its x and y components shown above. As shown below, the shear force in the web
at the left end is no longer equal to P as in the unhampered section, but rather is less - with the
difference picked up by stringer A.
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In tapered box beams, we must pay close attention to the slope of each stringer to determine its
axial force. Also in tapered webs the shear flow is no longer the same along two adjacent edges,
as is the case with untapered webs.
With respect to the use of Delta P method for calculating the shear flow distribution at a desired
section, we realize that the accuracy of the method is decreased if the two adjacent sections
along the beam (i.e., sections A-A and B-B shown in the figure below) are too far apart. This is
especially true when we have a beam with nonuniform taper (one with the stringers and webs
changing dimensions at a different rate from root to tip).
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8. COMBINED TRANSVERSE SHEAR, BENDING, AND TORSION LOADING

The problems of combined loading are fairly common in aircraft structures. For
example, if we consider the aerodynamic loads acting on a wing. We realize that in many cases
the line of aerodynamic centers does not coincide with the elastic axis (i.e., the line passing
through the shear center of every spanwise section of the wing). As a result the wing bending
will be combined with twisting action as well. So in this case the loads at the aerodynamic center
line can be replaced with an equivalent force couple system acting at the elastic axis. The force
component will produce transverse shear loading and bending moment along the length of the
wing while the couple produces a torque.
The example problem below is taken from the previous section and it basically highlights the
procedure for analyzing such problems in general. One must keep in mind that depending upon
the complexity of the beam cross section the bending and shear stresses may require the use of
general bending stress and general shear flow equations. In addition to the loadings stated earlier
it may be possible to have axial tension as well. The rotating wing problem (i.e., helicopter
blade) is a good example of such a problem.
9. INTERNAL PRESSURE:
In this section we will consider the analysis of pressurized structures. Examples
of these structures are found in fuselage of high-flying aircraft that are required to be pressurized
for passenger comfort. We will consider both monocoque and semi-monocoque pressure vessels.
The method of analysis is confined to plane-stress problems of cylindrical and spherical pressure
vessels with the shell treated as an elastic membrane incapable of supporting any bending loads.
9.1 Membrane Equations of Equilibrium
9.2 Special Problems in Pressurized Cabin Stress Analysis
9.1 Membrane Equations Of Equilibrium For Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

Pressure vessels are shell-type structures. Thin walled implies skin thickness is
much less than the radius of curvature. The most common shapes used for pressure vessels are
cylinders and spheres. Spherical pressure vessels are the most efficient. The skin is usually very
thin, it cannot support any bending, only membrane stress. In these problems, the plane stress
condition is assumed.
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Unstiffened (Monocoque) Cylindrical Pressure Vessels
Hoop Stress
Axial Stress
Maximun Shear Stress
Unstiffened Spherical Pressure Vessels:

Due to symmetry, the stresses exerted on all four faces of the element must be equal.
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Example 1
For the monocoque cylinderical pressure vessel shown, determine the
• (a) hoop stress
• (b) axial stress
• (c) maximun shear stress
If the pressure was increased to 20 psi, what should be the thickness of the skin to maintain the
same level of hoop stress as found in part (a)?
The pressure shown is the gauge pressure.

Equations Used
Solution
(a) The hoop stress is given as
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(b) The axial stress is found by
(c) The maximum shear stress is determined as
If the pressure was increased to 20 psi, the new skin thickness to maintain the same level of hoop
stress would be found as follows
Therefore, it takes 36% more skin thickness to carry 36% more pressure for the same level of
stress in skin.
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Example 2
A spherical pressure vessel is made of aluminum that has the following properties: the ultimate
normal stress is 68,000 psi and the ultimate shear stress is 41,000 psi. Determine the minimum
skin thickness if the gauge pressure inside is 14.7 psi and the diameter is 6 ft.
Equations Used
Solution
The skin thickness based on ultimate axial stress is
The skin thickness based on ultimate shear stress is
The largest of the two will be the minumum skin thickness that would be used based on the
material ultimate strength values.
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Notice that no factor of safety is used in this example. Normally there is a factor of safety
associated with every design. For example, if we were to use a factor of safety of 2 for normal
stress and 3 for shear, we would use 68000/2 = 34000 psi for max allowable normal stress and
41000/3 = 13666.67 psi for max allowable shear stress. Under these conditions the minimum
allowable skin thickness would be twice as large as the one found earlier. i.e., tmin = .007782"
Example 3
An idealized transport aircraft fuselage, shown in the figure below, is to be fabricated from
aluminum alloy with the ultimate stresses shown. Knowing that a maximum allowable gauge
pressure of 14.7 psi is desired and factors of safety of 1.5 in tension and 2 in shear are required,
determine the minumum allowable skin thickness. The diameter is 72 inches. The end caps are
spherical, and have the same thickness as the cylindrical section.
Equations Used
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Solution
First, we determine the allowable stresses as
For each section of the fuselage we find the skin thickness based on each equation. The largest
value will be the minimum allowable skin thickness.
Cylindrical Portion:
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Spherical Portion:
The minimum allowable skin thickness is
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9.2 Special Problems In Pressurized Cabin Stress Analysis: Axially-Stiffened (Semi-

Monocoque) Pressure Vessels:
In an aircraft, the vertical and horizontal tail produce loads that put the fuselage in
bending. An unstiffened pressure vessel cannot carry these loads efficiently. Hence, stringers are
commonly added longitudinaly to support the skin and create a semi-monocoque pressure vessel.
At the point of attachment, the stringer and skin, or shell, have the same strains, but different
stresses. This difference is due to the fact that skin is in a 2-D state of stress while the stringer is
in a 1-D state of stress.
The stress equations are:
where
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Example
Consider a semi-monocoque cylindrical pressure vessel with a diameter of 78
inches. The skin and stringers are made of the same material with an ultimate normal stress of
60,000 psi, an ultimate shear stress of 8,000 psi, and a Poisson's ratio of 0.3. We are using 10
identical stringers with the total area equal to 40% of the skin cross sectional area. For internal
gauge pressure of 15 psi with yield factors of safty of 1.5 in tension and 2 in shear, determine:
• the pressure vessel's minimum skin thickness
• the cross sectional area of each stringer
Equations Used
Solution
We find the skin thickness based on the stress allowables in the skin.
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We will repeat the procedure based on the stress allowables in the stringer.
The minimum thickness is then found to be the one that does not violate any of the stress criteria
The area of each stringer is found using
Real Aircraft Structures

Here are some slides of several fuselage sections of a Boeing 727 showing the
frames and stringers with different cross sectional shapes. Slide #1: Notice in this slide the use of
different shaped stringers in the fuselage. The top one is a hat, below it is an angle, below that is
a Z, and at the bottom of the slide is another hat stringer. Also notice how closely (approximately
1") the rivets are placed next to each other.
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Slide #2: This is a close up view of a frame-stringer joint. Notice the use of a clip attaching the
stringer to the frame. Also notice the use of skin doubler between the fuselage skin and the
frame.
Slide #3: This slide shows what is commonly referred to as a "mouse hole" - the opening in the
frame allowing the stringer to pass through it.
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Slide #4: This slide shows the use of hat stringers in the fuselage section. Notice that the
stringers are mounted with the top web as opposed to the flanges touching the skin. This form of
attachment requires only a single row of rivets, whereas otherwise two rows of rivets would have
to be used. This is a good example of how manufacturing requirements have been incorporated
in the structural design.
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10. ANALYSIS OF JOINTS:

A complete aircraft structure is manufactured from many parts. These parts are
made from sheets, extruded sections, forgings, castings, tubes or machined shapes which must be
joined together to form subassemblies. The subassemblies must then joined together to form
larger assemblies and then finally assembled in to complete aircraft. Many parts of the complete
aircraft should be arranged such that they can be disassembled for shipping, inspection, repair
and replacement and usually joined by fasteners. In order to facilitate the assembly and
disassembly of the aircraft, it is desirable to design connections containing as few fasteners as
possible.
10.1 Analysis of Riveted Joints:

Rivets are low cost, permanent fasteners well suited to automatic assembly
operations. Initial cost of rivets is substantially lower than that of threaded fasteners. But tensile
and fatigue strengths of rivets are lower than for comparable bolts or screws. Riveted parts
cannot be disassembled for maintenance or replacement without destroying the rivet. Although
the actual state of stress in a riveted joint is complex, it is customary to ignore such
considerations as stress concentration at the edge of rivet holes, unequal division of load among
fasteners and non uniform distribution of shear stress across the section of the rivet and of
bearing stress between rivet and plate, simplifying assumptions are made, which are summarized
as follows
1) The applied load is assumed to be transmitted entirely by the rivets, friction between
the connecting plates being ignored.
2) When the centre of the cross sectional area of each of the rivets is on the line of
action of the load, or when the centroid of the total rivet area is on this line, the rivet
joins are assumed to carry equal parts of the load if of the same size: and to be loaded
proportionally to their section area other wise.
3) The shear stress is assumed to be distributed uniformly across the rivet section.
4) The bearing stress between the rivets and plates is assumed to be distributed
uniformly over an area equal to the rivet diameter times the plate thickness.
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5) The stress in the tension member is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the net
area.
6) The stress in the compression member is assumed to be uniformly distributed over
the gross area.
The possibility of secondary failure due to the secondary causes, such of the shearing or
tearing out of a plate rivet and edge of plate or between adjacent rivets , the bending or
insufficient upsetting of long rivets, or tensile failure along zigzag line when rivets are staggered,
are guarded against in standard specifications by provisions summarized as follows
1) the distance from a rivet to a sheared edge shall not be less than 1 (3/4) diameters, or
to a planned or rolled edge, 1(1/2) diameters.
2) The minimum rivet spacing should be 3 diameters.
3) The maximum rivet pitch in the direction of the stress shall be 7 diameters, and at the
ends of a compression member it shall be 4 diameters for the distance equal to1 (1/2)
times the width of the member.
4) In case of diagonal or zigzag chain of holes extending across a part, the net width of
the part shall be obtained by deducting from the gross width the sum of diameters of
all holes in the chain and adding, for each gauge space in the chain.
5) The shear and bearing stresses will be calculated in the basis of the nominal rivet
diameter, the tensile stresses on the hole diameter.
6) If the rivets in a joint are so arranged that the line of action of the load does not pass
through the centroid of the rivet areas then the effective eccentricity must be taken in
to account.
Failure of riveted joints:

Failure of riveted joints may be due to following 3 reasons
1. Shear failure of rivets
2. Tensile failure of plate along rivet line
3. Failure by double shear of plates
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10.1.1 Shear Failure of Rivets:
Applied Ultimate load = P

Number of rivets = n
Allowable ultimate shear strength of nth rivet = Psn. in N
Psn
In general Ultimate load on single rivet (nth rivet) Psrn = P in N
Ps1 + Ps 2 + Ps 3 + ...Psr
Reserve factor = Psn/Psrn.
For ultimate shear strength of rivets refer
Design Allowables for LCA Airframe tables 5.3 - 5.10 page no 109 - 116
Hal report no Hal/MP/R&D/03/82 for Russian specifications.
Hal report no Hal/MAT/6/75 for SP, LN, AN, L2 specifications
10.1.2. Tensile Failure of Plate along Rivet Line:

10.1.2.1 For Single Row And Rivets Having Uniform Diameter And Equal Pitch:
Allowable ultimate tensile stress = ft.N/mm2.

Pp
Ultimate tensile stress of the plate σ = in N/mm2.
( p − d )t
Stress is calculated for pitch distance.
Ultimate applied Load = P in N/mm
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Pitch of the river = p in mm.

Diameter of rivet = d in mm.
Thickness of the sheet = t in mm.
Reserve factor = ft/σ.
10.1.2.2 More Than One Row and Rivets With Equal Spacing:
For top plate the possibility of failure of plate is at row 1 and for bottom plate it is
row 3
Ultimate applied load = P N/mm.
Ultimate applied load per row = P/nr.
Number of rivet rows = nr.
Pitch of the rivet = p in mm.
Diameter of the rivet = d in mm
Thick ness of the sheet = t in mm.
(P / n r ) p
Ultimate tensile stress in sheet σ = in n/mm2.
( p − d )t
Allowable ultimate tensile stress = ft in n/mm2.
Reserve factor = ft/σ
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10.1.2.3 Rivet Lines With Varying Number Of Rivets (all rivets are same type):
Allowable ultimate tensile stress in sheet = ft in n/mm2.

Ps rn Pp
Ultimate tensile stress in row n σ = in N/mm2.
Ps rt ( p − d )t
Number of rivet rows = n
Applied ultimate load = P N/mm.
Diameter of the rivets = d mm
Pitch of the rivets = p mm
Thickness of the sheet = t mm
Number of rivets in row n = rn.
Total number of rivets = rt.
Reserve factor = ft/σ.
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10.1.2.4 Rivets Of Varying Diameter, Sheet Thickness And Pitch Distance:

In this case the ultimate tensile stress of all rivets are calculated separately and
reserve factor is calculated for each rivet separately minimum reserve factor is taken as reserve
factor of the joint
Allowable ultimate tensile stress = ft in N/mm2.
Psn Pp n
Ultimate tensile stress in the plate near nth rivet σ =
Ps1 + Ps 2 + Ps 3 + .. + Psr ( p n − d n )t n
Allowable ultimate load of nth rivet = Psn. in N
Pitch of the nth rivet = pn in mm
Diameter of the nth rivet = dn in mm
Thickness of the sheet at nth rivet = tn in mm
For Allowable refer
1. ADA/LCA/050000/137
2. G065 Guide for selection of fasteners
10.1.3 Failure by Double Shear of Plate:
Diameter of the rivet = d

Distance between rivet centre and edge of the plate = S in N
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( fos ) P
Ultimate working stress τ = in N/mm2.
⎛ ⎛d⎞ ⎞
2t ⎜⎜ S − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
Allowable ultimate shear stress = fs in N/mm2.
Reserve factor = fs/τ
Generally the sheet will be cleared for tear out of the rivets if the edge distance measured from
the centre is at least 2d. (Refer Aircraft structures by Perry page number 301)
Refer page 15 of Hal report no Hal/MAT/6/75 for edge margin data.
10.1.4 Rivets subjected to tensile loads:
Generally rivets are not subjected to tensile load. But in some cases for example
the skin on upper surface of the wing, due to upward suction, air forces places the rivet that hold
the skin to the stringers and ribs in tension, angle section riveted on both flanges subjected to an
eccentric loading, rivets connecting floor boards, however these tension loads in most of the
cases is relatively small. If tension load is incidental or major a bolt shall be used.
Applied load = P
Number rivets = n
Actual load per rivet = (fos) P/n in N
Allowable ultimate load Pt in N
Reserve factor = Pt/(P/n)
For ultimate tensile strength refer Design Allowable for LCA ADA/LCA/050000/137 Airframe
tables 5.11 - 5.12 page no 117 – 118
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10.1.5 Rivets subjected to Eccentric loads:
Centre of Gravity of the rivet system = Cg

Eccentricity of the load from the Cg of the Rivet System = e in mm
Applied Ultimate load in the System = P in N
Number of Rivets in the system = n
Area of the Individual Rivet = A in mm2.
Moment due to Eccentricity of the load M = Pe . in N-mm.
Distance of rivet from Cg in X-axis is x in mm.
Distance of rivet from Cg in Y-axis is y in mm
Arm distance of nth Rivet from Cg of the Rivet System Rn = x 2 + y 2 in mm.
MRn
Shear force due to the moment of the load in nth Rivet Vn1 = in N.
∑ Rn2
Direct Shearing force due to the load P Vn 2 = P n in N
Combined Shear Force in nth Rivet Vn = Vn21 + Vn22 + 2Vn1Vn 2 cosθ in N.
Allowable Ultimate Shear Load = Ps in N

Applied Ultimate Shear Load = Vn in N
Reserve factor = Ps/Vn.
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10.1.6 Inter-Rivet Buckling:

In rivet sheet panels the effective area is considered to act monolithically with the stiffener.
However if rivets that fasten the sheet to the stiffener are spaced too far apart, the sheet will
buckle between the rivets before the critical stress is reached, which means that sheet is less
effective in helping the stiffener to carry a subjective compressive load. It is called inter-rivet
buckling. To calculate inter-rivet buckling stress, it is assumed that adjacent rivets act as a
column with fixed ends. If Et is known then
Cπ 2 Et t 2
Inter-rivet buckling stress f IR =
12 p 2
Et = Tangent modulus of Elasticity
Pitch of the rivet = p in mm
Thickness of sheet = t in mm
Fixity coefficient of rivets = C
My
Applied stress f a = in N/mm2.
I
Bending moment in the section = M
Distance between neutral axis and edge = y
Moment of inertia of the section = I
Type of attachment Fixity coefficients

Flathead rivets 4
Spot welds 3.5
Mushroom or Snap head 3
Countersunk or dimple head 1.5
Reserve factor = f IR f a
For further reference refer
1. ESDU DATA sheet 02.01.08
2. NACA tech note 3785, 1957
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10.1.7 Calculation Of Fir Using Nomograms Given In ESDU DATA Sheets:

Strains at two points = εR, εR’.
Corresponding compressive proof stresses = fR, fR’.
log (ε R ε R' )
m = material property and is given by the formula (Or)
log( f R f R' )
Use ESDU DATA sheet 76016 figure – 5 to find out m
Calculate ( mεf E ) and use figure – 6 to find out f

R
R
n f R in sheet 76016
1
p ⎛ f ⎞2
Calculate fn and ⎜ n ⎟
t ⎝ CE ⎠
Use ESDU DATA sheet 02.01.08 to find f IR f n

Calculate fIR.
10.1.8 Problems:
Problem 1:
Figure shows a lap joint involving two rows of rivets as shown. Sheet material is
2024-T3 clad rivet are 8/32 diameter and 2117-T3 material and of protruding head type. Sheet
thickness is 0.04.
Applied load Ultimate = 1000lb/in.
Ft for 2024-73 clad =60000 Psi.
Shear in Rivets:
For two rivets 2 × 596 = 1192
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Applied load =1000

Reserve factor = 1192/1000 = 1.192
Tensile failure of sheet:
Allowable Ultimate stress f t = 60000 Psi
1000
Ultimate tensile stress σ = = 29629
(1 − 5 )(0.04)
32
Reserve factor = 60000/29629 = 2.03
Failure of double shear of plate:

1000
Ultimate working stress = = 53333.33
2 × 0.04[5 16 − 5 64]
Allowable Ultimate shear stress = 72000
Reserve factor = 72000/53333.3 = 1.35
Problem 2:
A Single rivet lap joint is made in 15mm thick plates with 2mm diameter rivets.
Determine the strength of the joints if pitch of rivets is 6cm material is BSL 168. Applied load is
15000N edge is 6cm away from rivet line.
Shear failure of Rivets:
1.5 × 15000
Ultimate load per rivet P = = 11250
2
For given material Allowable Ultimate shear strength =28270N
Reserve factor = 28270/11250 = 2.51
Tension failure of plate along rivet line:
1.5 × 15000
Ultimate tensile stress in sheet = = 375
(6 − 2) × 15
Allowable tensile Ultimate stress for sheet = 415
Failure of double shear of plate:
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1.5 × 15000
Ultimate working stress z = = 150
2 × 15 × 5
Allowable Ultimate shear = 415 × 0.6 = 249
Problem 3:
Find Reserve factor for shear failure of rivets and tension failure of plate as
shown if pitch = 0.375 in. The sheet is 24S-TAlclad Ft = 60000Psi subjected to an ultimate load
1200 lb/in.
For pitch = 0.5
Shear failure for rivets:

Ultimate load per rivet = 1200/4 = 300
Allowable Ultimate load = 374
Reserve factor = 1.25
Tensile failure in plate along rivet line:
1200
∑σ = = 50000
2 × (0.5 − 0.125) × 0.032
Allowable Ultimate tensile stress = 60000
Reserve factor = 60000/50000 = 1.2
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For pitch = 0.375

1200 × 0.375
Shear failure for rivets load per rivet = = 225
2
Allowable load = 374

Tensile failure in plate along rivet line:
1.2 × 0.375
Ft = = 56000
(0.375 − 0.125) × 0.032
Allowable Ultimate tensile load = 60000
Reserve factor = 60000/56000 = 1.070
Problem 4:
In the lap joint shown in the figure discuss the possible modes of failure of joint
allowable tension 142 N/mm2, Applied load 10t (ultimate). Distance of rivet line from edge is
80mm.
Possible failure:
Tearing of plate along rivet line
Shear failure of rivet
Failure by double shear of rivet
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Bearing failure of rivet
Shear in Rivets:
Applied load = 10t = 100000N
Allowable load = 4 × 142 × π × 20 2 / 4 = 178442.46
Reserve factor = 178442.46/100000 = 1.78
Tension failure of sheet:

P = 100000N
100000
Ultimate tensile stress =
(120 − 24) × 14
Allowable stress = 142
Reserve factor = 142/71.42 = 1.98
Failure by double shear:
100000
Ultimate shear stress = = 59.29
2 × 14 × (80 − 20)
Allowable shear stress = 0.6 × 142 = 85.2
Reserve factor = 85.2/59.49 = 1.43
Problem 5:
Diagram shows a rivets joint with multiple rivets with a concentrated load of
30000N.material BSL 168 for rivet.
σ Br for rivet = 440Mpa

Thickness of sheet t = 3mm
Load bearing capacity for given rivet Cr = d × t × σ Br
For rivet (1) Cr1 = 4 × 3 × 440 = 5280N
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For rivet (2) Cr2 = 4.8 × 3 × 440 = 6336N

For rivet (3) Cr3 = 5.6 × 3 × 440 = 7392N
For rivet (4) Cr4 = 4.8 × 3 × 440 = 6336N
For rivet (5) Cr5 = 4 × 3 × 440 = 5280N
Ultimate load in every rivet
5280 × 30000 5280

Psr1 = = × 30000 = 5172N
5280 + 6336 + 7392 + 6336 + 5280 30624
6336 × 30000
Psr 2 = = 6206 N
30624
7392 × 30000
Psr 3 = = 7241N
30624
Psr 4 = 6206 N
Psr 5 = 5172 N
Allowable load in every rivet
Ps1 = 6825 N
Ps 2 = 8839 N
Ps 3 = 10297 N
Ps 4 = 8839 N
Ps 5 = 6825 N
6825
Reserve factor for rivet (1) = = 1.32
5172
8839
6206
10297
7241
8839
6206
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6825
5172
Reserve factor for the joint = 1.32
For same problem now rivets with equal diameter 4 is considered,

30000
Ultimate load in every rivet = = 6000 N
5
Allowable load in every rivet = 6825N
6825
Reserve factor in every rivet = = 1.1375
6000
Problem 6:
Bruhn Method:
With reference to the Problem 5
Ft thickness of sheet 3mm
Psn allowable tensile load for rivets of diameter 4mm = 6825N
4.8mm = 8839N
5.6mm = 10297N
∑ Psn = 6825 + 8839 + 10297 + 8839 + 6825 = 41625 N
6825
Ultimate load in every rivet (1) = × 30000 = 4920 N
41625
8839
41625
10297
Ultimate load in every rivet (3) = × 30000 = 7421N
41625
8839
41625
6825
41625
6825
4920
8839
6370
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10297
7421
8831
6370
6825
4920
Problem 7:
For the rivet joint shown
ft = 415N/mm2
P = 700 N/mm2
t = 3mm
d = 4mm
p = 12mm
Calculate reserve factor ?
Allowable ultimate tensile stress in plate = 415 N/mm2

700 × 12
Ultimate tensile stress in plate σ =
(12 − 4) × 3
Problem 8:
For the rivet joint shown. Calculate R.F.
p= 12mm
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P = 1000 N/mm
ft = 415 N/mm2
t = 3mm
d = 4mm
nr = 3
Allowable ultimate tensile stress in plate = 415 N/mm2

For top plate most likely the failure to occur is row1 for hollow plate the failure will occur
mostly at row3
( P / nr ) p
Ultimate tensile stress in plate = N / mm
( p − d )t
(1000 / 3) × 12
= = 166.67 N / mm 2
(12 − 4) × 3
Reserve factor = 415/166.67 = 2.49
Problem 9:
For rivet joint shown .Calculate R.F?
ft = 415 N/mm2
d = 4mm
P = 1200 N/mm2
t = 3mm
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p = 12mm
Allowable ultimate tensile stress in plate ft = 415 N/mm2
Load bearing capacity per line = d × t × σ ho × n
for row (1) = 4 × 3 × 415 × 5 = 24900

for row (2 = 4 × 3 × 415 × 4 = 19920
for row (3) = 4 × 3 × 415 × 5 = 24900
24900 1200 × 12
Actual stress of row 1 = × = 214.28 N / mm 2
24900 + 19920 + 24900 (12 − 4) × 3
19920 1200 × 12
Actual stress of row 2 = × = 171.5 N / mm 2
24900 × 2 + 19920 8×3
Actual stress of row 3 =214.28 N/mm2
415
R.F. (1) = = 1.93
214.3
415
R.F. (2) = = 2.42
171.5
415
R.F. (3) = = 1.93
214.3
Problem 10:
Calculate the Reserve factor.
t = 3mm,d = 4mm,P = 1500N,S = 10mm,fs = 249 N/mm2
Allowable ultimate shear stress = 249 N/mm2
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P 1500
Ultimate shear stress = = = 31.25 N / mm 2
2t ( s − d 2) 2 × 3 × (10 − 2)
Problem 11:
In a rivet connection shown in the diagram. Calculate shear force in each rivet.
Rivet diameter = 20mm
Strength = 2197
Material = BSL168
ft = 415
Ax
Centre of gravity of rivets = ∑
A
Let area of rivet be ‘a’

∑ A = 4 × a × (20) + 4 × a × (34)
= 216a
∑ A = 12a
216a
x= = 18
12a
∴ Eccentricity e = 44+14+2 = 60
M = pe = 4 × 10 = 240 t
R12 = R42 = (18) + (12) = 468

2 2
R1 = R4 = 468 = 21.63
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R22 = R32 = (18 2 + 4 2 ) = 340
R2 = R3 = 340 = 18.44
R62 = R72 = (2 2 + 4 2 ) = 20
R6 = R7 = 20 = 4.47
R52 = R82 = (2 2 + 12 2 ) = 148
R5 = R8 = 148 = 12.16
( )
Ra2 = R122 = 16 2 + 12 2 = 400
Ra = R12 = 20
( )
R102 = R112 = 16 2 + 4 2 = 272
R10 = R11 = 272 = 16.49
∑ R 2 = 2[468 + 340 + 148 + 20 + 400 + 272] = 3296

Shear force due to moment of 240 t-cm3
MR1
Shear force in 1 and 4 = 1.575t
∑ R2
240 × 18.44
in 2 and 3 = = 1.34t
3296
240 × 12.16
in 5 and 8 = = 0.885t
3296
240 × 20
in 9 and 12 = = 1.455t
3296
240 × 16.49
in 10 and 11 = = 1.2t
3296
Direct shearing force due to load P in each rivet = P/no. of rivet = 0.33 tonne
Tan angles:
tan θ 1 and tan θ 4 = 12 / 18 = 0.667,θ = 33o 45'
tan θ 2 and tan θ 3 = 4 / 18 = 0.222,θ = 12 o 32'
tan θ 5 and tan θ 8 = 12 / 2 = 6,θ = 80 o 30'
tan θ 6 and tan θ 7 = 4 / 2 = 2,θ = 63 o 23'
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tan θ 9 and tan θ 12 = 12 / 16 = 0.75,θ = 36 o 52'
tan θ 10 and tan θ 11 = 4 / 16 = 0.25,θ = 14 o 2'
Combined shear force = F12 + F21 + 2 F1 F2 Cosθ
For rivet 1 and 4 = (1.575) 2 + (0.33) 2 + 2 × 1.575 × 0.33 × Cos146 o19'
= 2.48 + 0.109 − 2 × 1.575 × 0.33 × 0.321
= 1.670 = 1.29tonne
For rivet 2 and 3 = 1.34 2 + 0.332 + 2 × 1.34 × 0.33 × Cos167 o 28'
= 1.045 = 1.02t
For rivet 5 and 8 = 0.885 2 + 0.332 + 2 × 0.885 × 0.33 × Cos80 o 33'
= 0.8836 = 0.94t
For rivet 6 and 7 = 0.326 2 + 0.332 + 2 × 0.326 × 0.33 × Cos63o 26'
= 0.311 = 0.558t
For rivet a and 12 = 1.455 2 + 0.332 + 2 × 1.43 × 0.33 × Cos36 o 52'

= 1.73t
For rivet 10 and 11 = 1.2 2 + 0.332 + 2 × 1.2 × 0.33 × Cos14 o 2 '

= 1.524t
Ultimate shear load in rivet is 1.73 tonne
For diameter 20 ultimate allowable load = 2713N2
Total shear load = 2713 × 12 = 32556 = 3.26 tonne
Reserve factor = 3.26/1.73 = 1.88
Problem 12:
Inter rivet buckling stress at sheet of 1.2mm thickness and aluminium alloy of
BSL165 T6511 buckles with snap head riveting at 15mm pitch, bending moment of section is
24000 N-mm.
Moment of Inertia of section = 800mm4
For material BSL 165 T654
E = 63400 N/mm2
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0.05% compression proof stress = 304 N/mm2

0.1% compression proof stress = 319 N/mm2
tR 0.001
'
= =2
t R 0.0005
f R 319
= = 1.049
f R' 304
log(2)
m= = 14
log(4)
mt R F 14 × 0.001 × 63400
= = 2.78
fR 319
for m = 14,
mt R E
= 2.78
fR
From Nomograms 5 f n f R = 0.92
f n = 0.92 × 329 = 293.48 N / mm 2
For snap head rivet

C=3
1 1
p ⎛ fn ⎞ 2
15 ⎛ 293.48 ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.49
t ⎝ CE ⎠ 1.2 ⎝ 3 × 63400 ⎠
for m = 14
1
P ⎛ fn ⎞ 2
⎜ ⎟ = 0.49
t ⎝ CE ⎠
f 1R
= 1.01, f1R = 1.01 × 293 = 295.93N / mm 2
fn
24000 × 8
Applied ultimate stress = = 240 N / mm 2
800
Reserve factor = 295.93/240 = 1.23
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Problem 13:
A Simple riveted butt joint made up of 12.7 thick main plates and cover plate of
9.5mm thick rivet diameter is 20.6mm pitch of rivet is 76.2mm. The Ultimate stress of material
is 385N/mm2 in tension load acting is 50000N
ft = 385 N/mm2
Shear failure of rivets:
fs = 0.6ft = 0.6*385 = 231
fos × P 1.5 × 50000
Z= = = 56.25
π π
n× ×d 2
4× × 20.6 2
4 4
231
56.25
Tensile failure of plate along rivet line:
f t = 385 N / mm 2
fos × P 1.5 × 50000

σ = =
neff × t (P − d ) 2 × 9.5 × (76.2 − 20.6 )
385
71
Bearing of Rivet:
f be = 2 × f t = 770
1.5 × 50000
σb = = 383.2
9.5 × 20.6
770
Reserve factor = =2
383.2
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10.2 Analysis of Bolted Joints:

The aircraft bolt is used primarily to transfer relatively large loads from one
structural member to other. Bolt threads should not be placed in bearing or shear and bolts
should be used in double or multiple shears if possible in order to increase strength, efficiency in
bolt shear and to decrease bending tendency in bolt.
Methods of failure of single bolt fitting:
As the load on the fitting is transferred from one side of fitting to the other, internal
stresses are produced which tend to cause the fitting to fail in several ways.
1. Failure by bolt shear
2. Failure by bolt bending
3. Failure by lug portion of fitting
10.2.1 Failure by bolt shear:
As the pull P is placed on the fitting, it tends to shear the blot at the sections (1-1),
(2-2). Let P be the ultimate load applied on the bolt.
Applied ultimate load = P in N
Applied allowable load = Pa in N
Reserve factor = Pa/P
For allowable refer
1. ASSSA/AEROFAS/206/190\/002
2. ADA/LCA/050000/137 page numbers 119-122
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10.2.2 Failure by Bolt Bending:

It is important that sufficient bending strength is provided in bolt to prevent
permanent bending deformation of fitting and bolt under the limit loads, so that bolts can be
readily removed in maintenance operation. Furthermore bolt bending weakness can cause
peaking up of a non uniform bearing pressure on fitting lugs, thus influencing the lug tension and
shear strength. The unknown factor in bolt bending is the true value of the bending moment on
the bolt because the moment arm to the resultant bending force is unknown.
Moment arm b = 0.5t1 + 0.25t 2 + δ in mm

δ = clearance gap between lugs in mm
δ = 0 if no gap between lugs
⎛b⎞
Maximum bending moment M = P⎜ ⎟ in N-mm
⎝ 2⎠
MD
Bending stress = in N/mm2.
2I
f bt
Reserve factor =
(MD 2 I )
Diameter of the bolt = D in mm
Refer MIL-HDBK-5 for further details
A fitting factor of 1.15 will be used which is standard practise for military aircraft. It is
multiplied with Ultimate applied load. For failure of lug portion refer chapter 3 of this manual.
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10.3 Analysis of Welded Joints:

Welding plays an important role in joining or connecting structural units in
aircraft. The major structural unit where welding plays an important role are engine mounts,
landing gears and the attachment of plates and machined fitting to such structure. Generally
welds are avoided in sections subjected to tensions, since they produce weakening effect. In
some connection, it is not avoidable. In such case stresses is to be kept low. Standard splices or
joint overlapping will be used. There may be failure due to shear or due to tension depending
upon loading condition.
10.3.1 Shear Failure in Weld:

Allowable ultimate load Pa = f s Lt eff in N
Reserve factor = Pa/P

Allowable ultimate shear stress = fs.
Length of weld = L in mm
teff = minimum of throat thickness or plate thickness in mm
Allowable stress multiplied by weld efficiency factor of 0.8
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10.3.2 Tensile failure of weld:

Allowable ultimate load Pa = f t Lt eff in mm
Reserve factor Pa/P

Allowable ultimate tensile stress = ft.
Allowable stress multiplied by weld efficiency factor of 0.8 in welding
For further references Refer
1. MIL-W-6858 and MIL-W-6873.
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11. COMBINED STRESS THEORIES FOR YIELD AND ULTIMATE FAILURE:

Aircraft structures are subjected to many types of external loadings. The loads
often cause axial bending and shearing stresses acting simultaneously. If the structures are to be
designed satisfactorily, combined stress relationship must be known. Assumption of uniform
stress is made while doing analysis. A failure theory is needed to define onset of failure.
11.1 Determination of Yield Strength of Structural Member Under A Combined Loading:

The flight vehicle structure must carry the limit load without yielding which in
general means the yield strength of the material cannot be exceeded when the structure is
subjected to the limit loads. In some flight vehicle structure part involving compact unit of
pressure vessel, biaxial or triaxial stress conditions are often produced and it is necessary to
determine that any yielding will occur under such combined stress action when carrying the limit
loads. For where no elastic instability occurs the following well-known theories of failure have
been developed.
1. Maximum Shearing Stress Theory.
2. Maximum Strain Theory.
3. Maximum Energy of Distortion Theory.
4. Octahedral Shear Stress Theory.
11.1.1 Maximum Shearing Stress Theory:

Otherwise called as Tresca condition, According to this theory, failure occurs in a
material when Principal stress difference equals uniaxial yield shear stress.
f p1 = q 2 (Or ) f p 2 = q 2 (Or ) f p1 − f p 2 = q 2
fp1 = Major Principal Stress

fp2 = Minor Principal Stress
σ x −σ y 1 (σ −σ y )
2
+ τ 2 in N/mm2.
x
f p1 = +
2 2 2
σ x −σ y 1 (σ −σ y )
2
+ τ 2 in N/mm2.
x
f p2 = −
2 2 2
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Where
σx = stress in X direction in N/mm2
σy = stress in Y direction in N/mm2
τ = shear stress in N/mm2
11.1.2 Maximum Energy of Distortion Theory:

It is also called Von-Mises Theory. According to this theory failure occurs in a
material Von-Mises stress equals uniaxial yield stress of the material.
fvon = Von-Mises stress in N/mm2.
For Principal Stress in 3-D f von =

1
2
[[ 2
] [ 2
] [
f p1 − f p 2 + f p 2 − f p 3 + f p 3 − f p1 ] ] in N/mm2.
2
f p1 + f p 2 − f p1 f p 2 in N/mm2.
2 2
For Principal Stress in 2-D f von =
For axial stresses and shear stresses
f von =
1
2
[ (
(σ x − σ y )2 + (σ y − σ z )2 + (σ z − σ x )2 + 6 τ xy2 + τ yz2 + τ zx2 )] in N/mm2.
Where
σx, σy, σz = stresses in corresponding X, Y, Z directions in N/mm2.
τxy, τyz, τzx = shear stresses in corresponding XY, YZ, ZX planes in N/mm2.
Reserve Factor = t2/fvon.
11.1.3 Maximum Strain Energy Theory:

Otherwise called as Haigh’s Theory. According to this theory, , the failure occurs
at a point in a member when the strain energy per unit volume in a biaxial system reaches the
limiting strain energy per unit volume as determined by the simple tension test. This Theory is
used for the Ductile Materials.
1 ⎡ 2 2 f p1 f p 2 ⎤
Strain Energy due to applied load U = ⎢ f p1 + f p 2 −
2
⎥
2E ⎣ m ⎦
t 22
Allowable Strain Energy U a =
2E
Reserve factor = Ua/U.
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11.1.4 Octahedral Shear Stress Theory:

Also called as Equivalent stress Theory. According to this theory, in an elastic
body failure occurs at a Point when Octahedral Shear Stress is equal to yield tensile strength of
the material.
Octahedral Shear stress for tensile stress f oct =

1
( f p1 + f p 2 + f p3 )
3
Reserve factor = t2/foct.
Octahedral shear stress for shear stress f octs =

1
(f p1 − f p 2 ) + ( f p 2 − f p 3 ) + ( f p 3 − f p1 )
2 2 2
3
Reserve factor = q2/focts.
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11.2 Determination of Ultimate Strength of a Structural Member Under Combined Load:

Since the structural designer of flight vehicles must ensure that the ultimate load
can be carried by the structure without failure. It is necessary that reliable methods be used to
determine the ultimate strength of a structure. Generally Maximum Principal Stress Theory is
used to determine the onset of failure at ultimate loading conditions.
11.2.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory:

According to this theory, failure occurs at a point in a member when the
Maximum Principal stress in a biaxial stress system reaches Ultimate Allowable strength of the
material.
2
σ x +σ y 1 ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
f p1 = + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2 in n/mm2.
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
σ x +σ y 1 ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
f p2 = − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2 in n/mm2.
2 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Where σx, σy, are applied ultimate stresses in X and Y directions respectively in N/mm2.
Τ is applied ultimate shear stress in N/mm2.
ft ft fs
Reserve factor = (Or ) (Or )
f p1 f p2 ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + τ 2
⎝ 2 ⎠
ft = Allowable ultimate tensile stress in N/mm2.
fs = Allowable Ultimate Shear Stress in N/mm2.
11.3 Problem:
Problem 1:
A load on a bolt consist of axial pull of 10 KN together with a transverse stress
force of 5 KN , diameter of bolt is 15mm permissible tensile stress at elastic limit is 150 N/mm2
= t2
Poisson ratio 1/m = 0.3
f t = 180 N / mm 2
Given:
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Pt = 10 KN
Ps = 5 KN
t 2 = 100 N / mm 2
1/m = 0.3
Pt 10000
σ = = = 56.58 N / mm 2
A π 2
15
4
PS 5000
τ= = = 28.29 N / mm 2
A π 2
15
4
σ 1
Principal stress f P1 = + σ 2 + 4τ 2
2 2
σ 1
f P2 = − σ 2 + 4τ 2
2 2
56.58 1
f P1 = + (56.58)2 + 4(28.29)2 = 62.93N / mm 2
2 2
56.58 1
f P2 = − (56.58)2 + 4(28.29)2 = −6.35 N / mm 2
2 2
Maximum shearing stress theory:
Applied stress according to theory = ( f P1 − f P 2 ) = 62.93 + 6.35 = 69.28 N / mm 2
Allowable stress = 0.6 × t 2 0.6 × 150 = 90 N / mm 2

90
69.28
Strain Energy Theory:
1 ⎡ 2 2 f − f P2 ⎤
Strain energy due to applied load U = ⎢ f P1 + f P22 − P1 ⎥
2E ⎣ m ⎦
1 2
Strain energy due to allowable load Ua = t2
2E
Both numerator and denominator ,1/2E is present so we can drop 1/2E
U = (62.93) + (− 6.35) + 2(62.93)(6.35)(0.3) = 4177.59
2 2
U 0 = 100 2 = 10000
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10000
4177.59
Maximum energy of distortion theory:
f von = ( f P1 )2 + ( f P 2 )2 − f P1 × f P 2
= (62.93)2 + (6.35)2 + (62.93)(6.35) = 4410 = 66.33
100
66.33
Octahedral shear stress theory:
1
Stress due to applied load = ( f P1 + f P 2 + f P 3 )
3
1
= (62.93 − 6.35) = 18.86 N / mm 2
3
Allowable stress = 100N/mm2
100
Reserve factor = >3
18.86
Principal stress theory:
f P1 = PtU = 1.5 × pt = 1.5 × 10000 = 15000
PSU = 1.5 p S = 1.5 × 5000 = 7500
PtU 15000
σ = = = 84.88 N / mm 2
A ⎛π 2 ⎞
⎜ 15 ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
PSU 7500
τ= = = 42.44 N / mm 2
A ⎛π 2 ⎞
⎜ 15 ⎟
⎝4 ⎠
84.88 1
f P1 = + (84.88)2 + 4(42.44)2 = 102.44 N / mm 2
2 2
180
102.44
84.88 1
f P2 = − (84.88)2 + 4(42.44)2 = −17.52
2 2
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1
Principal shear stress = f PS = (84.88)2 + 4(42.44)2 = 60 N / mm 2
2
180 × 0.6
60
Problem 2:
A mild steel shaft of 5cm diameter subjected to a bending moment of 1900000 N-
mm. and torque of 2000000 N-mm. Yield point of steel in tension is 400 N/mm2 and diameter of
shaft is 50mm
Take 1/m = 0.3
D = 50mm
M = 1900000 N-mm
T = 2000000 N-mm
1/m = 0.3
t2 = 400N/mm2
M 1900000 × 32
Stress due to bending moment σ = = = 154.82 N / mm 2
Z π × 50 3
16T 16 × 2000000
Shear stress due to torque τ = = = 81.5 N / mm 2
πd 3
π × 50 3
Maximum principal stress

154.82 1
f P1 = + (154.82)2 + 4(81.5)2 = 77.41 + 112.4 = 189.8 N / mm 2
2 2
154.82 1
f P2 = − (154.82)2 + 4(81.5)2 = 77.41 − 112.4 = −35 N / mm 2
2 2
Maximum Shearing Stress theory:

Applied Shearing stress f P1 − f P 2 = 189.8 + 35 = 224.8 N / mm 2
Allowable Shearing stress = 400 × 0.6 = 240 N / mm 2

240
224.8
Strain Energy theory:
Strain energy due to applied load = (189.82) + (35) + 2 × 189.82 × 35 × 0.3 = 41234.84
2 2
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Strain energy due to allowable load = 160000

160000
41234.81
Maximum energy of distribution theory:
Stress due to applied load f VON = (189.8)2 + (35)2 + 189.8 × 35 = 209.5 N / mm 2

400
209.5
Octahedral shear stress theory:
1
Stress due to applied load = (189.8 − 35) = 51.6
3
Applied stress = 240
Reserve factor = 240/51.6 >3
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12. CUTOUTS IN PLANE PANELS:

The aircraft structure is continually faced with requirements for opening up webs
and panels to provide access for other members such as control rods, hydraulic lines, electrical
wire bundles etc pass through. Other cutouts such as windows, doors, service panels, hatches,
bomb bays, inspection access holes etc are provided in fuselage.
Transport and fighter aircraft fuselages contain numerous cutout areas of different
sizes and shapes located in various regions of fuselage body. However cutouts such as those in
large passenger openings, cargo openings, service openings emergency exits windows etc often
occur in regions where high loads must be resisted and there fore additional structure is needed
to carry the loads around the openings. Such openings require strengthening of abutting internal
structure. There are several ways of providing cutouts. Some of them are listed here.
1. Providing suitable framing members around the cutouts.
2. Providing Doubler or bent where framing cannot be done.
3. Providing standard round-flanged holes, which have published allowable.
4. Providing lightning holes having flanges
5. Providing non-circular and non-rectangular cutouts.
12.1 Framing Members Around The Cutouts:

A cutout is shown. The first step is to assume a shear flow equal and opposite to
that of Present shear flow with no cut. Then second is determining corresponding balancing
loads in the framed area. Adding this load system to original one will give the final loads all
shear flows are shown as they act on edge members. (On flanges and stiffeners)
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A. Considering no cutout:
B. Applying equal and opposite shear flow at the cutout area:
C. Final shear flow distribution:
There is self balancing internal shear flow in area of framing cutout, so no

external reactions outside of the framing area are required, (i.e.) To eliminate the redundancies,
it is usually assumed that the same shear flow exists in panel above and below the cutout area it
is also assumed that shear flows are same in panels to the left and right of the cutout.
Shear flow in the panels above and below the centre panel must statically balance
the force due to the q.
q (H 2 )
qH = in N/mm.
(H 1 + H 2 )
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Shear flow in the panels to the left and right of the centre panel must statically
balance the force due to the q.
q ( L2 )
qL = in N/mm
(L1 + L2 )
Shear flow in the corner panels must also balance the force due to the shear flow
in the panel between them
q HL = q H
( L2 )
in N/mm
(L1 + L3 )
Final shear flow in cell sheet is given in diagram C. this is the way changes
always occur in the area formed about the cutout Next is calculate axial loads developed in all of
the framing members due to the cutout. This will add or subtract depending on their direction to
any loads before the cutouts have been made.
At A-A
At E-E
For sheet:
Allowable Ultimate Shear Stress = fs in N/mm2.
q
Actual Ultimate Shear Stress = τ = in N/mm2.
t
Reserve Factor = fs/τ
t = thickness of sheet in mm
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q = shear flow in sheet in N/mm.
In frames or stingers:
Allowable ultimate tensile stress = ft in N/mm2.
Actual ultimate tensile stress σ = P/A in N/mm2.
A = area of cross section of frame or stinger in mm2.
P = Load at the point considered in N
12.2 Framing Cutouts with Doublers and Bents:

Frequently a cutout in the web of a beam must be so deep that it nearly removes
the entire web. In this case a heavy doubler or bent is provided around the cutout to carry the
shear. It is illustrated in the diagram.
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The doubler is made to fit around the cutout. Appropriate internal radii are in the
cut web and doubler at corners to keep the stresses due to curved beam bending reasonable. The
loading imposed on doubler is the shear flow q. The doubler should be analysed as frame.
At A-A
Due to shear flow q section A-A experiences Bending, Tensile and Shear stresses.
wV qhw
Bending moment at A due to shear flow M = = in N-mm.
2 4
qh
Force in X direction due to shear flow Fx = V = in N.
2
qw
Force in Y direction due to shear flow Fy = in N.
2
Bending:
My
Actual Ultimate bending stress be = in N/mm2.
I
Allowable Ultimate Bending stress = fbe=ft in n/mm2.
Reserve factor = fbe/be.
Tension:
qh
Ultimate Tensile load Fx = in N.
2
Fx
Actual Ultimate Tensile Stress σ = in N/mm2.
A
Allowable Ultimate Tensile Stress = ft in N/mm2.
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Shear:
Ultimate Shear Load = Fy in N.
Fy
Actual Ultimate Shear Stress τ = in N/mm2.
A
Reserve factor = fs/τ
Where
q = shear flow in the member in N/mm.
w= width of the doubler in mm.
h = height of the doubler in mm.
y = distance of the extreme fibre from neutral axis in mm.
A = cross sectional area in mm2.
I= moment of inertia for the cross section in mm4.
12.3 Ring or Donut Doublers for Round Holes:

Frequently a cutout size requirement is such that a standard round-flanged hole
will provide the needed open space and strength. This is done by providing Donut Doubler.
w = ring width in mm.

R = inner radius of ring in mm.
w
R1 = R + in mm.
2
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D = 2R diameter in mm.
q = web shear flow in n/mm.
tr ring thickness in mm
tw = web thickness in mm.
Donut doubler reinforcements are capable of maintaining the original gross area
strength of the web. The data presented here consists of round holes with diameter up to 50% of
the beam depth and ring reinforcements W/D ratios of 0.35 to 0.50. Bending and Tensile stresses
will act at A-A.
At A-A:
3qRR1
Bending stress be = in N/mm2.
tw w2
qd
Tensile stress σ t = in N/mm2.
wt r
Stress Interaction at failure
Applied Ultimate Tensile Stress σ = σ be + σ t
Allowable Ultimate Tensile Stress = ft in N/mm2.
Analysis for Rivets:

⎛ tr ⎞
Shear flow due to the Ring Doubler = 2q⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ in N/mm.
⎝ t r + 0.8t w ⎠
⎛ tr ⎞
Load on the rivet Pr = 2q⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ p max in N.
t
⎝ r + 0 .8t w ⎠
Pmax is the maximum pitch in rivet set up in mm.

Actual Ultimate load on rivet due to shear flow = Pr in N.
Allowable Ultimate Load for Rivet = Pa in N.
Reserve Factor = Pa/Pr.
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12.4 Webs with Lightning Holes Having Flanges:

This is a simple easily formed web. Figure shows various types of flanges
possible and a beam with cross section through web at holes. This type of reinforcement has
advantage when compared to donut doubler type. Since donut doubler provides bending
moments, which have bending stress in reinforcement. By providing flanges bending stresses
can be avoided. Lightning holes with flanges is checked for buckling.
2
⎛t⎞
Average Shear Stress at which Plate will buckle f s = KE ⎜ ⎟ in N/mm2.
⎝b⎠
Where
K = Elastic Buckling Stress Coefficient.
E = Modulus of Elasticity for Plate Material.
t = Thickness of Plate in mm.
b = width of the plate in mm
P q
Actual shear Stress in the section τ = (Or ) in N/mm2.
A t
P = Ultimate Applied Load in n.
A = Area of cross Section in N/mm2.
q = Shear flow in the section in N/mm.
t = Thickness of plate in mm.
Reserve Factor = fs/τ.
To find K and for further reference refer ESDU data sheets 75035 and 71005
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12.5 Structures with Non-Circular and Non-Rectangular Cutouts:

Even though standard circular and rectangular cutouts are available, in order to
keep cutouts size as minimum as possible above shown cutouts are also used in both civil and
military aircraft structures. These types of flanged holes are simple and low cost method for
fabricating access holes. Generally elliptical flanged holes are used in lightly and moderately
loaded rib webs in wing and empennage applications.
P
Maximum stress in cutout due to applied load f = K ' in N/mm2.
(w − 2h )t
Where
W = width if the plate in mm.
2h = width of the cutout in mm.
t = thickness of sheet in mm.
P = applied load in N.
K’ = stress concentration factor
For the values of K’ and for further reference refer ESDU data sheets 69020, 70005
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12.6 Cutouts in Fuselage:

Apart from bending and skin shear, fuselage structures are subjected to
Pressurization also. Moreover fuselage structures are curved in nature, which is to be analysed
by a different procedure. Fuselage cutout analysis is important since size of the cutout is large as
compared to cutouts in other structures and magnitude of load acting on these structures is also
high. Since fuselage structures are pressurized it has to check for burst pressure. Thus in an
aircraft load distributions are due to
1. Fuselage skin shear.
2. Fuselage bending.
3. Fuselage cabin pressurization.
Diagram for a large cutout in fuselage in an aircraft with reinforcements is shown below
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12.6.1 Load Distribution Due to Fuselage Skin shear:

The redistribution of shear flow, which occurs in the vicinity of the cutout due to
the cutout on aircraft fuselage, is self-balancing like as in the case of cutouts in flat panels. The
redistribution occurs in the vicinity of the cutout. It is shown below
A Redistribution of Shear Flow
The shear flows

⎛ h ⎞
q1 = ⎜1 + ⎟q 0
⎝ a +b⎠
⎛ l ⎞
q 2 = ⎜1 + ⎟q 0
⎝ c+d⎠
⎡ ⎛ l ⎞⎛ h ⎞ ⎤
q3 = ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ − 1⎥ q0
⎣ ⎝ c + d ⎠⎝ a + b ⎠ ⎦
Equal and opposite shear flows qa, qb, qc is applied
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B Variable Shear Flows:
C Final Shear Flow Distribution:
New shear flows

q1a = q a + Δq1a , q1b = qb + Δq1b
q 2 ha = q ha + Δq 2 ha , q 2 hb = q hb + Δq 2 hb
q3a = Δq3a − q a , q3b = Δq3b − qb
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Where
q a hb q h
Δq1a = , Δq1b = b c
a b
qa l ql
Δq 2 ha = , Δq 2 hb = b
c+d c+d
q 2 ha hb q h
Δq 3 a = , Δq3b = 2 hb c
a b
ah
hb = , hc = h − hb
a+b
Thickness of the sheet = t in mm
Actual Ultimate Shear Stress τ = q/t in N/mm2.
Reserve factor = fs/ τ
12.6.2 Load Distribution due to Fuselage Bending:
The cut stringer loads are assumed to be generally diffused in to the main sills
over one frame bay on either side of the cutout as shown in the diagram. This approach results in
somewhat higher panel shear loads and frame axial loads than act5ually occur in practise. If the
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cut stringer loads are not the same on either side of the cutout, use average stringer loads at the
centre line of the cutout for this method. Stresses formed due to fuselage bending
PL and PU is obtained from moment and force balance
P2 h2 + P3 h3 + P4 h4 + P5 h5
PL = in N
h6
PU = (P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 ) − PL in N
Skin shear flows
PU
q h1 = in N/mm.
c
P2
q h 2 = q h1 − in N/mm.
c
P3
q h3 = q h 2 − in N/mm.
c
Where c is the distance between two frames as shown in the diagram.
qh
Actual Ultimate Shear Stress τ = in N/mm2.
t
Where t is thickness of the sheet in mm.
Reserve Factor = fs/τ.
12.6.3 Load Distribution due to Fuselage Cabin Pressurization:

Due to cabin pressurization Hoop stress and Longitudinal stress will set up in
the fuselage structure due to that both tension loads and stresses will be redistributed in to the
edge frames and main sills.
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12.6.3.1 Panels above and Below The Cutout:

Hoop tension loads above and below the cutout are redistributed in to edge frames
via shear flows in the panels between main auxiliary sills.
Hoop tension load w = pr in N/mm.
Where,
Applied Pressure = p in N/mm2.
Radius of cross section = in mm.
wl prl
Shear flow in upper centre panel at the edge frame qU = = in N/mm.
2a 2a
Shear flow in the upper panel at the centre of the panel qU = 0
wl prl
Shear flow in lower centre panel at the edge frame q L = = in N/mm.
2b 2b
Shear flow in the lower panel at the centre of the panel q L = 0
wl prl
Hoop tension load in edge frames PHT = = in N.
2 2
Where,
Length of the centre panel = l in mm.
Width of the upper centre panel = a in mm.
Width of the lower centre panel = b in mm.
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12.6.3.2 Panels at Side of the Cutout:

pr
Longitudinal Tension load w' = in N/mm.
2
w' h prh
Shear flow at left side centre panel q F = = in N/mm.
2c 4c
Shear flow in left side centre panel at the centre of the panel q F = 0 .
w' h prh
Shear flow at right side centre panel q A = = in N/mm.
2d 4d
Shear flow in right side centre panel at the centre of the panel q A = 0 .
w' h prh
Longitudinal loads in main sills PLT = = in N.
2 2d
Where
Height of side panel = h in mm.
Width of the right side panel = d in mm
Width of the left side panel = c in mm.
12.6.3.3 Corner Panels of the Cutout:

Since load is acting in the cutout, the frames and panels around the cutout will be
stressed. As a result shear flow will be set in the panels. Due to the shear flows in corner panels
there will be increment in the axial load in the frame and sill members. This increment is based
on corner panel fixity. Distribution factors K1 and K2 are used which are based on the constant
moment of inertia of the panels.
h
Distribution factor at panels above and below the cutout K 1 =
h+l
l
Distribution factor at panels left and right of the cutout K 2 =
h+l
Shear flow at upper and forward corner panel = qUF in N/mm.
Shear flow at lower and forward corner panel = qLF in N/mm.
Shear flow at upper and aft corner panel = qUA in N/mm.
Shear flow at lower and aft corner panel = qLA in N/mm.
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wl 2
Fixed end moment at upper or lower panels M UL = in N-mm.
12
w' h 2
Fixed end moment at forward or aft panels M FA = in N-mm.
12
⎡ wl 2 ⎤
⎢ − K 1 (M UL + M FA )⎥
12
Shear flow in upper forward corner panel qUF =⎣ ⎦
2ac
12.7 Problem:
Problem 1:
Shown a sheet frame structure the sheet is mode of material BSL 165T6511 and
frame is also of some material. Thickness of sheet is 3mm and cross section of frame is 100
mm2. A cutout is made as shown below. Calculate shear flow and Reserve factor for the setup.
All are Ultimate load.
For BSL 165T6511
f t = 415 N / mm 2
f s = 249 N / mm 2
12000
Shear flow in cells q = = 400 N / mm
10 + 10 + 10
For panels 4 and 5
H2 10
q 4 = q5 = q + q = 400 + 400 = 600 N / mm
H1 + H 2 10 + 10
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for panels 2 and 3

L2 15
q 2 = q3 = q + q = 400 + 400 = 600 N / mm
L1 + L3 15 + 15
for panels 1,3,6,8
⎛ L2 ⎞ ⎛ 15 ⎞
q1 = q3 = q 6 = q8 = q − q 4 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 400 − 200⎜ ⎟ = 300 N / mm
2
⎝ L1 + L2 ⎠ ⎝ 15 + 15 ⎠
Axial load at upper cap member
at A1 = 30000 N
at B1 = 30000 − 15 × 400 = 24000 N
at C1 = 24000 − 15 × 300 = 19500 N
at D1 = 19500 − 15 × 600 = 10500 N
at E1 = 10500 − 15 × 900 = 6000 N
at F1 = 6000 − 15 × 400 = 0
Axial load at vertical stiffeners
at B1 = 0
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at B2 = 400 × 10 − 300 × 10 = 1000 N

at B3 = 400 × 20 − 300 × 10 − 600 × 10 = −1000 N
at B4 = 400 × 30 − 300 × 10 − 600 × 10 − 300 × 10 = 0

at C1 = 0
at C 2 = 300 × 10 − 600 × 10 = −3000 N
at C 3 = 600 × 10 − 3000 = 3000 N
at C 4 = 300 × 10 + 3000 − 600 × 10 = 0

At sheets:
q 600
Maximum shear stress due to applied load τ = = = 20 N / mm 2
t 3
Allowable shear stress f s = 249 N / mm 2
At Frames:
P 30000
Maximum tensile stress due to applied load σ = = = 300 N / mm 2
A 100
Allowable tensile stress f t = 415 N / mm 2
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Problem 2:
Material 2024-T3 clad for both web and ring. Assume the allowable shear flow q
is 133.86 N / mm. Determine the bending stress, tensile stress, shear flow due to the ring
doublers, rivet load and reserve factors. Rivet material HS 1006 of diameter 4mm.
D = 76.2mm, R = 38.1mm
q = 50 N / mm
t w + t r = 3.556mm
t w = 1.016mm
t r = 3.556 − 1.016 = 2.54mm

w
= 8.89mm
D
w = 30mm
w 26.67
R1 = R + = 38.1 + = 51.44mm
2 2
Bending stress
3qRR1 3 × 50 × 51.44 × 38.1
σ be = = = 321.5 N / mm 2
t w w2 1.016 × 30 2
Tensile stress
qD 50 × 76.2
σt = = = 50 N / mm 2
wt r 30 × 2.54
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Stress Interaction at failure

Applied Ultimate tensile stress, σ = σ be + σ t
= 321 .5 + 50 = 371 .5 N / mm 2
Allowable ultimate tensile stress = 465 N/mm2
ft 465
Reserve factor= = = 1.252
σ 371.5
Analysis for rivets
⎛ tr ⎞ ⎛ 2.54 ⎞
Load on rivet Pr = 2q⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ p max = 2 × 50⎜ ⎟15 = 1136.4 N
⎝ t r + 0.8t w ⎠ ⎝ 2.54 + 0.8 × 1.016 ⎠
Allowable load for HS 1006 for rivet diameter of 4mm and sheet thickness of 1mm is 1974N.
Reserve factor = 1974/1136.4 = 1.74
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13. TENSION CLIPS:

These are also quite numerous in military airplanes, being used to splice relatively
light tension loads from one member to another. It should be used only when the load is small,
since it has poor fatigue life. It is usually restored to when some structural member such as a
bulkhead, web of flange or fitting cannot be efficiently opened up to let an axially loaded
member pass through. There is an axial tension load to be transferred and since bulkhead cannot
be cut a tension clip arrangement must be shown.
Simple tension clips are used for relatively light loads and are usually seen in three forms
a) Single angles
b) Double angles (back to back)
c) Clips cut from the extruded T-section.
To obtain maximum strength and stiffness bolts should be used for the attachment
purposes. It is noted that for larger clip thickness the bolt may become critical and become to
yield. This is because of “Prying action” on the bolt; Because of the prying action the load on the
bolt is always greater than the applied load.
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The applied loading and bending moment diagram are shown in the above figure.
The internal loads are determined by equating rotations at the angle corner and are checked for
both Yield loads and ultimate loads.
At rib leg
A1 = Wt1 In mm2.
t12
I 1= A1 in mm4.
12
At rib foot
A2 = Wt f in mm2.
t 2f
I 2 = A2 in mm4.
12
Rib foot at bolt
A2b = (W − d )t f in mm2.
t 2f
I 2b = A2b in mm4.
12
13.1 Single Angle:
The single angle is simply supported at the rib attachment
2
⎛ ⎛1⎞ ⎞
1.5 Papp ⎜⎜ I 2 − ⎜ ⎟t1 ⎟⎟ I 1
⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎠
Moment about the angle corner M 0 = in N-mm.
⎛ ⎛1⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛1⎞ ⎞
⎜⎜ I 1 − ⎜ ⎟t f ⎟⎟ I 2 + 3⎜⎜ I 2 − ⎜ ⎟t1 ⎟⎟ I 1
⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎠
13.2 Double Angle:
The double angle is clamped at the rib attachment.
2
⎛ ⎛1⎞ ⎞
2 Papp ⎜⎜ I 2 − ⎜ ⎟t1 ⎟⎟ I 1
⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎠
Moment about the angle corner M 0 = in N-mm.
⎛ ⎛1⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ⎛1⎞ ⎞
⎜⎜ I 1 − ⎜ ⎟t f ⎟⎟ I 2 + 4⎜⎜ I 2 − ⎜ ⎟t1 ⎟⎟ I 1
⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝2⎠ ⎠
1
M1 = − M 0
2
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f p2
Yield allowable leg load is Pall =
(1 / 2)t1 M 0 + 1 in N.
I1 Papp A1
Pall
Reserve factor =
Papp
ftu
Ultimate allowable leg load is Pult = in N.
(1 / 2)t1 M 0 1
+
I1 Papp A1
Pult
Reserve factor =
Papp
Applied load = Papp in N.

⎛ ⎞
⎜ I P ⎟
Yield allowable foot load is Pall = f p 2 ⎜ 2b app ⎟ in N
⎜ 1t Mf ⎟
⎜ f ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
Pall
Reserve factor =
Papp
⎛ ⎞
⎜ I P ⎟
Ultimate allowable foot load is Pall = f ult ⎜ 2b app ⎟ in N.
⎜ 1t Mf ⎟
⎜ f ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
Pall
Reserve factor =
Papp
1 P
The allowable load based on bolt is Pall = π (0.75d )2 ftub app in N.
4 Pb
Where
M2
Pb = Papp + in N.
I3
Pall
Reserve factor =
Papp
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13.3 Problem:
Sectional properties and load applied on an angle cleat is listed below calculate
the proof allowable leg and foot load, ultimate leg and foot load, allowable load on bolt and their
corresponding reserve factors.
The section properties are

A1 = w × t1 = 30 × 2.5 = 75mm 2
A1t12 75 × 2.5 2
l1 = = = 39.0625mm 4
12 12
A2 = w × t f = 30 × 6 = 180mm 4
A2 t 2f 180 × 6 2
l2 = = = 540mm 4
12 12
A2b = (w − d ) × t f = (30 − 6.35) × 6 = 141.9mm 4
A2b × t 2f 141.96 2
l 2b = = = 425.7 mm 4
12 12
Diameter of nut d0 = 10.57mm
The root moment is
M0 =
1.5Papp × l 2 − 1 t12 × l1
2
( )
2
l1 − 1( )
× t × l 2 + 3 l 2 − 1 × t1 × l1
2 f 2
( )
1.5 × 4000 × (20 − 0.5 × 2.5) × 39.1
2
= = 4061.5 Nmm
(36.5 − 0.5 × 6)540 + 3(20 − 0.5 × 2.5) × 39.1
The proof allowable leg load is
f p2 450
Pall = = = 9820 N
1 t1 0.5 × 2.5 4061.5 1
2 M0 + 1 × ×
39.1 4000 75
l1 Papp A1
The proof reserve factor for the leg is

Pall 9820 × 1.5
Pb 4000
The ultimate allowable leg load, based on an elastic section is
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f tu 515
Pall = = = 11238 N
1 ×t 0.5 × 2.5 4061.5 1
2 1 × M0 + 1 × +
39.1 4000 75
l1 Papp A1
Using Ph/M = Pappt1/M0(=2.462)and t/h = 0.5, a form factor of k = 1.04 is obtained. The ultimate
allowable leg load, based on a plastic section is
f p2 450
Pall = = = 14417 N
1 ×t 1 0.5 × 2.5 4061.5
1 × 2 1 × M0 1.04
×
39.1
×
4000
K l1 Papp
The ultimate reserve factor for the leg is

Reserve factor = Pall / Pb = 11238/4000 = 2.810
The maximum moment in the foot is
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
M f = Papp ⎜ l 2 − t1 − (d + d 0 )⎟ − M 0
⎝ 2 4 ⎠
= 4000(20 − 0.5 × 2.5 − 0.25(6.35 + 10.57 )) − 4061.5 = 54019 Nmm
The allowable foot load is
⎛ ⎞
⎜ l P ⎟
Pall = f p 2lt ⎜ 2b
app
⎟ = 450⎛⎜ 425.7 × 4000 ⎞⎟ = 4728 N
1
⎜ t Mf ⎟ ⎝ 0.5 × 6 54019 ⎠
⎜ f ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
The proof reserve factor for the root is
The ultimate allowable foot load, based on a elastic section is
⎛ ⎞
⎜ l P ⎟
Pall = f tult ⎜ 2b
app
⎟ = 515⎛⎜ 425.7 × 4000 ⎞⎟ = 5411N
⎜ 1t M f ⎟ ⎝ 0.5 × 6 54019 ⎠
⎜ f ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
a form factor of k = 1.4 is applicable. The ultimate allowable foot load, based on a plastic section
is
⎛ ⎞
⎜ l Papp ⎟
Pall = f p 2lt ⎜1.4 2b ⎟ = 450⎛⎜1.4 425.7 × 4000 ⎞⎟ = 6620 N
⎜ 1 Mf
tf ⎟ ⎝ 0.5 × 6 54019 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
The ultimate reserve factor for the root is
436
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437

The moment at the bolt is
⎛ 1 ⎞
M 2 = Papp ⎜ l 2 − t1 ⎟ − M 0 = 4000(20 − 0.5 × 2.5) − 4061.5 = 70939
⎝ 2 ⎠
The applied bolt load is
M2 70939
Pb = Papp + = 4000 + = 9589 N
l3 12.7
The allowable load based on the bolt is
1 Papp 1 4000
Pall = π (0.75d ) f tub = π (0.75 × 6.35) × 1100 ×
2 2
= 8177 N
4 Pb 4 9589
The bolt reserve factor (proof and ultimate) is
437
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438
14. PRE-TENSIONED BOLTS:

Application of pre-tension loads to bolted joints improves bolt fatigue life and
joint stiffness. This is generally achieved by applying torque to bolt – nut combination. The bolt
is put in tension and the contact faces of the structure in compression. Subsequent tensile loading
to the joint will relieve the contact face loads and increase the tensile loading to the bolt. This is
illustrated in the figures given below. The torque applied to a nut to pre – tension a bolt is
absorbed in three ways. Part is used to drive the mating threads up the helix, thus creating tensile
stress in the bolt. The reminder is used to over come the friction between the mating threads and
also to over come the friction between the thrust surfaces under the load.
438
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439
With reference to above figure, the initial preload Pi is the start point for all the
curves associated with the preloaded joint. If the components being jointed do not have a contact
surface then the bolt load will increase with the same magnitude as the applied load - Curve B.
Alternatively if the structure has contact surfaces then the bolt load will increase at the lesser rate
then the applied while the contact surfaces unload - curve C. once the faces have separated the
bolt load will increase at the same rate ac the applied, along the curve D from point A.
Separation is indicated by point A. The compression load on the contact surfaces reduces in
proportion to applied load Curve E.
14.1 Optimum Preload:

The Optimum preload for the bolts subjected to repeated loading is the preload
required such that the tact surfaces of the structure are just at the point of separating under the
maximum applied load, point A in the above figure. This is given by
⎡ ⎤
Pi c ⎢ 1 ⎥
= 1− ⎢ ⎥
Pj L⎢ Am E m ⎥
⎢1 + A E ⎥
⎣ b b ⎦
Where
Preload in bolt = Pi in N.
Maximum applied Tension load = Pj in N.
439
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440
Distance between bolt head and nut = L in mm.

Elastic modulus of bolt = Eb in N/mm2.
Elastic modulus of fitting = Em in N/mm2.
Shank area of bolt = Ab in mm2.
π
Dearing area of bolt head on fitting Am =
4
(B 2
)
− D 2 in mm2.
Diameter of the bolt head = B in mm.

Bolt shank diameter = D in mm.
C is shown in figures below
An increase in the preload from the optimum value increases the mean stress on
the bolt. A decrease from the optimum value will increase the alternating stress. In either case
fatigue life will be adversely affected bur more so if alternating stress increases.
440
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441
14.2 Total Bolt Load:

The total tensile load on a bolt including preload and applied tensile load to the joint is
given by the following cases
1. Mating surfaces not in initial contact
2. Mating surfaces in initial contact.
14.2.1 Mating Surfaces Not in Initial Contact:

Refer curve B
Total Tensile Load Pb = Pi + Pj in N.
Where,
14.2.2 Mating Surfaces in the Initial Contact:

Refer curve B
Maximum value of (a) or (b) to be taken
⎡ c ⎤
⎢ ⎥
(a) Pb = Pi + Pj ⎢ L ⎥ in N.
⎢1 + Am E m ⎥
⎢ Ab Eb ⎥
⎣ ⎦
(b) Pb = Pj in N.
Where
Distance between bolt head and nut = L in mm.
Elastic modulus of bolt = Eb in N/mm2.
Elastic modulus of fitting = Em in N/mm2.
Shank area of bolt = Ab in mm2.
441
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442
π
Dearing area of bolt head on fitting Am =
4
(B 2
)
− D 2 in mm2.
Diameter of the bolt head = B in mm.

Bolt shank diameter = D in mm.
14.3 Preload for a given Wrench Torque:

TAr
Pi
R
Where,
Wrench torque = T in N-mm.
Root area of the bolt = Ar in mm2.
Wrench Torque ratio = R.
Torque T = R*Initial Tension Stress on Root area in N/mm2.
Pi = Yield Stress * root area * 0.76 for Tension nuts in N.
Pi = Yield Stress * root area * 0.28 for Shear nuts in N.
Refer MIL-S-7742, MIL-S-8879 for further references.
14.4 Bolt Strength Requirements:

1. The Ultimate tension load on the bolt, including the effect of Preload shall not exceed
the Ultimate strength of the bolt.
2. The applied Limit tension load on the bolt, including the effect of the Preload, based
on the thread root area shall not exceed the yield strength of the bolt.
3. The effect of the Shear loading shall be including when evaluating the above points 1
and 2 (Shear is applied on the bolt shank)
4. In calculating reserve factor interactive equations shown should be applied.
442
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443
14.5 Ultimate Stress Analysis:

1
Reserve Factor =
Rt2 + Rs2
Where,
Applied Ultimate Tension Load
Rt =
Allowable Ultimate Tension Load
Applied Ultimate Shear Load
Rs =
Allowable Ultimate Shear Load
When calculating Rs Shear is applied on the bolt shank, this area should be used in
calculating the allowable shear load.
Refer ESDU DATA Sheet 72022 for Tension in Steel Bolts Resulting from Tightening Torque
443

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C Section Shear Center 34

1 Prismatic Bar In Tension 63

2. Prismatic Bar In Compression 65

5 Member In Torsion 172

6 Transverse Shear Loading Of Beams With Solid Or Open Sections 236

6.5 Shear Flow Analysis For Unsymmetric Beams 286

7. Transverse Shear loading Of Beams With Closed C.S 310

8. Combined Transverse Shear, Bending, And Torsion Loading 360

9 Internal Pressure 360

10 Analysis Of Joints 373

10.1.8 Problems 382

11 Combined Stress Theories For Yield And Ultimate Failure 401

12 Cutouts In Plane Panels 409

12.7 Problem 425

13 Tension Clips 430

14 Pre - Tensioned Bolts 438

A2. Simple Stresses and Strains.

Apparent Elastic Limit:

A3. General Definitions:

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity:

Central Axis (Centroidal Axis):

Endurance Limit(Fatigue strength):

Equivalent Bending Moment:

Equivalent Twisting Moment:

Factor of Stress Concentration:

Factor of Stress Concentration in Fatigue:

Fixed (Clamped, built-in, encastre):

Flexural Center (Shear Center):

Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus):

Modulus of Rigidity (Modulus of Elasticity in Shear):

Modulus of Rupture in Bending (Computed ultimate Twisting Strength):

Modulus of Rupture in Torsion (Computed Ultimate twisting moment):

Moment of Area (First Moment of an Area, Statical Moment of an Area):

in the plane of the area is implied.

Moment of Inertia of an area (Second Moment of an Area):

normal to that plane, the term polar moment of inertia.

Notched – Sensitivity Ratio:

Principal Planes; Principal Stresses:

Product of Inertia of an Area:

Section Modulus (Section Factor):

Set (Permanent set, Permanent deformation, Plastic strain, Plastic deformation):

Stress trajectory (isostatic):

Twisting moment (torque):

B2. List of Units & Abbreviations:

B3. Conversion Factors Grouped by Category:

Force Length Combination:

Mass Moment of Area:

B4. Miscellaneous Data:

C. Section Shear Centre:

C1. Location of Shear Centre-Open sections:

Shear flow in an element

xi = horizontal distance from the element centroid to the section centroid

Shear force in an element

Torque/Moment given by element

Horizontal Location of shear Centre:

Shear forces and total torque ∑ Ti are calculated as defined previously.

Vertical Location Of Shear Centre:

C2. Shear Centre-curved Web:

Taking Moment about 0

with q = web shear flow

Shear flow in each element

Where x and y are locations to element area δA