'.

Useful Pro
This LJp~to-dateseries will provide practica! design technlques for piping;
it should prove valuable to all engineers involved in the design, construction,
operation and maintenance of plants in the chemical process industries.

ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.

It is important to recognizethat pipirig often

for as much as one-third of the total plant cost, and that
energy cost (among others) is directly related to the
design of the piping and hydraulic systems.
The objectives of this series wiU be to: .
• Give the simplest proven methods óf ~ for
obtaining accurate solutions to piping problbns. in the
minimum number ofsteps.
• Provide basic design information and essentialdata.
• Show the design connections between piping and
equipment in hydraulic systems. .. .. ....
• Explain, as required, the fundamental relaiionships
of Euler, Bernoulli and Darcy to applied hydraulics.
Furthermore, speciñc references \VilIbe ril~de todesign
data if not shown within these artiéles. These artides,
the accompanying data and i"e,ferenceswiU. be.lls-eful t
engineers just now entering this field as wdl to those who
design piping and components as pll;rLof a larger job
responsibility in process plants. .... _
We will review the basic concepts of fluid properties
m this first installment. The definitions, nomenclature,
and design data covered hefe will be used throughout.
this series. Only Newtonian fluids will be considered.

Densities: Liquid

The density of a liquid is the weight of a unit volume

at tht},;~temperatureduring measurement, and is usually
expressed in lb/ft" [5aj. For example, the density ofwater
is P60w = 62.37 lb/ft3 at 60°P,
Pressure has no practical effect on liquid density. How-
ever, increasing temperatures will cause liquids to expando
Process flowrates '.\ be given at a basic óü=F: tempera-
ture, coupled with an expansion íactorat pointswhere
the temperature changes in a pipe system. This expansion
factor is: E = P60/ P, where P is the density at flowing
ternperature. Hence, the volurne flowrate, Q in gpm, at
temperature wilI be: Q = Q60E where Q60 is volume
flowrate at 60°F.

58 DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING.

.... ,.\
d r Piping Design
Piping-design calculations should be made at flowing cal value of z can be obtained from Fig. 1 by calculating
temperatures. In addition, alternative conditions (for reduced pressure and reduced temperature.
example, at a cold startup) should also be investigated. Example l-What is the compressibility factor of
Specific volume, V, is the reciprocal of density, V = carbon dioxide at 450 psia and 300°F?
l/p, ft3/lb. From Table 1, we frnd that the critical pressure, Pe' and
Specific gravity at standard temperature relates the
density of any liquid at 60°F to that of water at 60°F:
(1)

A relation more often used gives the specific gravity

of the liquid at flowing temperature, S, from:
s = P/P60w (2) .

where p is the density of liquid at flowing temperature.

If S > 1, the liquid is heavier than water at 60°F; and
if S < 1, the liquid is lighter than water.

Densities: Vapor 'and Gas

A convenient equation for calculating vapor or gas

densities is derived from the well-known gas law:
PV = RTz, where P is absolute pressure, lb/ft2; V is
specific volume, ft3/lb; T is temperature, °R; R is the
universal gas constant, (ft)(lb)/(lb)CR); and z is a cor-
rection factor accounting for the nonideal behavior of
a gas (usually, z = 1). Since R = 1,544/M, where Mis
the molecular weight; P = 144P', where P' is the abso-
lute pressure, psia; and V = 1/ p, ft3/lb, the gas law can
be rewritten as:
1 P 144P' (3)
V = P = RTz = 1,544T/M

From Eq. (3), we can now find an expression for gas

density, p, as:
MP'
P = ---, lb/ft" (4)
1O.72Tz
As Eq. (4) shows, gas densities depend on pressure and
temperature. Hence, for purposes of calculation, a pipe-
line is separated into segments over which the pressure
and temperature are essentially constant. By using this
procedure, calculations for pipe size and pressure drop
can be made for each segment over the length of the
pipeline.
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density, V = l/p,
ft3/lb. At high temperatures and pressures, gases do not
follow closely the ideal gas law, and z :j:. 1. The numeri-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23, 1974 59
CE REFRESHER ...

COMPRESSIBILlTV factors for actual gases in relation to critical conditions for temperature and pressure-Fig. 1

IIIIUlIIUlHUIIIIIIIIIIII1II1IIUllllUJIIIIIU1IUIlIIIIUlUUIUntlllll1JIIIUUlUIlIU1HIIIUlII!!IUUIUIltIlUlIIHlUllIlIlIlIlIllntl!!I!IUlllfltll1lllllllllll1
critical temperature, ~, of carbon dioxide are 1,073 psia
and 548°R, respectively. We then calculate reduced pres- Properties of Selected Gases and Vapors- Table I
sure PR = P/ Pe = 450/1,073 = 0.42, and reduced tem-
Sp~~ilicHeal Critical Critical
perature TR = T/Te = 760/548 = 1.39. Using Fig. 1, we
Molecular Ili!ijo al 60°F. Pressure.Pe' Temperature.T,.
find that z = 0.95 for these values. oH
Gasor Vapor Weight .:~= c/c" Psia
Specific gravity of a vapor or gas, S60g, relates the
density of the gas at 60°F and 1 atm (14.7 psia), P60g' Acetylene 26.04 1.24 905 557
to the density of air, P60a' under the 'same conditions: Air 28.97 1.40 547 239
Ammonia 17.03 1.31 1.657 731
s _ P60g _ Mg
(5) Benzene 78.11 1.12 714 1,013
60g - Paoa - Ma Carbondioxide 44.01 1.30 1,073 548
Carbonmonoxide 28.01 1.40 510 242
Eq. (5) also shows that specific gravity of a gas can be
Chlorine 7091 1.36 1,119 751
obtained by dividing the molecular weight of the gas, Ethane 30.07 1.19 708 550
Mg, by the molecular weight of air, Ma. Ethyl alcohol 46.07 1.13 927 930
For determining the specific gravity of a gas, So' at Ethyl chloride 64.52 1.19 764 829
the fiowing temperature and pressure, the relation is: Ethylene 28.05 1.24 742 510
Hydrogen 2.02 1.41 188 60
(6)
Methane 16.04 1.31 673 344
where Pg is the density of the gas at fiowing ternperature Methyl alcohol 32.04 1.20 1,157 924
and pressure. Methyl chloride 50.49 1.20 968 750
Natural gas':' 18.82 1.27 675 379
The density of air, P60a' is 0.0764 lb/ft" and the molec-
Nitrogen 28.02 1.40 492 228
ular weight, Ma, is 28.97. Densi tíes and specific gravities
Oxygen 32.00 1.40 730 278
of vapors and gases are listed in handbooks [2,4,5a). Propane 44.09 1.13 617 666
Propylene 42.08 1.15 668 658
Densities: Liquid-Vapor Mixtures Water vapor 18.02 1.33 3,208 1,166
"':Approxirnate values based on average compositíon.
If a liquid-vapor mixture occupies 1 ft3 of volume, the Source: "Engineering Data Book-1957," 7th ed., Natural Gasoline Supply Men's
weight of vapor, w", in the mixture, divided by the Assn.

volume it occupies, Vv, gives its density: Pv == W/Vv' llUIIIHlIlllllUtlllltttlltllHIUtlUHlI!lJIllltllllUUllIltlUullllllllllfmltltltllflllUlltltlflllIItllIlIllUllllflltllfllllllllll!lItr1flllllWIWlllllllltull1ll

60 DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

 •

PHASE equilibria between liquid

and vapor for a material undergoing
heating or cooling in a closed sys-
tem-Fig.2

Similarly, for the liquid part: p¡ =

W/V¡. The mixture 1. With a very small arnount of vaporization, the de-
densitywill be: Pl+v = Wi+v/V¡+v' Since VZ+v = V¡ + Vv, creased density significantly reduces the static head back-
the mixture density becomes: pressure in a vertical pipe.
2. With a constant weight flowrate and a small amount
W
Pl+v = l+v
(W¡/p¡)+ (WirY
lb/ft" / (7) of vaporization, the volume of flow greatly increases. In
turn, this increases pipe resistance significantly. Such a
In Eq. (7), W can represent the weight of fluid, weight condition is common in condensate Iines.
fíowrate, or percentage of each component in the mix-
ture. Thermodynamic Properties
Example 2-Find the mixture density for a flow of
water, W¡ = 495 lb/h. and of steam, W" = 5 lh/h, if the In routine calculations for piping and component siz-
components are well mixed and flowing concurrcntly in ing, thermodynamics is hardly involved. However, it is
a pipeline. The flowing fluid has a pressure of 110 psia useful to recognize when physical change takes place in
and temperature of 344°F. the flowing fluid. For example, if a liquid fiows near its
By substituting into Eq. (4), we find that steam density boiling point, even a little vaporization (usually due to
is: pressure reduction) can increase piping and component
resistances.
18(l1O) = 0.23 Ib/ft3 In order to understand the meanings of the terms
10.72(344 + 460)1
subcooled and saturated as applied to a liquid, and the
From a water properties table [5a], we find that the terms saturated and superheated as applied to a vapor,
density of water at 344°F is 55.56 lb/It." we will use the temperature-volume relations that are
By substituting the appropriate values into Eq. (7), we shown in Fig. 2. .
find that the mixture density is: When a liquid is heated at constant pressure, its tem-
peralure increases and its volume expands, (See line
Pl+v = 500 = 16.32 lb/ft" segment from a to b in Fig. 2.) On reaching the boiling
(495/55.56) + (5/0.23)
ternperature, the liquid becomes saturated. The liquid
This example shows that even a small amount (about below the boiling point is called subcooled. More heat
1%)ofvaporization greatly reduces liquid density. Hence, will gradually vaporize the liquid while its pressure and
in designing flow systems, we must be aware that: tem perature remain constant but its volume increases

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23, 1974 61

CE REFRESHER •••

1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIlUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUlIIUlIIIIUllllllmlllUIIIIIIlIIIIIlIIIIllIIIIIIIIII1I1111111111111111111111111U1UUllIlIlIlIllIlIlIlIlIIlIIllIl 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

Typical Sections of Steam Tables- Table 11 Typical Liquid Velocities in Steel

------ Saturated steamandsaturated water ------ Pipelines- Table 111
e
Pressure Prsssure Temperature. Heal 01Ihe Lalent Heat01
Absolute.P'. Gago.P, 1, Liquiil. Evaporalion. NominalPipeSizes.In. 2 or less 31010 lOto 20
Psia Psig °F Blu/Lb Blu/Lb
Liquid andLine Velocily. FI/S Velocity.FI/S Velocity.Ft/S
110,0 95,3 334.79 305,8 883,1
111.0 96,3 335.46 306.5 882,5 Water
112,0 97,3 336,12 307,2 ' 882,0 Pump suctlon 1 lo 2 2104 3106
124,0 109,3 343.74 315,2 875,8 Pump discharge (long) 2103 3105 4 lo 7
125,0 110,3 344,35 315,8 875,3 Discharge leads (shorl) 4109 51012 8 lo 14
126,0 111.3 344,95 316.4 874,8 Boiler leed 4 lo 9 5 lo 12 8 lo 14
127,0 112,3 345,55 317,1 874,3 üralns 3 lo 4 3 lo 5 -
Sloped sewer - 3 lo 5 4107
Superhealedsteam HydrocarbonIiquids
PressurB Pressure Saturated (Normal viscositiesl
TotalTemperature. °F
Pump suctíon 1.,5to 2,'5 2104 3106
Absolute.P'. GagB.P. Temperatura.
500 600 700 800 Discharge header (long) 2.,5 lo 3.5 3105 4 lo 7
Psia Psig t. °F
--- --- --- --- Discharge leads (short) 4109 51012 8 lo 15
400,0 385,3 444,60 111.2841 1.4763 1.6499 1.8151 Drains 3 lo 4 3 lo 5 -
h. 1,245,1 1,307.4 1,363.4 1,417,0 Viscousoils
Pump suctíon,
420,0 405,3 449.40 11 1,2148 1.4007 1.5676 1.7258 Medium víscoslty - 1.5103 2.5105
h. 1,242.4 1,305,8 1,362,3 1,416,2 Tar and fuel oíís - 0.4 lo 0.75 0.5 lo 1
440,0 425,3 454,03 i7 1.1517 1.3319 1.4926 1.6445 Discharge (short)
"
- 3 lo 5 4106
h. 1,239.7 1.304,2 1,361.1 1,415,3 Drains 1 1.5 lo 3 -
Vis specilic volume, ft3/lb; and h, is total heat 01 stei!m, Btu/jb.
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 1IIIIIIIUUlllltllltlllUlllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII11lI1I1I11II1II11ll11ll11llltllllllllllltllllllUIIIUUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

1I11nUIIIIIIIlIIIIIU!lUUUlIUlllllmUIIUUlUlltlIIIIUIII\\IIIII\\IIIIII\\1I11111111111111111111l11111l\llUUIIIIIUIlmltlllllllllllll\!ltllmllllUlllllllll1ml
(Line b to e in Fig. 2). During this stage, both liquid
and vapor phases are present. After sufficient heat ab- Typical Velocities in Gas and Vapor
sorption, all of the liquid vaporizes (Point e). At this Lines- Table IV
point, the vapor is saturated. Further heating (Line c-d)
will cause both the temperature and the volume of vapor Saluraled Sleamor SuperhealedSteam,
Saluraled Vapor SuperhealedVapor. or Gas
to increase. Vapor aboye the saturation temperature is
superheated. LowPressure MediumPressure HighPressurB
Nominal
At a higher constant pressure, the boiling temperature PipeSize.
Velocily. Ft/S Velocily.FI/S Velocily.Ft/S
will be higher, and less heat will be required to vaporize In.
the liquido At the critical point (see Fig, 2), the densities
2 or less 45 lo 100 40 lo 80 30 lo 60
of liquid and vapor become identical. Just below the
3 lo 4 50 lo 110 45 lo 90 35 lo 70
critical temperature, the substance is considered liquid;
6 60 lo 120 50 lo 120 45 lo 90
just aboye, it is considered vapor. 8 lo 10 65 lo 125 80 lo 160 65 lo 125
The quantity of heat needed to vaporize a unit weight 121014 70 lo 130 100 lo 190 80 lo 145
of saturated liquid at constant pressure. (Line b-e in 16 lo 18 75 lo 135 110 lo 210 90 lo 160
Fig, 2) is called the latent heat (usually expressed in 20 80 lo 140 120 lo 220 100 lo 170
Btujlb). Note: Within the above veloeities and line-size ranges. (a) large lines can have
Thermodynamic properties for various substances have higher veloeities than smaller ones. and (b) snort lines, and leads from headers,
can have higher velocities than long lines ano headers.
be en established and are available. Part of a typical page
is shown in Table Il, for saturated steam [1,5b [, EquipmenlLines Velocity.FI/S

Reboiler, downcomer (Iiquid) . · .3107

Reboiler, riser (liquid and vapor) · 35 lo 45
Flashing Llquid Overhead condenser . . .2510100
Two-phase flow . , .. · 35 lo 75

Inlel, gas turbine , .. 150 lo 350

Relief valve, discharge . 0.5v/,
Relief valve, entry p0101al sílencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V'
e

* Obtatn sonie or crttícat velocity, Ve' from:

v, = 68 v'k(P' / p), tt/s k trom Table 1.

IllllHllmftIlIlHIIUIIIIIII1IUUUIlIJ1IIt1II11I111l1l1I1UIUlIlIlI1J1I1III11JIlIIIlUrmtlllllUU11IIIII11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111UIIIIIIIIIIIIII
VISCOSITY conversion obtained conveniently by reading horizontally across the chart-Fig. 3
Example 3-Let us consider that condensed water is
=
flowing at arate W 500 lb/h at 125 psia and 344°F.
When pipe resistance reduces the pressure to 110 psia,
how much water will flash to steam?
From Table 11,we find that the heat content of 1 lb
ofwater is 315.8 Btu at 125 psia, and 305.8 Btu at 110 psia.
The difference is 10.0 Btu/Ib, or a total of 10.0 X
500 = 5,000 Btu released when a pressure reduction of
15 psi (125 - 110) occurs. This amount of heat will
vaporize sorne of the liquido
We must now find the latent heat of water at the
flowing conditions. From Table Il, the latent heat at
110 psia is 883.1 Btu/Ib, and at 125 psia is 875.3 Btu/lb.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23, 1974
The average of the two values is 879.2 Btu/lb. The
amount of heat released during the pressure reduction,
divided by the average latent heat, will yield the amount
of liquid vaporized: 5,000/879.2 = 5.69 lb/h. Therefore,
the quantities in two-phase flow will be: Wv = 5.69 lb/h
saturated steam, and W¡ =,500 - 5.69 = 494.31 lb/h
saturated water.
Specific Heat
The quantity of heat absorbed by a unit weight of
substance while its temperature is raised 1° is termed the
specifíc heat. Customary units are in Btu/(lb)(OF). Spe-
63
CE REFRESHER ...

1I11!\U1l1l1111ll11l1l11\\IUllIIHlIlllllIllIIlIIllIlIlIllllIltllIIIlIU\\lltllI1111111111111111It11ll1ll1l1l1UlUtll1ll11ll1UUIIIH11I11I11111\l\Imlmlllllllllllllllll
cific heat can be measured at constant volume, cv' and
Maximum Velocities To Prevent Erosion at constant pressure, cp' At constant pressure, cp ::::: 6.h/ tlt,
Or Oorrosion of Pipe Wall- Table V where 6.h is the number of Btu absorbed by 1 lb of
substance over a temperature span of M°F.
Maximum Velocity.
At adiabatic gas ftow (no heat exchange between the
Ft/S
gas and its environment), the ideal-gas law becomes
Liquid in carbon-steet pipe pi/k = RT, where k = c/cv' For various gases, the
Phenolicwater' 3 range of k is from 1.2 to 1.4, with few exceptions. In
Concentratedsulfuric acid 4 isothermal (constant temperature) flow, k = 1. The
Coolinq-tower water 12 quantity k is called the specific heat ratio or adiabatic
Salt water 6 exponent. Data for cp' Cv and k are available in engineer-
Calcium chloride brine
ing handbooks [2,3,4,5c].
Caustic soda C> 5% by volume) 4
Aqueous amine (mono- or diethanolamine) 10
Wet phenolic vapor 60 Fluid in Motlon
Liquid in plastic or rubber-llned pipe 10
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
Velocity-A fluid moving in a pipeline has a parabolic
velocity-distribution profile (see Fig. 4a). The average
velocity is calculated at a given cross-section and steady
flowrate: v = q!.¡4, ft/s, where q is volume fiowrate in
ft3/S, and A is cross-sectional are a of the pipe in ft.2
For liquid-fiow calculations:

v = 0.408(QjtJ2) (8)

For vapor-fiow or gas-fiow calculations:

v = 0.0509 Wj(d2p) (9)

where v is velocity, ft/s; Q is volume flowrate, gpmo; W

is weight fiowrate, lb/h; d is internal diame ter .of pipe,
in; and p is gas density at fiowing temperature and pres-
sure, lb/ft. 3
The relationship between volume flowrate (Q, gpm)
and weight fiowrate (w, Ib/h) is:

(Qpj7.48)60 = W = 8Qp
Q = 0.125(Wjp)

Since specific gravity, S, is p/ P6ow' we find that

W = 500QS. In the case of water close to 60°F,
=
W 500Q, lb/h, with Pi;ow = 62.37 lb/ft."
The initial pipe diameter can be estimated by choosing
a reasonable velocity for a specific type of pipeline. Thus,
for liquid lines:

d2 = 0.408( Qjv), in.2 (lO)

and for vapor lines and gas lines:

d2 = 0.509Wj(vp), in." (11)

Table III gives practical velocities for 'liquid lines, and

Table IV for vapor lines. Values of d and d2 are tabulated
in pipe manufacturers' catalogs [5fl
To prevent corrosion or erosion of the internal pipe
wall, sorne chemicals should not exceed the maximum
velocities listed in Table V. Only a few examples are
listed in this table.
Viscosity-Viscosity is the measure of how easily the
liquid or gas fiows. It is a measure of the internal resist-
ance of ftuids. With increasing temperatures, liquid vis-
cosity decreases and gas viscosity increases.
For measuring viscosity, many English and metric units
have been developed. In this series, centipoise, cp, will
FLOW patterns in a pipe containing water-Fig. 4 be used. A convenient conversion scale between the vari-

64 DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

 ous units of viscosity is shown in Fig. 3. Elaborate instru-
ments are required for measuring absolute viscosity such
as cp. Kinematic viscosity is simple to measure. The
relation between kinematic and absolute is:
v == !l/S (12)

where v is viscosity in centistokes; f1. is viscosity in cp;

and S is specific gravity. Note that 1 Stoke has dimen-
sions of crn-/s.
The viscosity of water at 68°F is 1 cp. If data are not
available, the following viscosities can be used: f1. = 1 cp
for liquids similar to water, 0.1 cp for liquid-vapor mix-
tures, and 0.01 cp for gases or vapors [5d].

Re~nolds Number and Friction Factors

Experiments and observations made in glass pipes have

. shown that several types of flow exist in a fluid stream;
these depend on the velocity of the stream. Such flows
can be observed by injecting fine colored streams into
the main body of the liquido At low velocities, (he
colorcd streams retain their sharpness, and flow is laminar
(Fig. 4a). As fluid velocity increases, the fine streams
begin to break up, and flow is now in a transition or
critical zone (Fig. 4b). With a further increase in the flow
velocity beyond the critical zone, flow becomes turbulcnt
(Fig.4c).
For estimating the type of flow in a pipeline, the
Reynolds number, NRe, is used. The Reynolds number RElATIVE roughness and friction factor chart-Fig. 5

FRICTION factors for any type of commercial pipe under any condition of fluid flow-Fig. 6

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/DECEMBER 23,1974 65

CE REFRESHER ...
is a dimensionless combination ofpipe diameter, velocity,
density and viscosity. NRe = DUP/!Le' where !Le is the
absolute viscosity in lbm/(ft-s)(ft2).
Practical formulas for calculating NRe are:
NRe = 50.6(Q/á)(p/Jl) = 6.31 W/dJl (13)
where Q is volume flow, gpm; W is weight flow, lb/h;
d is internal diameter of pipe, in.; pis density, lb/fta and
!L is viscosity, cp.
Resistance to fluid motion depends on the type of flow
in the pipeline and on the roughness of the pipe wall.
Relative roughness is €/ D where € is the absolute rough-
ness (i.e., the depth of the unevenness of the internal pipe
wall), and D is the internal diameter of the pipe. Both
€ and D should be measured with the same dimensional
unit. Values for relative roughness can be obtained from
Fig. 5, for various pipe diameters and materials.
The friction factor depends on the type of flow in the
pipeline and the roughness of the pipe wall. It can be
obtained from Fig. 6, for various flow conditions.
In the laminar zone, where NRe < 2,000, the friction
factor depends on the Reynolds number only. Hence,
=
f 64/ NRe• In the critical zone, where 2,000 .;;;;NRe .;;;;
4,000, the friction factor is unpredictable. Friction factors
for this zone are given in Fig. 4b.
If the NRe ranges from 4,000 to the dashed line in
Fig. 6, the flow is in the transitional turbulent zone. Here
the friction factor varies with the Reynolds numbcr. The
zone to the right of the dashed line is totally turbulent,
and the friction factor remains constant with increasing
Reynolds number.
Because glass and plastic materials have smooth pipe
walls, the friction factors for them are independent of
relative roughness or pipe diameter. Hence, there is only
one line for these materials in Fig. 6.
For any given type of pipe material (for example,
steel), a diagram of the Reynolds number vs. friction
factor can be drawn [5e]. In this case, constant pipe-
diameter lines will replace the constant relative-rough-
ness lines of Fig. 6.
For steel pipes, the border line between transitional
and total turbulence can be estimated. This is done by
multiplying the nominal pipe size (in.) by 106 to get the
borderline NRe• Friction factors in {he totally turbulent
zone are listed in Table VI.
Example 4-Let us find the friction factor for a 4-in
steel pipe. The estimated Reynolds number is then
4 X 106 for total turbulence. And from Table VI, the
friction factor is 1= 0.0165 for a 4-in pipe. If
NRe < 4 X 106, the friction factor must be obtained from
Fig. 5 and 6.
Friction factors obtained directly from tables and
diagrams are used in calculations where the pipe material
is new, and where the fiuids (for example, light hydro-
carbons) do not deteriorate the pipe wall. For fluids that
corrode the pipe wall, form deposits, or cause scaling or
erosion, the friction factor should be increased by a safety
factor. For steam condensa te, cooling water, salt water,
the safety factor can be 1.25 to 1.5, depending on the
size and the expected 'life of the installation.
The dimensional properties of pipe are published by
66
IlIIU!UIlUII111IUl1lt1lllllnU!IIltJIIl1ll1lUI1I1IlIlI1IlUIIUllllllllllllllmltlIlIIlIUIIIIII1I1l1l1ll1ll1111IlIlIIlUlIllllU1JlI1!IUHIIUI1IIIIIIIIIIIIIIUUIllII
Friction Factors for Total Turbulence- Table VI
(In new commercial steel pipes)
Nominal Friction Nominal Friction
Pipe Size. Factor Pipe Size, Factor,
In. f In. f
W, 0.0205 10 0.0136
2 0.0195 12 0.0132
3 0.0178 14 0.0125
4 0.0165 16 0.0122
5 0.016 18 0.012
6 0.0152 20 0.0118
8 0.0142 24 0.0116
11l1I1lJllllIIIlHUllllllllllllllUlllIlIIlllIlIlIllltlltlllllllJlll1HltlIIIIIIIIIIIUUlIIIIIIIIIIItlIIIllIlIIlIlIUll!IIJIUI!I!llIlmlllllllJlllllllllllllmIIlIlIlIlHII
manufacturers [51]. For steel pipes, these are based on
the recommendations of the American National Stand-
ards r nstitute.
The next article in this series will appear in the Jan. 6,
1975, issue and and will deal with the basics for sizing
piping and components. Practical formulas will be given
for liquid-line and vapor-Iine sizing for which the density
of the fluid in the line is constant.
Acknowledgements
The charts and illustrations in this article have been
kindly supplicd by, and used with the permission of:
American Petroleum Institute, Fig. 1; Dow Chemical
Co., Fig. 3; Crane Co., Fig. 4; Crane CO. from data
extracted from Friction Factors for Pipe Flow by L. F.
Moody with the permission of the publisher, ASME,
Fig. 5 and 6. #
References
1. Keenan, J. H., Keyes, F. O., HiIl, P. O. and Moore, J. O., "Steam
Tables," Wiley, New York, 1969.
2. Gallant, R. W., "Physieal Properties of Hydroearbons," VoL 1 and
VoL 2, Oulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1968 and 1971.
3. "A.P.!. Teehnieal Data Book: Petroleum Refining," American Perro-
leum lnstitute, Washington. D.C.
4. Perry, R. H. and Chilton, C. H., "Chernical Engineers' Handbook,"
5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1973.
5. "Flow of Fluids," Teehnieal Paper No. 410, (a) p. A-6, physieal proper-
ues of water; p. A-7, density of various liquids; p. A-8, physieal
properues of gases; p. A-ID, weight density of air; (b) pp. A-12 to
A-19, thermodynamie properties ofsteam; (e) p. A-8, physieal proper-
ties 01" gases; p. A-9, specific heat ratios for steam; (d) p. A-2, viseosity
of steam; p. A-3, viseosity of water and petroleum produets; p. A-4,
viseosity of various liquids; p. A-5, viseosity of gases and vapors;
pp. B-3 to B-5, viseosity equivalents; (e) p. A-25, frietion factor vs,
Reynolds number diagram for steel pipes; (f) pp. B-16 to B-19, steel
pipe data. (Crane Co., Chieago, Il, 60632.)
Meet the Author
Robert Kern is a senior design enqí-
neer in the corporate engineering
department 01 Hoffmann - La Roche
Inc .• Nutley, NJ 07110. He is a spe-
eialist in hydraulic-systems designo
plant layout, piping design and
economy. He is tne author of a
number 01artícles in these lields, and
has taught several courses lor the
design 01 process piping. plant lay-
out, graphic piping and Ilow sys-
tems, both in the U.S. and South
America. Previously, he was asso-
eiated with M. W. Kellogg Co. in
England and the U.S. Mr. Kern has
an M.S. in mechanícal engineering
from the Technical University of
Budapes!.
DECEMBER 23, 1974/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 CE Refresher _

Developing the baste relations for fluid flow

;!eads to practical formulas for finding pipe
.j~size.Here are useful techniques for liquids or
o~~asesin pipelinesundersteady-flowcon\ns.,

.~
.1 .

~How lo Compute Pipe Size

ROBERT KERN, Hoffman - La Roche Inc."

Methods for sizing piping and piping components rely balanced with an equal reaction force on the pipe wall.
on units of measurement that are customarily found in If forces acting in the direction of flow are positive, and
manufacturers' literature and in handbooks, those acting against the flow are negative:
A In order to use these data, we must first understand
,;. the basic relations of fluid flow in piping systems. As we
"i,F = FI - F2 - E':l = P dA - (p + dp)dA - p dA dl sin <X (1)

develop these relations, we will also apply them to prac- The difference in height between the end-points of
tical formulas for sizing the components of such systems
when handling liquids and vapors.

Direction of flow - _ ~
Euler's Derivation dm __

Fig. la shows a reducing elbow in which an ideal fluid

/ .. flows, (Ideal fluids have no internal or external resis-
<_ ,[ance.) Let us investigate the forces acting on a partial Pressure, p -_
.mass, dm, of this ideal fluid, using the consistent units
of English measurement, The pressure in the elbow is p.
The partial mass of fluid is enlarged in Fig. lb to show
its dimensions and the forces acting on it. The length
of the partí al volume is di, and the area at both ends
is dA. b. Differential
Quantity
The forces acting on this partial mass are F1, F2 and
Enlarged
__: F3' Parallelto its direction of motion, Fl = P dA; and as
l, this mass flows, one surface meets a somewhat higher
=
"'pressure, (p + dp), and F2 (p + dp) dA. The weight
cornponent, acting against the direction of flow, F., =
.....W sin IX = P dl dA sin IX. (In an actual fluid, there ís a
force, F., which is the fiuid's resistan ce acting against the
direction of flow. For an ideal fluid, F., = O.) dz
Perpendicularly to the X-axis, the forces due to pres-
sure, which act on the surface of the partí al mass, cancel
each other, i.e., L:Fy = O. The weight component of dm
(i.e., W cos IX), perpendicular to the direction of flow, is
"To meet your author, see Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 66. FORCES acting on differential mass in fluid-Fig. 1
....~.
CHEMICAl ENGINEERING/ JANUARV 6, 1975 115
 CE REFRESHER ...
Point, .1
2
V1
DISTRIBUTION of fluid energy in a pipeline-Fig. 2
length, dl, is dz = dl sin a, and Eq. (1) reduces to:
'iF == -dp dA - pdA dz
/>, The resultant force acting on a body in the direction
of motion is proportional to mass times acceleration:
=
"2,F adm; mass equals weight divided by the gravita-
tional constant: dm = W/g; and acceleration is the velo-
city difference, du, over a time span, dt: a = du/ dt. Con-
=
sequently, ¿:,F (W/ g)(du/dt). Since the weight.of fluid
is its volume multiplied by density:
¿:,F== dA d/(p/g)(dv/dt)
Setting Eq. (2) and (3) equal to each other yields:
-dp dA - p dA dz = (p/g)dA dv(dl/dt)
where dl/dt is velocity. After multiplying both sides of
Eq. (4) by -l/p dA, we get:
(l/p) dp + (l/g) v dv + dz == O
Eq. (5) is the general and fundamental differential
relationship of fluid fíow as developed by Euler.
For piping-design purposes, Eq. (5) is solved in two
basic ways:
1. Where density can be considered constant in the
whole length of the pipeline. This is true with all liquid
lines, and those gas lines where pressure losses are small
relative to line pressure. We will show how to size such
pipelines later in this article.
2. Where density cannot be considered constant. This
ls the case of expanding gas and vapor flow, where ihe
pressure differential is sizable between two points of the
pipeline. We will discuss such systems in a later article.
Bernoulli's Equation
Integrating Eq. (5) between reference points 1 and 2
of Fig' la for fluids where (he density can be considered
constant yields Bernoulli's equation:
2 Z
(lIp)J dp+(l/g)J vdv+
I 1
(I/p)(pz - PI) + (v~ - vD/2g + (z2 -Zl) = O
where the first, second and third expressions of Eq. (6)
represent the pressure-head, velocity-head and static-
head differences, respectively. Eq. (6) is used for investi-
116
/p
144/p
/2g
a. Horizontal Pipe
144/p
(2)
b. Piping Turns Upward
(3)
(4)
c. Piping Turns Downward
(5) PIPE elevation affects energy distribution-Fig. 3
gating energy distributions or calculating pressure differ-
entials between any two points in a pipeline.
Fig. 2 graphically iIlustrates Bernoulli's energy distri-
bution in a slanted pipeline, with two additional factors
included: (1) there is a head loss, hL, due to friction
because we are now dealing with an actual fluid, and
(2) in a pipeline with constant diameter, velocity usually
does not change, i.e., uI = u2• The first factor changes
the righthand side of Eq. (6), and the second eliminates
the component for the velocity-head difference. * Eq. (6)
now becomes:
(7)
What is the signiñcance of Eq. (7) from a piping
designer's standpoirit? Head loss, hL, is consumed at the :
expense of pressure-head or static-head difference. The
static-head difference can be positive or negative. For a
negative static-head difference, the préssure-head differ-
ence must be greater than h¡_ + (Z2 - Zl)'
2
J dz==O In practical design work, Eq. (7) can rarely be fulfílled
I as it stands, for two reasons:
(6) 1. To obtain a reasonable movement of flu-id in a
pipeline, the lefthand side of the equation must be
greater than the resistance to flow.
* Do not use up ve!ocity head tor pipe reslstance,
.W JANUARY 6, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 2. Commercial pipes are manufactured in increments
of size (i.e., pipe diameter). Consequently, the caJculated
resistances for each size are also in increments for the
same ñow conditions. So, from a practical standpoint,
Eq. (7) becomes:
(8)

In design work, we caJculate separately the lefthand

and righthand side of Eq. (8). The sum of the left side
must be positive and greater than the total resistance of
a pipeline. 1. .
Resistance should be calculated for all alternative flow
conditions. The flow direction is always from a higher
pressure point to a lower one. If piping turns upward
in the direction of ñow, the static head reduces the pres-
sure: Z2> Z1' Ifpiping turns downward in the direction
offlow, the static head adds pressure to the fluid: Z1 >
Z2'
This is illustrated in Fig. 3. Pressure due to the static
head of a gas is usually small and can be neglected in
calculations.
/~ The excess energy not used up for pipe resistance
'avides a safety margin and is finally lost at the end
of a pipeline. In general:
D.P. == D.Pp + D.P,
where !:"Pa is the available pressure drop, !:"Pp isthe FLOWof liquid through pipe or orifice-Fig. 4
pressure drop due to resistances of the pipe system, and
D.Px is the excess pressure drop.
Flow of fluids through equipment and components in Eq. (lO) is the Darcy equation and is the basic equation
a pipe system also introduces additional resistan ces that used for sizing piping and components. The velocity
have to be overcome by !:"Pa. To account for these expression in Eq. (lO) is: v = C(2gh) 1/2, where e =
resistances, the overall !:"P distribution can be: (1/K)1I2.
Flow coefficients for piping and pipe components are
D.p. :=: D.Pr + D.Pc + D.Pq + D.Px obtained from experimental data. For restrictions such
where !:"Pr is pressure drop due to pipe resistance, D.Pc as orifices, the constant C is used; for control valves, the
is pressure drop due to resistances in pipe components, usual constant is Cv. When sizing pipes, the flow coeffi-
and D.Pq is pressure drop due to resistances in equipment. cient, K, is proportional to the friction factor,j, and pipe
length, L, and is inversely proportional to the pipe
Sizing t.tquld Unes diameter, D:

Let us apply Eq. (6) to an example: A large container
'",filled with liquido Near the bottom of the container,
-,
__ j orífice is drilled or a piece of pipe is attached, as
shown in Fig. 4. Velocity at the bottom opening is v2.
Because of the large difference in area between the
bottom opening and the container's cross-section, the
liquid leve! moves down very slowly, and its velocity, v1,
can be considered approximately zero. Pressure is
asmospheric at the liquid surface and at the bottom outlet
and, consequently, P2 - P1 == O.For convenience, we will
represent the elevation difference between the liquid
sarface and the bottom opening as hL == Z1 - Z2' Taking
these factors into account, the Bernoulli relation, Eq. (6),
reduces to:
(9)
K==fL/D (11)
In the previous article (Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974,
p. 65), we showed that the friction factor is a function of
the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the
pipe wall.
Practical Formulas
We will now show how to derive sizing formulas in
the convenient units used by designers, manufacturers
and handbooks, by converting the previous relations
from the consistent units of the English system of mea-
surement.
We will begin by converting Eq. (10) to pressure drop,
!:"P, in psi: '

When in motion, all actual fluids have internal resist- D.P == (h}p)/I44 (12)
ance due to viscosity and friction between the fluid and To get pressure drop, !:"P, in psi for pipelines, we com-
the pipe wall and equipment parts. To take this into bine Eq. (10) and (11):
account, we will correct Eq. (9) by introducing a resist-
ance coefficient, K, and letting v == v2: M = (fL/D)(v2/2g)(p/144) (13)

hL = Kv2/2g (10) If we want to express pipe diameter in inches, and

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/JANUARY 6,1975 117

 CE REFRESHER •.•

IIllHtll1\!1111111111111ll1Jl1Irmm!l1UIftUUluWrttUIIIIUIIIIIIIIHllwiUllllllnUII1l1!J1JJUnIIHIlIlItIIllJIIIIIllI11llllll1llnnUlIllltlll1ll1ll1l1U!I\\1l
velocity.as a volumetric flowrate, Q, gpm, we substitute
Resistances of Elbows, Tees D =
d/l2; aríd v = 0.408(Q/d2) into Eq. (13). These
and Bends- Table I Silbstitutib_hS,nOwyield:
(Resistance in equivalent pipe length, ft) (14)
Tee wh,ere f.P is pressure drop, psi; f is friction factor; L is
90° Elbows"
Nominal Flow· pipe lerrgth; ft; p is density lb/ft"; Q is volumetric flow-
90° Bends" Through. Flow·
Pipe Shorl long rate, gpm; and d is pipe diameter, in. Note that density
-
Size. Radius. Radius Branch Through and volumetric flowrate must be expressed at the flowing
.zt.. _L_
In R= 10 R = 1.50 R=50 R= 100

1Y2 4.5 3 2.5 4

- temperature.
If we want to .express the pressure drop as the cus-
8 3
tomary loss per 100 ft of pipe, we substitute L 100 [t =
2 5.25 3.5 3 5 11 3.5 in Eq. (14), and get:
2V, 6 4 3.5 6 13 4 D.PlOO = O.0216fp(Q2/d5), psi/lOO ft (15)
3 7.5 5 4 7.5 16 5
.. Eq. (15) can be expressed in terms of specific gravity,
4 10.5 7 5.5 10 20 7 S, by substituting p == 62.37S:
6 15 10 8.5 15 30 10 ,
/J.P100 == l.35fS(Q2/d5), psi/lOO ft (16)
8 21 14 11 20 40 14
[Note that in establishing Eq. (16) the density of water,
10 24 16 14 25 50 16
'.
62.37 lb/ft", is at 60°F. Hence, the specific gravity, S, in
12 32 21 16 30 60 21 Eq. (16) must be the density of the liquid at flowing
14 33 22 19 33 65 22 temperature compared to the density of water at 60°F.]
16 39 26 21 38 75 26 Eq. (15) and (16) are the most convenient for calculat-
ing unit losses in Jiquid lines. Values of d5 are listed in
18 44 29 24 42 86 ., 29
manufacturers' catalogs .
20 48 32 27 50 100 32 Example l-What is the pressure drop per 100 ft in
24 57 38 32 60 120 38 a 6-in Schedule 40 (I.D. == 6.065 in, d5 = 8,206 in") line
,:,For 45° etbows and bends, estimate 50% of tabulated values.
for kerosene? Liquid conditions are: flowrate, Q60 =
For 180 o returns, doubte the tabulated values. 900 gpm; density, P60 = 51 lb/ft"; and temperature,
11l1111ll1l11l1l11ll\l1ll11llllllll1U\\lllJllJl!H\lmrfllllllrmlUtnlll!U/l1I1U/fUltlUI/IIIIHIWllunUIWIlUIUJIlIWIIIlU!!lUIlIIIllI11IIlIlUlI!\l\l11l11tl t = 321°F.

IIlllltllIII1t11UlIIIIlIllIIlIl1l1l11IUU!lIIlIlUmllItlIlIlUUIl111111f1l1ll11ll1ll1lrmUUlUlIUlllfUIWltumtrlUUflllumWUtttlIHIIWWIIJUIIIJIlIlIIIlUII\\\\IItIItIlIIlUIHIIIII111IIUUIIII111!t\1lIU1I111111l1l11l11llIIllUIIIUJIIItl1ll11UIImUIlIlIlI11I1l11I1UllllllllllllllllltllI11111IIllfIUlllmllllllllllllfl!lrmlUlUlllmllU

Resistancesto Flow Ior Various Types of Valves- Table "

(Resistance in equivalent pipe length, ft)
Globe,* Fully üpan,
Bevel or Plug Seat Three·Way Cock'
Nominal Check
Pipe Gale. I Stralght- Slraight- Flow·
Size. Fully Through Through Through Butterny.
In üpan ~
~o
~o Swing Ball Cock.' Flows Branch Fully Open
1Y, 1.75 46 23 18 17 20 2.5 6 20 6
2 2.25 60 30 24 22 25 3.5 7.5 24 8
2V, 2.75 70 38 30 27 30 4 9 30 10
3 3.5 90 45 38 35 38 5 12 36 12
4 4.5 120 60 48 45 50 6.5 15 48 15
6 6.5 175 88 72 65 75 10 '22 70 23
8 9 230 120 95 90 100 13 30 95 27
10 12 280 150 130 120 130 16 38 120 35
12 14 320 170 145 140 150 19 40
14 15 380 190 160 150 170 20 45
16 17 420 220 180 170 190 22 50
18 18 480 250 205 180 210 , 24 58
20 20 530 290 240 200 240 27 64
24 32 630 330 270 250 290 33 78
"For partially closed globe valves, multiply tabulated values by 3 for three-quarters open. by 12 for one-halt open, and by 70 for one-quarter open.
1 With port area open. Part afea = pipe area.

2 Port area equals 80% of pipe area.

1I!1lUlllIII1I1U1lll1IUlIlIllUlllllllllll1l1llllllllllJlllllllll\UlllllIIllllBllJ\lIl1l1l1!l!I!I1rllllImuurmUllmlUlltWrW""/11IIUlWIIIUUUlllrWl/IlIllJltltlllIlllllllllIIIIIllIUIIIIIIII1I11111111U1lJ1J1!lIlnUlllIllnuIIIIIIIIIIIIUI\I!llIlmIUIIIIllIIIIIJlIlIUUIlIlIllItIIIIIl!!tIlUH1I!1!11IJIIIIIHIIIIIIIHIlJIIIIIIIIIIIIUUlIIII

118 .,·dANUARY6, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

 First, sorne data preparation is necessary, which is IJIIIIUllIIIIIUl1l1lIIUUllII1!llllUltUIII11tI1UllUlrllHllll1U1UUUllllllrlllUllltIIUllUUIIIIIII1UIIll/1I1U11111J111111111J11l1tl1l1ll1ll1l1l1l1ll11l1l11U1111

summarized as: Reststances of Eccentric and Concentric

Specific gravity at 60'F: Sso == 51/62.37 == 0.82
Reducers, And of Sud den Changes in
Specific gravity at 321'F: S32l == 0.72 from Ref. 5a, Part 1.* Une Size- Table 111
Density at 321'F: p == 62.37(0.72) == 44.9Ib/ft3 (Resistéince in equivalent pipe length, ft)
--'-.
Expansion factor: E == Sso/S == 0.82/0.72 == 1.14 _r L_
Nominal dz-d, d,--dz
Flowrate at 321'F: Q == Q60/E == 900(1.14) == 1,026 gpm sízes, L_ _r
Viscosity: p. == 0.3 cp from Ref. 5d, Part 1.* In
d, d, d1E:]d' dl8dz
We now calculate the Reynolds number at the ñowing
conditions: V,
1'4 0.6 0.5
NE. == 50.6(p/p.)(Q/d) V, 1.2 0.7
1
NE. == 50.6(44.9/0.3)(1,026/6.065) :y, 0.6 0.6
NE. == 1.281 X 106 Y< 1.6 1.0
1Y,
The friction factor for this NRe is found from Fig. 5 1 1.2 0.9
and 6 of Part 1* of series, and hence, / = 0.0154. (Flow 1 2.2 1.3
falls in the transitional turbulent zone.) Substituting the 2
1V, 1.3 1.3
appropriate values into Eq. (16) yields:
1Yz 3.8 2.4
t:,p 100 == 1.35(0.0154)(0.72)(1,026)2/8,206 3
2 2.7 2.3
t:,PlOO == 1.92 psi/lOO ft
2 5 3.2
4
3 3 3
Sizing Gas and Vapor Lines
3 8 5
To size gas or vapor lines, we must convert Eq. (1'4) 6
4 4 4

º=
and (15) to a weight fiowrate by substituting
0.125(W/p) into them. This conversion yields: 8
4
6
12
7
7
7
t:,p == 0.OO000336L(j /p)(W2/d5) (17)
4 15 8
and for L = 100 ft, Eq. (17) becomes:
10 6 14 9.5
MIDO == 0.OO0336(j/p)(WZ/d5) (18) 8 6 6
where /:"P is pressure drop, psi, and /:,.PIOO is pressure 6 19 12
drop, psi/lOO ft. 12 8 14 12
Eq. (17) and (18) gíve acceptable results, provídíng
10 6.5 6.5
that (l) the average gas density of fiow is used:
=
P (PI + p2)/2, where PI is the density at the beginning 6 22 14
point and P2 is the density at the terminating point in 8 22 14
the pipe segrnent under investigation, and (2) 14
10 15 13
(PI - P2) ~ OAPI because energy losses due to accelera-
12 6 6
t~o'·\aÍJ.ddensity variations can be neglected up to this
8 27 17
t. '"
With longer pipelines where the total pressure drop 10 23 17
is greater than 40% of the upstream pressure, computa- 16 12 15
15
tions are done by consideríng that the líne is divided into
segments, so that the pressure loss in each segment is 14 7 7
less than 40% of the upstream pressure. Densities, of 10 30 19
course, will be different in each segment. 12 23 19
If PI - P2 ~ 0.IP2, average values of p need not be
18 14 15 15
calculated. Either the downstream or upstream density
can.be used. 16 4 4
Example 2-What is the pressure drop per 100 ft in 12 30 23·
a 4-ín Schedule 40 (LD. = 4.026 in, d5 = 1,058 in") gas 14 21 23
line for rnethane? Gas fiowrate, W = 10,750 lb/h; mo- 20
lecular weight, M =
16; temperature, t = 172°F; pres-
16 "
13
'5
13

sure, P = 127 psig; and viscosity, fl = 0.0145 cp. 18 5

To find the pressure drop, we must use Eq. (18); and 18 - 25 25
in order to solve this equation, we must determine gas 24
20 12 12
density at fiowing conditions, and the friction factor.
For density, we place the appropriate values in the Note: Add these equivalent lengths to the equivalent ¡en9th 01 the smaller
pipe and its components.
'part 101 this series appeared in Chem. Eng., Dec. 23,1974. JllIlllIUIIIIUIIUUUlIlllIllUllllllUlllHlIllJUUllllllurwllllt/JlUIIHUUIIIIlIlIllI1I1UllrUIIl1I11UrmltlllU1UIIIIJUllllIIIUltlllltlllllll1ll1llUlllIllll

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/JANUARY 6,1975 119

CE REFRESHER •.•

IIII11UUIHmmlum!UuuwrUIlmfWIUlIIlIIll/I¡mUIIIIUIWIUUlUllHwrUIIIIUI//WllmJJ!nUIIIIIIIm!!¡¡mlllllmñ~i~¡'¡\I1¡hj!U!tltllll\ll1f11
is computed. If the ()xerall pressure loss "is close to and
Resistances of Horizontal and vE7;údt less than the availab~~ pressure differencebetween two
Inlets and Outlels- Table IV i points in a pipeline, the selected size is accepted fOI the
(Resislance in equlvalentpipe lenqth, ff) given flow conditions.
In pipeline calculations, it is convenient to obtain pres-
Resistance
Coellicient K= 1.0 K= 0.78 K == 0.5
J!!f 0.23 sure loss per 100 ft of pipe, I1PlOO' Multiplying 11'P100 by
the equivalent length of pipe and fittings (L, ft) between

- -
__J
--L j_ two points yields the overall pressure loss:
Nominal
Pipe Size, -r
---,
-
___./
¡- -r- --r=:
L.__ \.__
/lP = /lP1oo(L/100), psi (19)
In ~
The equivalent-pipe-Iength concept is the quickest and
y, 2 1.5 1 0.5
most convenient method for calculating overall pressure
1< 3 2.5 1.5 0.75 drop, Friction loss through a pipe component can be
1 4 3 Z 1' converted to an equivalent pipe length if the pressure
drop between the piping ends is the same as between
1Y2 7 5.5 3.5 1.75
the two ends of the piping cornponent. Sizes are assumed
2 9 7 4.5 2.25 to be identica!.
3 15 12 7.5 3.75 The equivalent length of fittings and valves, the exit
4 20 16 10 5 length and the entrance length can be quickly obtained
from Tables I to IV. These tables have been compiled
6 36 29 18 9
from a nomograph published by Crane Co.
8 48 38 24 12 Example 3-What is the overall pressure loss between
10 62 49 31 15 points 1 and 2 fOI a pipeline whose nominal size is 6 in,
as sketched here?
12 78 60 39 19 _._
14 88 70 44 22
"
16 100 78 50 25
18 120 95 60 30
20 136 107 68 34
24 170 135 85 42

1t1l1l1l1!!111t1IIUnnUI1!UIIlIlI11IIIt1UlIlIlllIllllHlmlllll11fllJltllIIlUrUIIIUIIIl1l11!!lIlmIIfllllrUlHUWIlIlfIIlUUlWWUllUllli,Ullmrllllllflmr

Al! dimensions are in tt.

Use lonq-radius elbows.
following relation, * keeping in mind that pressure and
temperature are in absolute units:
By the methods outlined previously, we have found
p = MP' /IO.72Tz
that the pressure drop for the 100-foot length ofthe pipe-
16(127 + 14.7) 3 line is I1P 100 = 1.92 psi.
P = 10.72(460 + 172)1 = 0.334 lb/ft From Table l, we determine the equivalent pipe length
fOI the 6-in long-radius elbow as 10 ft, and for fíow
To establish the friction factor,f, we must determine
through a 6-in tee as 10 ft, Hence, for this piping system,
the Reynolds number:*
we get:
NRe = 6.31 W/d¡.t
NRe = (6.31)(10,750)/(4.026)(0.0145) Actual length 78 ft
6 long-radius elbows: 6XIO=60ft
NRe = 1.162 X 106
2 flow-through tees: 2 X 10 = 20 ft
For this value of the Reynolds number, we find that _ Equivalent pipe length 158 ft
the friction factor* is: f 0.0166. = Using these data in Eq. (19), we find:
By substituting the appropriate values into Eq. (18),
we obtain: !lP =:: 1.92(158/100) = 3,04 psi

t::.PlOO = 0.000336(0.0166/0.334)[(1O,750)2l1,058J The conversion between equivalent pipe length and

the resistance coefficient, K, can be calculated from
o /lP100 = 1.82 psi/lOO ft
K =fL/D.
There is no shortcut to graphic piping designo Pipe
Overall Pressure Loss configurations have to be drawn or sketched in con-
siderablé detail so, that equivalent lengths of piping,
Most piping problems are solved by trial and error.
fittings and other components contributing to the resist-
A pipe size is selected, its resistance is calculated for a
ance of fluid flow can be, accurately added.
given set of flow conditions, and the ovérall pressure loss
The next article of this series will appear in the
• For the origin and development 01these retatíons, see Par! 1 01 !his seri".s. Feb.3, 1975 issue, and will review measurement of fiow
Chem. Eng.. Dec. 23. 1974, p. 58. In Par! 1. density is Eq. (4); Reynolds number
is Eq. (13); and Iric!ion factor is obtained from Fig. 5 and 6. with orifices and flow nozzles. #

120 .,' JANUARV 6, 1975/CHEMICAl ENGINEERING

A properly chosen flow device must develop.Jhe
maximum differential pressure and be sized..fgr
the correct Reynolds number in arder t~~btain
an accurate reading of pipeline rate of
easuring flow In ipes
ith riñe Si an zzles
ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche lnc.'
To measure flow accurately, the designer of flow sys-
tems must provide a pipe diameter of sufficient size and,
equally important, a suitable configuration for the piping.
We will closely examine these parameters in relation
to the sizing of orifices and flow nozzles in piping systems.
Furthermore, we will take a look at associated require-
ments to ensure: .
11m Adequate straight-run of piping before and after the
flow device.
~ Economy of the piping layout.
fi!l Provision for orifice taps, straightening van es, and
separator chambers.
fll1l Accessibility to the flow device, and instruments
connected to it, when installed in the piping system.
The most common device for measuring flow is a thin
plate with a square-edged hole in the center, held be-
tween a pair of flanges. Usually, this orifice is a stainless-
steel plate, %-in thick (for lines 16 in, or larger, Y4-in
thick). Minimum orifice bore is usually % in. If required,
a small vent hole and.drain hole are drilled in the orifice
plate-slightly overlapping the internal pipe wall at the
top and bottom. A pair of jack screws, installed in the
flanges, force the flange faces apart for replacing the
orifice plateo Pressure taps through the flanges provide
the means fOI connecting the orifice pIate to indicating,
recording or transmitting instruments. The entire as-
sembly is shown in Fig. 1.
If an orifice is placed in a pipeline, with fluid flowing
through it, the pressure will vary along th~ orifice pipe-
run, as shown in fig. 2...Fót a selected.installation and
fluid, the pressure difference between the .irrletand outlet
meet your author, ser,ehem, Erig" Dec. 23,'1974, p. 66,
72
f\W.
, \
€)
sides of the orifice varies in proportion to the flowrate.
This pressure variation is .sensed by a suitable instru-
ment-the simplest of which is a U-tube manometer.
Piping and Orlñce Sizing
We will review the fundamental relations for flow
through an orifice by using Darcy's equation, hL =
Kv2j2g, (Chem. Eng., Jan. 6,1975, p. 117) to express the
flow velocity as:
(1)
where 'VfiK= e, the orifice flow coefficient.
From Part 1 of this series (Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974,
p. 64), we find the velocity-of-fiow formulas:
v = OA08( Q/d;) (2)
v = 0.0509 W /(cPop)
By setting Eq. (1) and (2), and Eq. (1) and (3), equal
to each other, we find flowrate through the orifice pro-
portional to:
Q == 19,67Cd~Y¡¡¡ (4)
W = 157.66Cá;y¡¡;;;'i (5)
where Q, gpm, or W, lb/h, is the flowrate capable of
passing through a given orifice bore (do' in.) with a pres-
sure differential (expressed as the head of flowing fluid
between the inlet and outlet sides of the orifice), hL, ft.
To change Eq. (4) and (5) into a form usable for
selecting the orifice bore and metering range, or for sizing
pipe, the following changes are necessary:
1. Most orifice manometers (recording and transrnit-
ting instruments) are calibrated to indicate the pressure
FEBRUARV 3, 1975/CHEMICAl ENGINEERING
ORIFICE mounts between pair 01 llanges-Fig. t PRESSURE distribution along orifice run-Fig. 2

ditTerential across the orífice as a head ofwater at 60 P,

0 the line pressure is high compared to the pressure differ-
in. Thus, h[o has to be replaced by h", in inches of water: ential across the orífice.
hLP = (h",/12)PGO",' or: Values for the orifice flow coefficient, e, are established
by experiment and can be obtained from a chart such
For any fluid:
as that in Fig, 1. Up to an NRo of 10,000, the flow coeffi-
(6) cient changos greatly with varying Reynolds numbers and
flow capacities, This makes for inaccuracies in flow
For liquids:
measurcrncnts. Between an NRe of 10,000 to 100,000, the
hL = (h",/12)(l/S) (7) flow coefficient decreases about 4% to 5% with increasing
Reynolds numbers. Above an NIIe = 100,000, lhe value
2. For pipe sizing, the orifice diameter must be re-
for e remains constant. For reasonable accuracy, pipe
placed by the internal diameter of the pipe. This is ac-
complished by using the ratio of the orífice bore (do) to
sizes should be selected so that NR" > 20,000 for Reyn-
olds numbers calculated with the internal diameter of the
that of the pipe inside diameter (d1), i.e, f3 =
do/d1, or
pipe.
do = d1f3· In practical applications, f3 is usually 0.7 or a maximum
Inserting these values for hI, and do into Eq, (4) and
of 0.75. Thc corresponding flow coefficients for NIIe ~
(5) yields:
100,000 are e = 0.692 or 0.722. With these values, the
Q = 5.68fiZCdr(v'h::IVS) (S) capacity coefficients, f32e, and sizing formulas, Eq. (8)
W =: 359.43jJ2Cdi'¡¡¡;;; (9) and (9), become:

Eq. (8) and (9) are convenient formulas for orifice For f3 = 0.7, pe = 0.339, and:
pipe sizing with any chosen f3 ratio. A practical range Q = 1.926di(Vh.'-;''¡S) (lO)
is: f3 = 0.25 to 0.75. W = 121.87diVh:P- (11)
(Instrument engineers multiply the righthand side of
Eq. (8) by S/Sao if manometer indication is required at For f3 = 0.75, f32e = 0.406, and:
a standard 60° F Iiquid-fíow condition. Also, they provide Q = 2.31d~(Vh':;-/VS) (12)
a more detailed evaluation of the flow coefficient. These (13)
W = 145.93diVh:P
refinements do not concern piping-design and associated
ñuid-fiow calculations.) The term h", in Eg. (10) through (13) has two mean-
When using Eq. (9) for finding the weight ftow ofvapor ings. First, it is the head loss across the orífice. Expressing
or gas, we assume that the density stays constant while it as a pressure differential: ts P¿ == (h1O/12)(62.37/144),
the gas is ftowing through a restriction. Strictly speaking, or t,Po = 0.0361hw.
this is not true, However, the reduction in density due The permanent pressure loss of an orifice-flowmeter
to a decrease in pressure can be neglected, especially if instaIlation is less than the pressure ditTerential measured

CHEMICAl ENGINEERING/FEBFlUARV 3, 1975 73

 CE REFRESHER ...

across the orifice plate. As the high-velocity jet from the

orifice impinges upon the slower downstream fluid, sorne Nomenclature
ofthe jet's kinetic energy converts back to pressure. Thus,
the downstream pressure becornes higher than the pres- C Flow coefficient for orificc or flow nozzle
do Diametcr of orífice or flow nozzle, in
sure existing at the orifice outlet. The amount of 6. Po di Inside diarneter of pipe, in
permanently lost is a function of the f3 ratio, and can g Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/S2
be obtained from Fig. 3. For example, at f3 = 0.7, the hL Head loss in terrns of Ilowing fluid, ft
permanent 105S is 52% of the orifice pressure differential. hm Manometer deflection, or head loss across orifice
Second, hw is the deflection of the manometer (or any [see text following Eq. (13)], in of water at 60°F
6.Po Diflerential pressure across orifice or flow nozzle,
other differential-pressure device) taken al the flowing psi
condition of the fiuids. For good readings or reliable Q Volume flowrate at flowing temperaturc, gpm
operation, the selected instrument should have a scale S Specific gravity of liquid at flowing tempcrature
. or measuring range greater than the calculated defiection S60 Specific gravity of liquid at 60°F
v Mean vclocity of fluid, ft/s
at maximum fiow. At normal fiow, the defiection should W Weight flowrate, lb/h
be roughly between one-third and two-thirds of the f3 Ratio of orifice (or flow nozzle) diameter to inside
.measuring range. Practical instrument calibrations range diameter of pipe
from 20 to 400 in; the most common is 100 in. f32C Capacity coefficient for orifice or flow nozzle
A liquid near its boiling point when fiowing through fi- Viscosity, cp
P Fluid density at flowing condition, lb/ft"
an orifice should have a minimum of pressure drop to P,;o Liquid density. at 60°F, lb/ft"
avoid vaporization. Sufficient positive liquid head up- Pr;¡¡", Density of water at 60°F, 62.37 lb/ft3
\ stream of the orifice can overcome possible vaporization.
Liquid-vapor mixtures cannot be reliably measured with
differential-pressure producing restrictions,

Flow Capacities 01 Orlflces available in a piping system, hw can be increased for

larger flow capacities. If the available pressure difference
Often, pipe sizes are determined before orifice sizing is Iimitcd, an increase in pipe diameter and a decrease
is done. Hence, adjustments have to be rnade in the in manometer deflection might be neccssary. In a pump
design in order to get reliable flow metering. As Eq. (8) discharge, a manometer with a high dcflcction might not
and (9) reveal, three adjustments to orifice flow capacities be economical becausc of the high cost of utility power
can be made: to overcome the pcrrnanent pressure loss across thc ori-
l. Increase Une Size-Increasing the line size for the fice.
entire straight-run of orifice piping is the most expensive The formulas for estimating orifice deflections from Eq.
adjustment. However, this is often necessary to accom- (8) and (9) are:
modate large fiows. For piping up to l2-in dia., an in-
crease of one pipe-size is usually made. For larger pipe For liquid flow:
diameters, an increase of two pipe-sizcs is also possible. -.¡¡;;;= 0.176Q VSi(d~f32C), inl/2 (14)
Any increase in pipe diameter should be closely followed
with a check on the Reynolds number, [Ifinstrument defiection is calculated for a standard 60°F
2. Change Manometer Range-Any change in manom- liquid-fiow calibration, hw is multiplied by (S60/S)2.]
eter range is coupled with an altered pressure drop. The For vapor and gas f1ow:
change in pressure 105S must be accounted for in the
,/
overall fiow-system designo If pressure differences are ~ = 0.00278 W/(dif32C vp), inH (15)

3. Change f3 Ratio-Any change in the f3 ratio is

coupled with a corresponding value of the orifice flow
coefficient. An adjustment can be made (generally to
100 reduce capacity) by using capacity coefficients, {12C,
~c
ranging from 0.04 to 0.4. If the ratio is less than 0.7, the
'>--
o orifice pressure differential and the percentage of perma-
'>--
o 20 6'<
nent pressure loss will increase for the same f1owrate.
6'< ~-
¡¿- 30 .9
Q)
>
e Exam¡p~emustl"élItesProcedures
o
o ~
e 40 w
Q_ Let us design an orifice installation for á 3-in Schedule
~ ..,
¡;; 50 e
w 40 (di = 3.068 in, d1 = 9.413) pump-discharge lineoFlow
e
'"
ru
a: ro data are: Q = 160 gpm of kerosene, p == 50 lb /ft",
60 E
Q)
e,
S = 0.8, !L = 1.3 cp, and {1 = 0.7. (PC = 0.339.
70 First, we evaluate the Rcynolds number by inserting
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 ---0.5 0.6 0.7
the appropriate values into:
Ratio of orifice diameter to nipediameter , i3 = do/d,
Nac = 50.6(Q/d )(plf!-)
1

PERMANENT pressure loss through orifices-Fig. 3 Na. = 50.6(160/3.068)(50/1.3) == 101,500

74 FEBRUARV 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

 lines and shorter straight length can provide cost corn-
pensation.
Because of its width, a ftow nozzle is more difficult
to replace than the thin, fiat-plate orifice. To replace fiow
nozzles, the piping must be sprung well-apart where
ftanged and bent pipe sections are not provided.
Flow nozzles can handle liquids with high viscosities,
and fiuids with sorne entrained solids. They are suitable
for high-pressure and high-ternperature services, for sat-
urated steam, and for high-velocity ftuid measurements.
Their application might be useful at existing installations
where pipe sizes are too small for square-edged orifices.
Flow-nozzle capacity and piping are sized in the same
way as the components of orifices by using Eq. (8), (9), (14)
and (15), as applicable.
The Reynolds number should be equal to or greater
than 50,000, a value usually attained without difficulty.
Flow coefficients are readily found from the diagram in
Fig. 4. The percentage of permanent pressure loss is
obtained from Fig. 3. For feasibility in manufacturing,
FLOW NOZZLE mounts between flanqes=Fiq, 4 commercial sizes of ftow nozzles are Iimited, The follow-

Since the calculated Reynolds number is considerably in

excess of 20,000 (the minimum value previously sug-
gested), we find the 3-in pipe size suitable. "_
Next, we compute the manometer deftection by using
Eq. (14) with the values for this problem:
y¡;;;= 0.176(1601 Vü.8i/(0.339)(9.413) = 7.9 in1/2
h; == 62.4 in.
On the basis ofthis value for hw the mano meter range
selected is 100 in.
Since f3 = do/d1, we can compute do as 0.7(3.068), or
2.15 in. The differential pressure across the orifice is
calculated: 6.Po = 0.0361(62.4) = 2.25 psi. Finally, we
establish the permanent pressure loss by obtaining its
relation to 6.Po from Fig. 3. For f3 =
0.70, 52% of actual
6.Po is the loss. For this example, we now find t::"p for:
For a deftection of 62.4 in:
f:.P = 0.52(2.25) = 1.17 psi.

Defiection at assumed value of 100 in is:

b..P = (100/62)1.17 = 1.88 psi

Flow I\!ozzles as Measuring Devlces

Between line-size fianges, a ftow nozzle is held in place

in a manner similar to that for an orifice plate, as shown
in Fig. 4. A short cylindrical section, well rounded at the
inlet, provides the ftow restriction. Two taps lead to the
indicating, recording or transmitting instrument. The
advantage of a ftow nozzle is that its ftow coefficient (and,
consequently, flow capacity) for a given ratio is about
60% greater than that of the same size square-edged
orifice. For the same flowrate and similar manometer
deflection, the ftow nozzle requires a smaller f3 ratio than
do es an orifice plateo Consequently, the permanent pres-
sure loss could be roughly the same for both devices.
Flow nozzles are more expensive than orifice pIates
for the same pipe size. Their larger capacities, smaller STRAIGHT-RUN needs for orífice píping-Fíg. 5

CHEMICAl ENGINEERING/FEBRUARV 3, 1975 75

CE REFRESHER ••.
Vena Contracta Taps:
M = 1 x pipedia, N varieswith do/d1
Radius Taps:
ComerTaps
M = 1 x pipedia, N
r-2Y:.pipe(jj",.;,.!.""'----__;_-8 pipedia.,---------1
I
J
Une Taps
TAP TYPESthat can be installed in existing pipelines without special flanges-Fig. 6
ing average f3 ratios and capacity coefficients f32C can
be taken for ASME nozzles:
{J 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.70 0.75
{J2C 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.38 0.46 0.55 0.67
Piping Design and Pipe COi1lfigUll'ation
For reliable, accurate and consistent fiow metering,
adequate straight-Iength of piping must be provided
before and after an orifice plate, or any other differ-
ential-pressure fiow-measuring element.
A straight pipe-run is more critical at the inlet side
of the orifice. The straight length increases with increas-
ing f3 ratio (i.e., do/d1). The minimum straight length
before the orifice is affected by pipe configurations and
the location of valves and fittings, just before the runo
The straight-length requirements after the orífice also
increase with increasing f3 ratio. As a conservative di-
mension, use five times the pipe diameter for all f3 ratios,
as the minimum requirement. For orifices with fiange
taps, the minimum size for the orifice pipe diarneter
equals 2 in. For orifice runs smaller than 2 in, install
calibrated piping.
Recommendations for straight run of piping for vari-
ous piping configurations have been given by many ex-
76
= 0.5 x pipedia
perimenters. The American Gas Assn. (AGA)-American
Soco of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Committee on
Orifice Coefficients [1] has published standard arrange-
ments for fiow-meter piping. There are eight diagrams
called schedules-seven are for orifices and one for
venturi meters. These show piping configurations and
required straight length of piping for orifices, fiow nozzles
and venturies.
The piping configurations of Fig. 5 are based on the
AGA-ASME schcdules for a do/d1 ratio of 0.7. Practical
orifice-piping arrangements usually fall into one of these
configurations. The dimensions shown in Fig. 5 are also
suitable for f3 ratios smaller than 0.7.
Ecol1omy 01 Piping t.ayout
Short and simple piping is desirable-expecially for
large-diameter piping with heavy wall thicknesses or for
expensive alloy piping. Occasionally, equipment loca-
tions, pipe connections, and predetermined distan ces can
also intluence orifice-piping dimensions. The minimum
straight-Iength requirements are only possible if the do/ d1
ratio is between 0.25 to 0.40. In these cases, the piping
designer should refer to the AGA-ASME schedules for
minimum dimensional requirements.
FEBRUARY3, 1975/CHEMiCAl ENGINEERING
 Well-chosen pipe configurations can shorten orifice ó
pipe runs. Comparisons for this can be appreciated by Gasfiow ,,---..... Provide o
examining the details shown in Fig. 5. The natural con-
, figuration of the piping can also serve for inserting ftow
I
I
r__
I
- cover
removal
space
eo
..o
x
o
LL
elements. For example, these are the verticallines around
a tower, lines in pipe racks, and lines approaching process '"
s:
1-
equipment for yard-piping headers. For smaller process
lines, fiow elernents can be placed in one of the vertical
legs of a U-type control-valve assembly.
For clean liquid, dry gas or air, horizontal piping is
preferred for the orifices or flow nozzles. For saturated
steam, wet gas or air, vertical downflow is preferred;
however, horizontal piping is usually also acceptable.
With clean liquid, dry gas, air and superheated steam,
vertical upflow can also be considered. For liquids con-
taining suspended solids, the orifices or flow nozzles
should have large diameters, and piping should be in
downflow arrangement. For good pipeline drainage, ec-
centric orifices can be used in horizontal slurry lines-
thus providing a common low point for the pipe and
orifico bore.

t.ecatíons tor Oriñce Taps Liquid fiow

For measuring the differential pressure across an

orifice, a high-pressure (upflow) tap and a low-pressure
(downflow) tap are provided. Tap sizes range from % in
to % in, depending on nominal size and flange rating.
Taps can be in a horizontal position for liquids; and in
the case of horizontal pipe, in a vertical upward position
for vapors.
In most cases, taps are locatcd in the ñow-rneter
ñanges, as shown in Fig. 1, for lines 2 in. and larger.
Flange taps are the least sensitive to viscosity changes.
Comer, vena-contracta, radius and line taps are shown
in Fig. 6. Comer taps connect to the comer of the inside
wall of an orifice plate, Thesc taps are used in orifice
flanges in lines smaller than 2 in. Vena-contracta taps are
located in the pipeline. The high-pressure point is located DlFFERENTiAl pressure cel! mounts nearby to minimize
one pipe diameter upstream, and the low-pressure point length of interconnecting tubing,-Fig. 7
is at the minimum pressure point. This varies with the
do/ d1 ratio. Dimensions can be obtained frorn the dia-
gram in Fig. 6. Vena-contracta taps give the largest Iiquids, or moisture carried with noncondensing gases.
manometer deflection. Radius taps are a close approxi- Air charnbers with vent valves, installed at high points,
mation of vena-contracta taps. Line taps are 2.5 pipe collect air entrained in liquids. Condensing chambers are
diameters upstream (high-pressure point), and 8 pipe used in steam service. Sealing chambers between orífice
diameters downstream (low-pressure point). Line taps tups and instruments separate corrosive chemicals from
give the smallest deflection, contact with the instrument components.
The advantage of vena contracta, radius and line taps
is that they can be installed in existing pipelines, and Accessibiliiy lo tnstruments
the orífice plate can be placed between standard fianges.
Straight length of piping should be measured frorn the The piping designer must consider access and space
taps. The usual tap size is % in. requirement to orifíce-tap valves and to instruments con-
nected to ori fices.
Separa~o~Charnbers The minimum elevation of orifice runs is approxi-
mately 2 to 2.5 ft aboye grade. Where heavy snow fall
Dirty liquids, moist or condensing gases and corrosive is common at outdoor installations, a higher minirnum
fluids require that separation charnbers or driplegs be elevation is chosen. The recornmended elevation for
installed between the orifice tap and the manometer or piping with orifice ñanges is 7 ft aboye grade or platform
pressure transmitter. These cham bers are closely elevation. This is the case for orífice runs in pump-
mounted to both orífice taps and instruments. Sedirnent discharge lines, and in exchanger inlet and outlet lines.
charnbers with drain valves collect solido suspended in In pipe racks, straight runs are easily provided. Hence,
77
CE REFRESHER ..•
STRAIGTENING VANES shorten straight run-Fig. 8
orífice fianges in the pipíng are arranged at the edge of
rack about 1.5 to 2 ft from supporting columns. If two
or three pairs of orífice flanges are grouped side by side
(or in two levels) in yard piping, the minimum horizontal
or vertical distance between orifice flanges shouid be
about 2 to 3 ft, Orifice flanges placed in the center of
pipe runs between pipe supports can be a source of pipe
vibration.
Where only metering flanges and taps are provided and
only occasional fiow indication is needed, access by port-
able ladder is suffícient.
Locally mounted indicating and measuring fiowmeters
are more frequently inspected, If necessary, permanent
platform and ladder access is provided. In this category
are instruments for measuring fiow in process feed lines,
product lines, and utility lines.
With automatic fiow control, there is permanent in-
strument wiring and tubing between the measuring ele-
ment, transmitter, recorder, controller and the control
valve. These components should be closely arrangcd
where possible. Flange or line taps are permanently
open. Reasonable temporary access to these valves is
sufficient.
Locally mounted indicating, recording and transmit-
ting instruments should be visible from the operating
aisle. The .inclined type of U'-tube mario meter offers a
more compact unit vertically, Dial-type indicators and
recorders, calibrated in fíowrates, are also available.
These can be locally and remotely mounted.
78
For pressure transmitting, an often-used device is the
differential-pressure cel!. This instrument is mounted in
the proximity of the orifice ñanges (Fig. 7) in an accessi-
ble location.
Differential-pressure cells and manometers should be
located relative to orifice fianges so that interconnecting
tubing can be provided without a loop or pocket. A loop
must be vented, and a pocket can collect sedimento This
can affect trouble-free instrument operation.
A flow controller is also usually incorporated in an
instrument loop. This controller is often mounted on a
support at grade or platform elevation, and reasonably
close to the orifice and control valve. Space requirement
is about 2 ft square and 3.5 ft high. Transmitters and con-
trollers should be accessible.
Straightening Vanes
The straight-length requirements enable the develop-
ment of a symmetrical velocity pattern and steady flow
in the moving mass of fluid. Hence, when the fluid meets
the flow restriction, stable mcasuring conditions are
present. The same flow conditions may also be developed
with straightening vanes, which require a shorter straight
run (Fig. 8). Straightening vanes work well while they
are clean and new, and most important, if piping is
suitably designed and the vanes well positioned. Even
slight corrosion, erosion or deposits will hamper their
function, and hence measurements will be inaccurate.
If a straightening vane is preceded by an elbow, it
might defeat its own purpose. The distorted velocity
distribution developed in the elbow is captured in the
straightening vane and 0111y slightly corrected in the short
upstream orifice pipe-runo A distorted flow pattern will
result through the orifice, and a true value of pressure
difference wiU not likely exist. By replacing the elbow
with a tee (capped at one end), a more symmetrical
veIocity distribution can be obtained than by a straight-
ening vane preceded by an elbow. Manufacturers of these
devices can recommend proper instalIation practices.
Location and dimensional details are given in the AGA-
ASME schedules [1].
The next article in this series wilI appear in the Mar.
3, 1975 issue, and wilI take up additional ñow-rnea-
surement techniques by means of venturi meters, flow
tubes, pitot tubes and rotatmeters. #
References
1. Sprenkle, R. E., Piping Arrangements for Acceptable Flow Meter
Accuracy, Trans. ASME, 67, 345 (1945).
2. Terrell, C. E. and Bcan, H. S., "AGA Gas Measurernent Manual,"
American Gas Assn., Arlington, Va., 1963.
Corrections: Part 1, Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974
p. 64: Change seventh line to read:
PVk = constant, where 1<: = c¡,1e". For gases, the
p.64: v = 0.0509 Wj(d2p) (9)
p. 64: d2 = 0.0509 W(vp), in." (11)
p. 66: Change third line in first column to read:
absolute viscosity in lb,,/(ft-s).
FEBRUARY 3, 1975/CHEMICAl ENGINEERING
e lE RefiAesher
Proper installation of any tlowmeter in
fluid systems is essential in relation to
piping layout, streamline-flow conditions
and accessibility to the device and its
associated instruments and connections
ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann-La Roche lnc. *
For measuring flow in process lines, we must consider
a varíety of metering devices, We then select a meter,
meter size and piping configuration to provide the mosl
accurate flow-metering for the job.
In Part 3 of this series (Chem. Eng" Feb, 3, 1975, p.
72), we examined orifices and flow nozzles as metering
elernents. We will now discuss and show how to apply
venturis, pitot tubes, flow tubes and rotameters.
Venturi Flow Meters
( solids. In slurry se'tvice, the pressure connections are
In principie, venturis work in ihe same way as orifices-
do. However, the permanent pressure loss across the
venturi is very small; and in well-designed systems, ven-
turis requíre about one-half the straight length of pipe
than do orifice meters for the same aceuracy. For meas-
uring the same flowrate, venturi meters often require a
smaller pipe size than do orifices. Also, venturis can
handle much higher capacity ranges (10 to 1; some even
20 to 1) than orifices (4 to 1).
From the standpoint of piping design, we must resolve
the following questions in order to apply venturis prop-
erly: . distribution of the fluid. This type of venturi is usually
1. Can a calculated pipe size accommodate a venturi
meter? Both the pipe and venturi are sized with the same
flow data.
2. Is it possible to fit a venturi meter into a given pipe
configuration without additional pipe Iength and fittings?
The calculation procedures yield the diameters for the
inlet pipe and throat of the venturi. Manufacturers' cata-
logs give the overall length for a selected type and size
of venturi [1].
Commercial Venturi Meters
The venturi meter' (Fig. 1) consists of a short cylindrical
section having a high-pressure connection; an inlet cone;
CHEM1CAL ENG1NEERING/MARCH 3, 1975
_
a throat section having a low-pressure connection; and
an outlet cone. As fluid moves through the throat of the
vcnturi, íts velocity increases and pressurc dccreascs. The
resulting differential pressure is proportiorial to the flow-
rate and is used for ftow-metering.
The simplest venturi meter (Fig. la) finds use in high-
temperature and high-pressure services. Cornpared with
other venturi meters, its cost is low. It has a short overall
length and high pressure-recovery characteristics. This
meter can be used for slurries and for liquids containing
fiushed intermittently. Available sizes range from 1 to
12 in.
The standard short-form venturi tube (Fig. lb) has a
wide range of industrial applications. The low-pressure
and high-pressure taps are connected to annular cham-
bers-Iocated around the inlet cylinder section and
around the throat. Small radial holes interconnect the
charnbers with the inlet cylinder on the one hand, and
the throat section on the other, In this way, the average
pressure is sensed at the pressure taps; and hence, this
venturi is not as sensitive to irregularities in (he velocity ,
suitable for clean liquid and gas services.
The standard long-form venturi tube (Fig. le) has a
smaller permanent pressure loss than the short form-
especially at lower throat diameter to pipe diameter
ratios.
The short-form and long-form venturis operare with
a wide flow range because the diseharge coefficient stays
constant. Beeause of the annular chambers at the inlet
section and throat, metering aceuracy is scarcely
by upstrearn flow disturbances. Both are available in
frorn J lo 48 in.
For high-pressure and high-tcmperature scrviccs,
previously.described meters are also available as weldcd-
·To meet your author, see Chem. Eng" Dec. 23. 1974. p. 66.
161
 Inletcane-/ _ Thraat

/
L t.ow-pressure tap
L - - - High·pressuretap
a. Venturi Nozzle

h. Short-Form Venturi

,,-~ High-pressure Low-pressure --;,

annular chambers

/
/ \

L H igh-pressure tap \_ Low-pressure tap

Ref. [1 J b, Welded
e, Long-Form Venturl

DALL flow tube has high .pressure differential-Fig. 2

Sizing procedures for venturi meters (or any differen-

.tial-pressure producing flow element) are idcntical lo
those for orífice calculations, as given in Part 3 of this
series tChem. Eng., Feb. 3, 1975, pp. 72-75). Of course,
numerical va1ues for the flow coefficients differ, and the
range of throat diameters is not as wide as that for
orifices.
Flowrates and head losses across venturis are calcu-
lated from the following relations for:
Ref_ [1] d. Flanged-Insert Venturi
Liquids at fiowing temperature:

VENTURIS tor various service requirements-Fig. 1 l. Q == 5.68/PCáf_CNv's), gpm (1)

...¡¡¡:; == O.176CQ·v's)/Cdi/PC), inI/Z (2)

insert designs having fianged or beveled ends, Fig. Id Vapors or gases at fiowing conditions:
is a fianged insert nozzle with annular rings to the pres- W = 359.43/32Cáf_v'h:P, lb/h (3)
sure taps. This is an economica1 venturi from the stand-
point of capital cost and (because of high pressure recov- .
y¡¡;; == O.00278W/(di/3ZCyp), ¡nI/2 (4)

ery) utility costo Sizes range from 4 to 42 in.
Where the lowest head loss and a high pressure differ-
ential for metering are required, the Dall flow tube is
chosen. Fig. 2a shows the cast-metal version for sizes 6
to 48 in, and Fig. 2b shows the welded designo The Dall
flow tube has the shortest overalllength among the ven-
turis for the same pipe size. Its installation is easy. In
large sizes, a Dall tube costs less than a comparable
venturi.
The differential pressure across venturi meters, t:.Pv'
is given by:
D.Pv == (hw/12)(62.37/144) == O.0361hm, psi (5)
A'summary ofsizing data js given in Fig. 3. The corn-
parison between various venturi meters for permanent
pressure loss can be obtained from the graph as shown
in Fig. 3. .The most economical installation from the
standpoint of piping and utility costs, i.1.I'\o the 111O¡;! ac-

162 MARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERiNG


Pressure Distributlon
Nomenclature
Flow coefñcient for venturi
Throat diameter of venturi, in
Inside diameter of pipe, in.
Gravitational constant, 32.2 n/s2
Manometer dcñection or head loss, in of water
at 60'F '
Capacity coefñcient for Annubar
Differential pressure across venturi meter, psi
Volume flowrate at flowing temperature, gpm
Specific gravity of liquid at Ilowing tcrnpcrature
Specific gravity of liquid al 60'P
Wcight flowrate, lb/h
Ratio of throat diameter of venturi to inside
diameter of pipe
Capacity coeffícient for venturi
Fluid density at ñowing conditions, Ib/ft3
Liquid density at 60'F, lb/ft"
Along Venturi Tube
Density of water at 60°F, 62.37 Ib/ft3

0.7

0.6
curate metering, can be obtained with a f3 ratio of 0.5.
~ The maximum f3 ratio is 0.75.
N
co, 0.5
..,'
e
~ How To Install Venturi Meters
e
0.4
o
o
A venturi tube may be installed in a horizontal, vertí-
~ 0.3
'ü cal-upfíow or -downflow: or inclined position, providing
ro
o. the venturi is always fuIl of the fluid being metered. In
ro
o 0.2
most cases, the valved pressure taps (usually % in) are
horizontal.
0.1
The general rule requires as much straight-run of up-
stream pipe as possible in order to have a symmetrical
0.4 velocity profile. Venturi meters, in most installations,
need less straight upst~eam piping than do orífices, pitot
tubes or flow nozzles. Generally, with a smaller f3 ratio,
Permanent Pressure Loss Through Venturi Meters shorter upstream piping can be provided. SpecificaIly,
70 30 with f3 == 0.53, a straight run equal to 10 times the inlet
./ Short-torrn venturí tu be, diameter is adequate, with f3 == 0.63, a straight run equal
venturi nozzle
80 f---~- I -+---120 to 20 times the inlet diameter is needed for a two-plane
Dall flow tu be pipe configuration. Upstream straight-run requirements
90 for various fittings can be estimated from the diagrams
shown in Fig. 4.
100 O Straightening vanes can reduce the required upstream
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Ratio, {3 = do/d1 pipe length. For a reasonable installation, use a mini-
mum length of two pipe diameters upstream of the inlet
flange to the straightening vane, and '(he same length
{3 Ratios and Capacity Constants, {32 e, between tJ{e vane's outlet and the venturi tube's inlet.
F9r Commercíal Venturi Meters
Usually the segmental type of straightening vane is
Average value, {3 ~ do/dI : 0.35 0.45
chosen .(see Part 3, Fig. 8, Chem. Eng., Feb. 3, 1975, p.
long-form venturi, short-form 78). Configuration ofthe downstream piping has no effect
venturi, venturi nozzle {32 e 0_12
on rnetering accuracy. Reducers or elbows can be flanged
Flanged-inlet, venturi {32 e 0.12 to the venturi outlet. Provide a straight run of two pipe
Dall flow tuba {32 e diameters if the venturi is followed by a valve.
If a noncorrosive clean fluid is being metered, the
venturi meters can be buried with only the pressure-tap
Typical Manometer Ranges for Venturi Meters. valves located aboye grade.
hw• 20 30 40 60 80 120 160 240 320 Large venturi meters in slurry service can have clean-
out ports, vents with drains at both annnlar chambers,
Vhw 4.47 5.48 6.33 7.75 8.94 10.96 12.65 15.5 17.9
inspection openings on the outlet cone, a manhole in the
"In. 01 water
. ' piping joint just after the outlet cone, and valved purge
PRESSURE drop and sizing data tor venturis-Fig. 3 conncctions in addition lo the prcssure-sensing taps. AH

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/MARCH3, 1975 '63

 I
I
CE REFRESHER •••

__ Low-pressure - -
- connection

'" High-pressure __
connection-

'.l
....Flow direction '
"'--- indicator

Pipe wall

Static pressure
.:>" hole

\¡;----
I
(- - - - - High-pressure impact hole - - - - -1

\
L~W pressure --
.....---Hlghpressure --~
-~h /
\ I
\
\
\
\
\
6r-+--r-+--r-+-~
4r-+--r~--+-~~~~
2r-+--r-+~F-+'~~~--+-4--+~
- ~ -
OL-~~--~~~~ __'_~~ __~~-J a. Pitot Tube b. Double·Venturi Pitot Tuba
0.2

Aef. [2)

PITOT tubes measure the flow ot olean tluids-Fig. 5

openings and valves should be accessible. If the pipeline
is buried, an adequately sized concrete pit is provided
for the venturi meter, and for instrument piping,
Pitot Tubes
The pitot tube works on the same principle as any
other fíow restriction. However, it is not a restriction in
the pipeline but a restriction in an instrumento Because
of this, pressure loss in the pipeline is negligible. The
difíerential pressure at a conventional pitot tu be (Fig. 5)
is measured between the high-pressure impact hole di-
rected against the flow, and a static hole, located at an
angle of 900 or 1800 to the impact holeo
Because ofthe single, small, impact hole, the pitot tube
measures at only one point in the cross-section of
pipeline. Therefore, to obtain good measurements, th
pitot tube must be precisely located at an average-velo
ity or maximurn-velocity point and oriented in the direc-
tion of fiow. A changing velocity changes the ñow pat
tem and can result in a greater than acceptable error in
measurement. Due to these conditions, we must providc
the same straight length of piping as for orifice plate
Pitot tubes are used in olean. fluid service (usuallyin
gas lines), are excellentfor measuring ñows having YCf)
high velocities, have a hrgh'capacity range, and are cas) i
to install and remove.·. ~
Another versión, termed a pitot-venturi tube, is ahe
shown in Fig, 5. To the sensing tip of a pito! be, j '.~ tu
small venturi is added. The dcuble-venrurt Iiffílngcl1íen:

164 MARCH 3, 1li15/CHEMICAL. ENGINEERING i!i

,;~
¡
ltinmllllm1nIlIJIllHlIIIIUnUltllltunUlmUlHlttllUUmtlUl\tIIlIttUIILIllUilllllltllIHIIII\UU\UIImllllllllUlllIlIUlllltllUllIIlllIIUlllIUlIlIlIlIllfIllUUIIUlIIIHIIIUIIIUllIIlIIUllIlIlIlIlIlIllIIlIllllIlI1ll1I1111HlllfllllllllllllflllllllllllllUIIIllilnlUlllfllllllllUUUIIUIIIIII\1II111UlIIIIIIIllIllllII1ll1!l1ll1l11111/11111

Straighi-Length Requirementsfor Annubar Flow Elements- Table I

Upstream of Flow Element

Without Stralghtening Vanes in Pipeline

With ASME Annubar Tube Annubar Tube Oownstream

Straightening (In the Same Plane (In Different Plana ot Flow
Pipe Vanes in Pipeline, as Last Approach- Turn), as Last Approach- Turn), Element,
Configurations Pipe Oia. Pipe Ola. Pipe Dia. Pipe Oia.

One elbow or tee S 7 9 3

Two elbows, or elbow and tee
in same plane 8 9 14 :3
Two elbows, or elbow and tee
in two planes 9 19 24 4
Beducer or increaser
Fully-open gate or ball valve 8 8 8 3
Partially-open valves
Globa valve 9 24 24 4

Note: Control valves should be located atter flow element.

11111111111111\11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111lI1II111II1II11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlIIIIIIIIIIllIIIIIIIIIIlllIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1111111111111111111111111

shown in the illustration, increases the pressure differ- The Annubar .is an economical device in terms of
ential between the high-pressure impact hole and the low capital and operating costs. In an unusual application,
pressure in the venturi throat [2]. the fiowelement can be installed deep below grade with-
Manometer defiectionsfor pitot tubes and pitot-ven- out taking a pipeline out of service.This device is avail-
turis are calculated in the same way as for orifice de- able for piping from ~ to 180 in, for pressures ranging
fiections. The capacity coeffícient should be obtained from -30 in Hg to 2,500 psi, and temperatures to
from the manufacturers. For rough estimates, the capac- 1,200°F [3J.
ity coefficient,f3 2C, can be taken as 0.62. Formulas for sizing Annubars are similar to the orifice
Many of the disadvantages of the conventional pitot formulas. The manufacturer [3Jprovides a capacity co-
tube have been eliminated with an'(averagingpitot tube efficient as (Kuf'v)' wh~re Kg is a geometrical constant
called an Annubar (Fig. 6). This device consists of two depending on pipe diameter, and F; is a velocity distri-
sensing tubes. The upstream tube has ene to several bution factor, For transitional and totally turbulent fiow,
impact holes (high-pressure side) facing the fiow direc- F; = 0.82. The capacity coefficient, (Kuf'v), is analogous
tion. An internal tube averages the pressure.sensed at to the orifice capacity constant, f32C.
the four impact holes. The downstream tube (low-pres- The Annubar has a very wide capacity range and fits
sure side) measures the static pressure from which is in pipelines where turbulent fiow exists.A change in the
subtracted the suction pressure of the flow. pipe size of the metering section is rarely necessary-c-and

High-pressure connection

- ~~ Identification tag

:- - - ..Upstream tube

\
\
Recsssed \
/ pressurenozzle
/ Ref: [4J
L Do~nstream tube Ref. [3]

ANNUBAR meter is an averaging pitot tube-Fig. 6 IMPACT tube handles flow in either direction-Fig. 7

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/MARCH 3, 1975 165


CE REFRESHER ••.
then only for extremely low or extrernely high fiowrates.
In most applications, only (he operating manometer
range of the instrumcnt or control system needs to be
selected. Permanent pressure loss is negligible.
Let us surnrnarize the sizing data for Annubar pitots.
The following table lists sorne representative values for
various pipe sizes:
Capacity Estimated
Pipe Size, Coefficient, Permanent
Nominal, (KgF,,)
In Fu = 0.82
I¡;to 1% 0.6 to 0.62
II¡; to 5 0.66 to 0.70
6 lo 16 0.7 to 0.75
18 lo 24 0.75 to 0.78
Instrument deflectionat flowingconditions for liquids:
h", = ·[0.176Qv'S!(K~v)diJ2, in
For instrument calibration at a standard 60°F Iiquid-flow
condition, multiply right side of Eq. (6) by (S60/S)2.
Instrument defiection at flowingconditions for vapors
and gases:
; hw :::; [0.00278W/(KgFv)di-IPj2, in
DilTercntialprcssure is obtaincd from:
t;,.p = O.036Ihw: psi
Straight-lcngth requirements for 'piping design, as rec-
ommended by the manufacturer, are given in Table 1.
..Impact Flow Tube
The fiow-sensingtube (F~g.7) consistsof a short hous-
ing section, and a syrnmetricaland tapered throat section
having a flowrestriction in the center. The throat section
contains two sets of impact nozzles. One set points up-
stream, the other downstream, and each is connected to
an annular ring for averaging the impact pressure.
The differential pressure between the upstream and
downstream openings results from the difference in im-
pact pressures, and is a function of velocity head. Sizing
of this flow tube is based on the general relationship of
v = C(2gh)1/2. Exact formulas for sizingthis impact tube
can be obtained from the manufacturer [4J.
The housing and throat section of impact flow tubes
are available in a wide range of metallic materials for
pipe sizes ranging from I to 4 in. For low-pressure and
low-temperature services, plastic-insert types are also
available for pipe sizes ranging from 6 to 48 in.
Applications for the impact flowtube range from wind
tunnels to sewer lines, and from gas to viscous fíows.
Flow can be in either direction. In dirty-fíuid services,
the impact openings can be purged.
Straight-Iengthrequirements for this device are; 6 pipe
diameters upstream; 10diameters upstream after a throt-
tling valve; and 3 diameters downstream,
Rotameters
In rotameters, the area restriction varies in proportion
to flowrate,and the pressure difference acrossthe restric-
166
r'
/
__ Outlet float stop'
Loss,
% of h,,,
10
8 to 4 - - Tapered-qlass metering tube
3 to 1
<%
Noting posítíon of float-head ed
(6)
referred to capacity scale on gla
, tube gives flowrate reading
Metering float
(7)
Inlet float stop
I
(8)
,/
I
-1nlet connection
Rcf: [5J
ROTAMETERhas tapered metering element-Fig. 8
•
tion stays constant. In contrast, constant-restriction me-
ters such as orifices and venturis have a fixed opening,
and the pressure differenceacrossthe restriction becomes
próportional to flow.
The rotameter consistsof a tapered metering tube with
a float that moves freely up and down (Fig. 8). The tube
must be mounted verticallywith fluid flowin an upward
direction. The float will come to rest in a dynamic equi-
librium when the pressure differenceacrossthe float, plus
the buoyancy effect, balance the weight of the fioat. An
increase in the fiowrate causes the fioat to rise higher
in the tube; a dccrease causes it to fal!.
In air and water servíce, (he viscosityeífects of the fluid
on the rotameter remain practically constant. This makes
possible the use of standard capacity tables for such fiow
streams. Standard sizing charts, tables of correction fac-
tors for any fluid, tables of correction factors for pressure
and temperature, selectionguides for types ofrotameters,
etc., are available in manufacturers' literature [5). Hence,
rotameter calculations are seldom made by process engi-
neers.
In relation to piping design, pressure drop across the
rotameter is negligible. •
Rotameters are especially suitable for viscous liquids
and very-small fiowrates (less than 2 gpm, or 75 lb/h).
However, a reasonable upper limit for the rotameter can
be 300 gpm, and 3-in-dia. pipe. Units are available up
MARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENG1NEERING
CE REFRESHER •••
l¡..
[g~. E -E~-E
P1PING arrangements for installing a rotameter having alternative taps are simple and econoll)ical-Fig.
to 12 in and 4,000 gpm. The useful flow range is wide
(10 to 1).
Rotameters can be used for slurries, depending on
concentration of solids in the liquid, particle size and
shape, density of solids relative to the carrier liquid, and
degree of abrasiveness. Such applications should be re-
viewed with the manufacturero ."
In special applications, the rotameter sca1e can be
calibrated to show (a) fluid velocity, (b) percentage con-
centration in liquids in case a mixture is flowing, and
ROTAMETER-ORIFICE measures large flowrates-Fig. 10
168
/
t
+ Alternative Tap Locations
+
Pipa Confjgurations
9
(e) density or viscosity of liquid if volume flowrate and
temperature can be held constant.
Piping configuration does not affect rotameter accu-
racy. Straight length of piping is not required. Depending
on pipe configurations and rotameter design, alternative
o tap locations can be chosen, as shown in Fig. 9. These
.provide simple and economical piping.arrangernents.
The rotameter is usually installed between two block
valves with a bypass. In clean service and with armored
rotameters, a bypass globe valve is not necessary. Locate
the flow-regulating globe valve to the rotameter (a) before
the rotameter for Jiquid service, and (b) after the rotam-
eter for gas ~ervice. Union joints in the inlet and outlet
Unes facilita te quick removal of the rotameter. Valves
should be accessible and the rotameter scale visible from
the operating aisle.
~ An inexpensive method for measuring large flowrates
combines a rotameter with an orífice pl ate, as shown in
Fig. 10. About 10% of (he mainline flow passes through
the rotameter,
Rotameter calibrations are usually nonadjustable and
have differential ranges ofO-50, 0-100,0-150,0-200 and
0-400 in of water column. Rotameter tubes can be cali-
brated to show actual flowrates in the desired units. A
magnetic yoke or an impedance coil added to the basic
rotameter, provides the means of recording and trans-
mitting the ñow signal.
The next article in this series will appear in the issue
o of Apr. 14, 1975, and will cover sizing techniques for
control valves. #
References
1. EngineeringInformationon VenturiMeterTubes,BIF Div.,NewYork
Air Brake Co., Providence,RI 02901. .
2. lnstructions for Pitot-VenturiFlow Element, Taylor Instrurnent Cos.,
Rochester, NY 14601. •
3. "TechnicalManual-Annubar," ETliot1nstrumentDiv.,DietrichStand-
ard Corp., Boulder, CO 80302.
4. Shea, Jr., J. A., Flow Tube Technical Paper, The Bcthlehern Corp.,
o Flow Tube Div. Bethlehem, PA 18016.
5. "VariableAtea Flow Meter Handbook," Vol. 1-111, Fischer & Poner
Co., Warminster,PA 18974.
MARCH 3, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINeaRING
CE Refresher
Control Valves
In
Process Plan
For proper performance in any piping .system, he e are the design relations, sizing
formulas and installation procedures for seleéting and using control valves for fluids.
ROBERT KERN, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.*
Control valves are the basic .regulatory devices in any
process operation handling fluid streams. Hence, we must
be thoroughly familiar with the different types of these .
val ves and their fíow characteristics. This enables us to
meet process conditions, and to ensure proper installation
in the fluid system.
Major Types of Control Valves
In the following brief discussions, only the general
features of each control valve are given, For complete
details about a specific control valve, consult the manu-
facturers' literature.: - or cavities of the plug. The three basic types of plug and
One major group of control valves resembles the globe
valve (Fig. 1). In place of a handwheel, an actuator
moves the valve stem and plug, thereby opening and
closing the valve. The usual actüator is an air-operated
device whose housing contains a diaphragm that sepa-
rates it into two compartments. The diaphragm (and
attached valve stem) is balanced in its position by a
spring on one side and air pressure on the other. In flow
control, the air pressure changes in response to a signal
resulting from the measurement of the differential pres-
sure across an orífice or other flow-sensing element,
The single-ported control valve (Fig, 1) finds use where
tight shutoff is required in addition to flow control. The
double-ported control valve (Fig. 1) has two seat rings
with two plugs on a common stem. This is a higher
capacity valve than the single-seated one of the same size.
With hard seat rings and high temperatúres, the double-
seated valve cannot shut off tightly. The valve accessories,
shown in Fig. 2, allow for various operating functions
and conditions.
• To mee! your au!hor. see Chem. Eng., Oec. 23, 1974, p. 66.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975
_
In recent years, a second group of control valves has
received wide _acceptance. In these types, the actuator
rotates a butterfly flap, plug or disk around its axis
(Fig. 3). Size for size, these valves usually have higher
capacities and less flow resistance than the contoured-
plug valves. Generally, control valves with rotating axes
are suitable for a wide range of ñow-control applications.
Characteristics of Valve Plugs
The valve plug can be disk type, solid contoured or .
ported. Flow-control characteristics depend on the shape
their flow characteristics are:
11 Quick Opening-A single-disk (for high tempera-
tures) or a double-disk (for low temperatures) plug is
used for total shutoff or opening. A disk-type plug has
linear flow characteristics and short stem movement.
11 LinearFlow-A plug has linear flow characteristics
when the flowrate through the valve is proportional to
the lift.
11 Equal Percentage-A plug has equal-percentage
characteristics if at any plug position, the same percent-
age of change in flow takes place for the same amount
of plug movement. The percentage of change is related
to the flowrate just before the plug is moved, as shown
in Fig. 4.
Most plug characteristics are somewhere near or be-
tween those described. Manufacturers pro vide diagrams
similar to Fig. 4 for each valve.
'A plug having linear-fíow characteristics is commonly
. specified for líquid-level control. The equal-percentage
plug is used for pressure or fiow control; or where only
. a small percentage of the overall pressure differential is
85
 CE REFRESHER .•• f"

, \

t
nl'·

Single-Seat (Equal-percentage Double-Seat {Equal-parcentage Alternativo

contoured pluq, fails closed) ported plug, tails open) , Actuator and Plugs

CONTROL valves handle many types of process flulds, and are actuated by alr In response to a procesa signal-Flg. 1

available; or where pressure drop acrossthe control valve

varies greatly. '
The modified parabolic-flow characteristic falls be-
tween the linear and equal-percentage characteristics. Buttarfly
Valva
This type of plug (usually V-port) finds use where the
major part of the system pressure drop is available for
control.
Actuators (also called operators or valve positioners)
lift the valve stem and plug above its seat, or move the
plug in the seat eylinder. Butterfly or ball-type control
valves have the actuators side-mounted because the aetu-
ator stem rotates the hlve axle. Plug characteristics can
be influenced by the linkage between aetuator stem and
valve axle.
The valve housingand the operator's yoke are separare
pieees. Hence, after a valve is installed, the operator can
be rotated around the valve stem or valve axle, relative
to the valve body. This enables a convenient position to
be chosen for the aetuator, in order .to provide access
to operating points on the valve. Camflax Valva
Hydraulic, mechanical and piston operators are also
available.

Safety Requirements
ROTARVactuator
Without air pressure in the pneumatic actuator, the moves flap, plug
valve can be in closed or open positiori.These alternative or disk-Fig. 3

86 APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

 /

Lubricator tor
valve-stem
packing box

Bellows Bonnet
Extension Bonnet (Seal between valve and
Finned Bonnet (For eryogenic temperatures) packing box in toxic serviee)
(For temperatures higher thari 4000 F) .

Case Mounted Side Mounted

.';.'"

Pneumatic Posítíoner Limit Stop

(Or transmitter) . (Restricts stem movement)

ACCESSORIES extend usefulness of control valves by providing for extreme and unusual conditions-Fig. 2

posítions are accomplished by reversing the seat ring and
plug, or by reversing the Iocation of the actuator spring .
from below to aboye the diaphragm (Fig. 1).
One concern of the designer is to select valves that will
fail-safe in the event of instrument-air failure. In princi-
pIe, a control valve fails safe if temperature and pressure
of the process system do not increase after the control
valve becomes inactive,
For example, fuel-oil control valves to heater burners
should faiI closed. At the same time, feed to heater tubes
(in most cases) should fail open to avoid overheating the
furnace tu bes. The feed-control valve to fractionating
columns usually fails closed. Steam supply to reboiler
fails closed. Reflux-drum vapor outlet and reñux pump-
discharge valves fail open. Control valves in mínimum- .
110w bypass lincs at centrifugal-pump discharge lines,
compressof bypass lines, and rcciprocating-machine by-
pass lines fail open.
Reactors are protected under controlled conditions,
and usually the feed-control valve faíls closed, Generally,
a designer of flow systems should consult process, instru-
mentation and equipment engineers when deciding on
fail-safe' positíons for control valves so as to assure
orderly shutdown procedures.
Capacity Coefficients of Valves
Valve fiow coefficient, C", depends on the internaI
dimensions of the valve and the smoothness of surfaces.
Tests made by manufacturers (using water or air at pre-
determined pressure difference) establish C" values.
Manufacturers give the following definition:
e, = Q( ..¡s¡Vf;P)
C; is a capacity index indicating the flow of 60°F water
in gpm, which will pass through the compJetely open
valve under a pressure difference of 1 psi betwecn the
inlet and outlet ñangcs, Obviously, if S = 1 and
I::.P == 1· psi, then C" == Q.
Capacity indexes for the butterfiy valve are also given
at two throttling positions of' the flap, in addition to the
fully open position. .

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975 87

 1
j
CE REFRESHER •..
/

Nomenclature
I
C, Critical ñow factor for line-size valve
e'r Critical flow factor for valve betwcen pipe reducers
e" Capacity cocfficicnt for control valve in fully open
position
C", Calculated coefficient for control valve
D/d Ratio bctwecn largor pipe dia. to smaller pipe dia.
E Expansion factor, (lB(J/p
k Ratio of specific heats
M Molecular weight
P Absolute pressure, psia
P' Absolute pressure, psia
Pe Critical pressure, psia '
6.P Differential pressure, psi
Pv Vapor pressure of liquid al ñowing temperature,
psia
Q Volume ñowrate, gpm
R' Correction factor for control valve between pipe
reducers
S Specific gravity of liquid, p/ PsOw
S60 Specific gravity of liquid al 60°F
T Absolute temperature, °R
u, Sonic velocity, ñ/s
W Weight ñowrate, lb/h
J1 Viscosity, cp
p Density of fluid at ftowing condition, Ib/fl3
P60 Density of fluid al 60°F, lb/ft"
Psow Density of water al 60°F, 62.37 Ib/ft3
Subscripts ,
l Upstream condition
2 Downstream condition
Control-val ve coefficients for single- and double-seated
val ves are given in Table I.
Calculated Flow Coefficient, Cvc-When sizing control
valves, a flow coefficient is calculated with normal design
fíowrate in gpm from:
e = Q( VSiy-s;¡y
vc
in the control val ve. ' Ir the vapor pressure nears the
downstream pressure, P2, cavitation can be suspected.
Then a. valve , is selected whose capacity index, C", Cavitation can cause rapid wear of valve plug and seat
exceeds Cvc' For a good range of control, the capacity as well as vibration and noise. If the vapor pressure falls
index should fall between 1.25 to 2 times the calculated between upstream and downstream pressures, PI and P2,
fíow coefficient, or: , vaporization can occur. In this case, there will be two-
:
'Í'
evc/c" = 0.5 to 0.8 phase flow in the pipeline after the control valve. If the
vapor pressure is higher than the inlet pressure, PI' the
This is an optimum range for linear and percentage-. control valve receives two-phase flow; and additional
'contoured plugs. Sorne valves have a wider optimum vaporization can be considered across the valve. For this
range. AH valves will operate below and aboye these condition, diameter of the downstream pipe will usually
C"clCv ratios, but the plug willl:lS closer to the fully open be larger than the upstream pipe.
or fully closed position. Under these conditions, we lose The criteria for subcritical and critical flows in liquids
the important advantage of having wide flexibility in ' are, respectively: '
controllable flow-capacity range, and this may limit
operability of the process, 6.P < e/(6.p.) (1)
High velocities across the valve orifice can wear out 6.P ~ c,z(IJ.P.) (2)
the plug and seat, especially if temperature is also high
or when abrasive fluid is present.
where: 6.p. = PI - (0.96 - 0.28 "¡PI/PC)p. (3)

Critical Flow Factor, C,-The pressure gradient across . and Pe is the critical pressure, psia.
a control valve is shown in Fig. 5. For liquids, the flow For simplicity: sr,== PI - Pv' provided that Pv <
can be considered subcritical ifthe vapor pressure of the O.SPI·
liquid will not get higher than the lowest pressure-point The sizing formula for critical flow is:
across the control valve. (Vapor pressure is the pressure
e"c = (Q/e,)(VSi"'¡¡;¡;;) (4)
at which the liquid begins to vaporize at its flowing
temperature. Tables of thermodynamic properties of liq- We will use a simplífied version of Eq. (4) later in this
uids give corresponding saturated-liquid pressures and article.
temperatures. ) One example of subcritical flow is that occurring in
If the vapor pressure falls between the ranges of A a control valve located in the discharge line from a cen-
and B (see Fig. 5), vaporization or cavitation wil! occur trifugal pump. Critical flow can occur across á' pressure-

88 APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

IIIl11uunnllunlllllllU!UlllllllllmmUllllllllillllllllllllllUlIIlIIlIlIUlIlIIlIlIIlIUlIlIlIIllIIHllllllllJ111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
rcducing valve where. (he upstrearn Iiquid condition is
Flow Coefficíents tor Control Valves- Table I closc lo the boiling point.
For gases, critica! flow is assumcd when gas vclocity
Flow Coefficient, C;,
rcaches the sonic velocity:
Size, In Single-Seat" Double-Seat*
u. = 68v'k(~'/p), ft/~. (5)
.0/. - 8 I
1
Sonic velocity should be avoided because it can cause
9 12
noise and vibration.
1% 14 18 The criteria for subcritical and critical flows in gases
1% 21 28 are, respectively:
2 36 48 t:,p < 0.5C/P1 (6)
2% 54 72 !::.P ~ O.sqP1 (7)
3 75 . 110
Critical flow can be avoided by reducing the pressure
4 124 195 drop across the val ve, by relocating the valve in the flow
6 270 450 system, or by choosing a valve with a high C, value.
8 480 750 The critical flow factor, C" is a dimensionless number,
which depends. on the valve type [6], C( is the ratio
10 750 1,160
between the control-valve coefficient under 'critical con-
12 1,080 1,620 ditions and the ñow coefficient as published in rnanu-
14 1,470 2,000 facturers' literature.
1,920 2,560
Valve Between Pipe Reducers-Flow capacity of a con-
16
trol valve placed between pipe reducers is slightly de-
• These values nave been obtained for Masoneilan 10,OOO-saries(either
equaí-percentaqe or V-port) plug valves having lull-capacity trim, but also apply creased. In subcritical flow, this is accounted for by a
lo similar valves 01 other manufacturers [2]. "
correction factor, R. In critical flow, the correction factor
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
is C'r' which replaces C, in the calculations. R and C'r
also depend on the ratio between pipe size and valve
size. C'I C'r and R have values srrialler than 1. Numerical
values for the valves shown in Fig. 1 are listed in Table lI.
Let us now summarize a number of formulas for sizing
control valves for liquid and gas services under different
flow conditions [1].

Liquid Service

Subcritical Flow-For a liquid flowing well below its

saturation temperature in the turbulent zone, with vis-
cosity close to that of water, and sizes of the pipe and
control valve identical, the calculated control-valve
coefficient is:
(8)

where the specific gravity, S, and ñowrare, Q gpm, are

taken at the flowing temperature; and DoP== Pl - Pz.
For mínimum pressure drop at the fully open piug
position, Cv replaces Cvc:
(9)
.
If we are interested in the pressure drop
,
at a selected
plug position between Cvc/Cv =
0.5 to 0.8,.a convenient
expression is:

t:,p = [. Q ]2 S, psi (lO)

(CvclCv)Cv
where Cv is taken from the manufacturer's catalog, and
CvclCv is the selected plug position. (The methods of
Eq. (9) and (10) can also be adapted to vapor ñow.) .
The calculated flow coefficient for laminar or viscous
flow is:
. (JI)

PRESSURES during liquid flow in a control valve-Fig. 5 Critical Flow-If the valve and piping are the same

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING/APRIL 14,1975 89

 CE REFRESHER •••

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Correction Factors for Conlrol-Valve Flow Coefficienl- Table 11

r----.---.
Single-Seat* Double-Seat* i
Condition Factor Equal-Percentage V-Port Equal-Percentage V-Port
Critical flow C( 0.98t or 0.85* 0.98 0.90 0.98
¡-- Line
___size control valve o

Critical flow CI, 0.86 0.94 0.86 0.94

,
(Control valve between
pipe reducers) .
¡-------
Subcritical f1ow, Dld =::: 1.5 R - 0.96
Subcritical flow, Dld 2 = R 0.94
(Control valve between
pipe reducers)
--_.-
, These values have been obtained for Masoneilan 10,OOO-seriesplug valves havirig full-capaclty tnm, but also apply to similar valves 01 other manufacturers [2J.
t Faclor for flow to opeu. .
'Factor for flow to close.
lI\1tlllltlllll\III1Il\\\llIllIIl1l1llllmm\llll1\11!I'''Il\ImlllllllllllltI1IUllll111IIlIlInU\llI!IIIIIIIU11I1llllllltlltlI1l1111mnlllli11t111111111l111111111111ll111l111111l1t1II111111111l11lnt1l1l111l111l1l11111111l11111111l11111111l111111111111l111111UII11IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1l1111111111lllllllllllllllllllllllltllllllllllllllllllnnl1111111111111111111

ti
size, the simplified calculated control-valve coefñcient .rently (i.e., Pv 1'1)' additional vaporization of >
becornes: liquid can be assumed inside the control valve. For this
condition:
,~12)
e = W_
providcd 1'":2 0.5P¡, »c 63.3 -¡-¿I'(JI

Gas, Steam and Vapor Service where the maximum t:"p o,se/p¡. (For calculating =
the densities in two-phase Ilow, sce Part 1 of this series,
The calculated control-valve cocfficieut Ior subcritical Chem. Eng., bec, 23, 1974, pp. 60-61.)
ñow will be:

w Example llIustrates Computations

e;. == ---:-.=--==
11.65 ..¡F;i>(p¡+ P2)Pl
(13)
Le! LIS size the control valves for handling a flow of
where ::"1' =
1\ - P2' provided that t:,,? <o.se/p¡. 113,000 lb /h (348 gpm) of liquid amrnonia in each of
For critica! ñow when t:"p ~ o.se/p¡:

..
. . w
,.: (J4)'
e; = 1O.13e,p¡Vi;
If the valve is located between pipe reducers, multiply .
the righthand side of Eq. (8), (11) and (13) by (1/ R); .
and Eq. (9) and (lO) by (1/R2). Replace e, with C'T in
Eq. (12) and (14).
. These corrections can be ncglected if the capacity of
the selected control valve at normal ftow gives a coeffi-
cient ratio, Cvc/Cv' well within O.S to 0.8, The operating
position of the valve plug will perhaps not be identical
to the calculated position, but this .will no! change valve
ór pipe size, Also, in sizing valves Ior critical flow, make
sure that the ylug will not opera te close to its seat.

Two-Phase Flow

For well-mixed liquid and inert gas in turbulent Ilow

with no additional vaporization, the following applies:
w (15)
c., = 44.8 v"t¡;¡=('=1 =+='='z=)-
where PI and P2 are the upstream and downstream two-
'phase densities,. respectively.
When saturated liquid enters the. valve (i.e., PI == Pv),
or saturated liquid and its saturated vapor fíow concur- FLOW retauons Igr sizing Mntml valvés=Fig, 6

90 APRIL 14, 1975/CHEM!CAL ENGINEERING

CE REFRESHER •.•
!
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Flow Coefficients tor Hand-Operated Throttling Valves- Table 111

No. 576P No. 556 No. 1040 No. 1042 . No. 1046
..,
Bronze Globe Valves (rhreaded) Steel Globe Valves (Flanged)

Flow Coefficient,
Cv Flow Coeflicient, Flow Coefficient,
For Valves Cv Flow Coefficient, Cv
No. 546P-150 Psi For Valves Cv For Valves
Size, No. 556P-200 Psi No. 556-200 Psi Size, For Valve No. 1042-300 Psi
In No. 576P-300 Psi No. 576-300 Psi In No. 1040"150 Psi No. 1046-600 Psi
% 0.9 1.2 2 46 55
%
%
2
5
4.2
8.6
2%
3 105
72 90
130
1
1 10 14.5 4 200 235
.,
1% 24, 29.5 6 ·400 400
2 41 49 8 720 720
Note: Flow coeflicients nave been obtained for valves manulactured by Jenkins
Bros .• but siso apply to similar valves 01 other manutacturers .
. 1lllllllllllUIIIIlIIIIIIWIIIIIUlUlUtllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllUIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1II11I1II!lIInlll!llIllIllIlIlIlIlIlIllIIlIlIIIlUiuIIIIIUlIlIlIlIlIIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIUlIIIIIIIIIIIIlllllllllllumllllllmummllllllllllllltlllllUlIIlI!l1l1llUlUllllIIlIlIUlIlIlIlIlIUnUlIlIJlUllllUJIII1l1j!lllllnl~fIIl
1
j
-í

estimates, will have minor effect on valve capacity. These . for some of one manufacturer's globe valves. Because of
are small values=-square-roct functions of the calculated various seat-and-plug designs, valve coefficients are not
ñow coefficient. ' the same for comparable globe valves made by different .
When critical flow occurs in the liquid, the piping after manufacturers. . . .' .
the control valve (and bypass valve) should be carefully We find by comparing the data in Table III for globe
sized. Vaporization increases pipe resistance consider- valves with the flow coefficients for double-seated control
ably. To stay within reasonable velocities when vaporiza- , valves in .Table 1 that the bypass valve and control valve
tion occurs across the control valve, the downstream can be the same size. For single-seated control valves,
piping and block valve will often be larger in size than the bypass globe valve can be one size smaller than the
the upstream pipe size. control valve. We can size bypass globe val ves or manu-
In sorne cases of saturated liquid flow, vaporization in ally operated throttling valves in the same way as control
and after the controlvalve can be avoi~ed by providing valves provided that flow coefficients are available.
a static head of liquid upstream of iae valve. This should
be noted on the engineering flow diagram. Piping the Control Valve
At high pressures, high temperatures, or large pressure
differentials, the control valve should not operate close The best position for a control valve is with the stem
to its seat. High velocities can wear the plug and seat. vertically up}Vard.A control valve will operate in angular,
This causes inaccurate fiow control, and leakage when horizontal or vertically downward position. Neither pip-
the valve shuts off. ing designers nor operators accept these positions. Large
angle-control valves are an exception; a horizontal posi-
Bypassing the Control Valve tion for them can be most practica!. .
A single control valve without block valves and bypass
A bypass is usually provided for control valves smaller is usually sufficient in clean-fiuid service; or where paral-
than 2 in., in lethal and high-viscosity services, in han- lel equipment containing control valves is installed with
dling liquids containing abrasive solids, in boiler feed- block valves located at pipe headers. Where dirty fluid
water service, and in high (over 100 psi) pressure- or solid particles can be occasionally expected, a ternpo-
reducing steam service. rary or permanent strainer is installed, upstream of the
For consistency in piping design, the ñow coeffícient control valve. Single control valves have handwheel
for the bypass valve should be about the same as that operators.
for the control valve. Table III lisis the fiow coefficients Most piping specifications call for control valves to be

92 APRIL 14, 1975/CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

1
i
1
1¡
,
:1
i
·1;
MANIFOLDS and bypasses tor iristallihg control valves into the process piping require proper clearances and drains-Fig.
located aboye grade or platform elevation, and at the
edgc of accessways, exccpt for those valves that have to
be located in self-draining pipelines. For example, a·
control valve placed in an overhead gravity-flow slurry
lineo . '. to the diaphragm housing, and from the transmitter to
For inplace maintenance, cJearance space is required
below and above the valve for removing the seat, plug,
actuator cover, spring and yoke. Estimated clearance
requirements are shown in Fig.7. Dimensions of control
valves are given by manufacturers [2,4].
If flow conditions permit, manifolds fo~ the control
valve that are smaIler in size than the main piping will
. prove economical. Typical standard manifolds are shown
in Fig. 7 [lOJ. The U-type is chosen when the inlet and
outlet flows approach the control valve from an elevation
higher than that of the valve. The corner type is used
when flow is from a high point to a low point, or the
reverse. The looped-bypass type serves horizontal ñows
near grade. A looped-corner bypass can bring a control
valve over the operating platform, For economical sup-
port, control-valve manifolds should be located near
structural columns,
For pressure-relieving and draining a control-valve
manifold, provide drain valves or plugs at low points.
One drain point is required if the control valve fails open.
Dráins on each side of the control valve are needed if
it fails closed. In saturated-stearn fiow, one or two steam
traps are advisable at the low points of a pocketed con-
trol-valve manifold.
The automatic control valve is part of an instrumenta-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERINGIAPRIL 14, 1975
7
tion system. Sensing points for flow, pressure, tempera-
ture and level should be close to the control valve, as
should the transmitter. Instrurnent wiring and tubing
connect these elements. Air lines run from the transmitter
.the: instrument-air header.
Level controllers usuaIly have gage-glass companions ..
It is convenient for the plant operator to see the gage
glasses from the control-valve manifold when operating
the control-valve handwheel or the bypass globe valve.
The next article in this series .will appear in the issue
of Apr. 28, 1975, and will cover the design relations for
sizing pump-suction piping. # .
References
1. "Handbook for Control Valve Sizing," Masoneílan lnternational, Ine.
Norwood, MA 02062.
2. Dimensions-Masoneilan Control Valves and Auxiliary Equipment,
Masoneilan lnternational, Inc .. Norwood, MA 02062.
3. "Valve Sizing," Catalog 10, Fisher Controls Co., Marshalltown, lA
50158. .
4. Fisher Control Valve Dirnensions, Bulletin 1-100, Fisher Controls
. Co., Marshalltown, lA 50158.
5. Boger, H.'W., Recent Trends in Sizing Control Valves, 23rd Annual
Symposium on Instrumentation for the Process Industries, Texas
. A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, 1968.
6. Baumann, H. D., The Introduetion of Critical Flow Factor for Valve
Sizing, ISA (Instr. Soco Am.) Trans., Apr. 1963. .
7. Baumann, H. D., Effeet of Pipe Reducers on Valve Capacity, Instr.
Control Systems, Dec. 1967.
,8. Boger, H. W., Sizing Control Valves for Flashing Service, lnstr.
Con/ro/ Systems, Jan. 1970.
9. Boger, H. W., Flow Characteristics for Control Valve Installations,
ISA (/llS/r. Soco Am) J., Oct. 1966. .'
10. Hutchison, J. W. (Ed.), "ISA Handbook of Control Valves," lnstru-
ment Soco of America, Pittsburgh, 1971. .
93
 I o
I
1:
¡
Successful operation of pumps if the draw-off nozzle is high in elevation aboye the pump
suction.
requlres the right suctlon
Example. Fig. 3 shows a pump-suction piping configu-
characteristics. Reduce a potential ration. Table 1 gives flow data, unit friction 1055 per 100
feet and total-suction pipe resistance for the Fig. 3 con-
problem with this accurate rnethod figuration. .An 8-inch draw-off nozzle and 8-inch header
have been selected.
for slzing suction piping
'--
Available NPSH. A specific NPSH calculation procedúre
Robert Kern, Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., Nutley, N.J. is presented in Table 2 using the example of Fig. 3.
Two columns are shown in Table 2: subcooled and
W1'IEN DESIGNINGSUeTION PIPING for centrifugal saturated liquido In this example, the pressure on the
pumps, you first need to size the draw-off nozzle. Then liquid surface is equal to the vapor pressure of the liquido
you must check the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH). Consequently, the sum of Lines 1 and 2 is zero. Static-
Here is a quick draw-off nozzle and suction-pipe sizing head pressure (Line 5) less suction-line resistance (Line
method that will insure vapor-free flow near the liquid 8) provides the available pressure (Line 9) for NPSH.
boiling point, In addition, a systematic procedure for cal- Lines 1 and 2 are expressed in psia for calculations of
culating available NPSH is presented for both subcooled
and saturated liquids.
5Q j:¡:- fffffffinffifFfñ:T:mn:m:n7iffEffi
Draw-off nozzle sizing. It is essential to keep a cen-
trifugal pump suction line vapor-free. To avoid vapori-
45 t-J:j:ffiti=~~~~-::j 1=
¡
!~--I~
1"1
K=O.78
zation and possible cavitation in a suction line after the
draw-off nozzle inlet, the minimum static head of a liquid
aboye the nozzle should 'be more than the exit resistance.
Exit resistance of nozzles can be expressed as h.i. =
K v2/2g. Using a safety factor of three, the required
minimum liquid head aboye the draw-off nozzle will be:
hL = 3K .v2/ (2g)
Where v = (00408) Q/d2 ft./sec. and values of the re-
sistance coefficient K, for horizontal or vertical nozzles,
are given on Fig. 1. .
To obtain the draw-off nozzle size or minimum required
liquid height in the suction drum, the aboye equation is
solved graphically on Fig. 1. Enter Fig. 1 on the vertical Fig. l--Graph for estimating draw-off nozzle sizes.
scale with the available liquid head and intersect one
curve representing the nozzle type and read veIocities on
the horizontal scale.
For vessels at the mínimum height, the pump-suction
pipe size can be the same as the draw-off nozzle size. Ve-
locities in suction lines are about 4-8 ft./sec. for normal
viscosities. Use this velocity range if hi. > 30 inches. Gen-
.eral1y, the suction line is one size larger than the pump-
suction nozzle size.
To provide an economical design, when the draw-off
nozzle is at a high elevation, part of the potential encrgy
can be used for greater friction losses in the suction pipe.
When practical, usually aboye 12 inches, the pipe header
can be a size smaller than the draw-off nozzle size obtained
from Fig. 1. Examples of the interconnection bctween the
'v==:':
draw-oíf nozzle and a vertical-suction pipe section is
shown on Fig. 2. A smalIer header diameter than pump- ) EXAMPLE:
suction nozzle size is-not recommended. - .. . .. Flow rate: Q = 2200gpm, hr,
From graph with hr. = ==
15 in.: v
15 in.
7.4 ft./see.
\, When specifying the pump-suction-nozzle flange rating, Pipe size: d = VO.4D8Q/v = VO.4D8 X 2200/7.4
=

:~~::~:;:::::G
the suction-drum pressure plus the total static suction-head d 11 in.
1
Nominal sizc: d = 12 in.
1
should be taken into account beside operating tempera-

__L_ ~n be;p:n:¡:::ablC amount

Fig. 2-Suction-pipe connections to .elevated draw-off nozzles.

119
"
HOW TO SIZE PUMP SUCTION PIPING "jABlE 2-t'.1F'SH cclculcticns tc;-m with tl1le
ex,m..ple shcwn .011 ¡-;¡g. 3

Subcooled 5nturated

"l
Liquid
1. PreSBure on liquid
s ur f ac e ;
t ps a
í

2. Va.por prcssure oE
liquid . ,:;-:.__ psia
3. Pressure available psi
(4) 4. Static heud p reseure ,
(+ o r3 -)-------------,---
(b) 5. Line + Line 4 •.. 0 • • _:!: __1497
psi . _ psi
6. Maximum equipment 6p._._ __ __ ps f

z
7. Maximum 6p in
suction pipe ---------~ ¡psi 08rr
(c) 8. Line 6 + Line 7 _u ~____::::::_psi·

Z PSTRAINER
(d) 9. Available pressure
at suction nozzle
p _
= 4//5 ps I,

1 ~/' ~~;i~;~~)
~P_S~_=. _:Z!.I_&J!.f~q_8)

?íV/~1t
10. ~ft.
6'
(e)l1. Available NPSH = .i!2fL> ~= Required NP5H
P~MP SUC!'ON
~/ . 6 - 300psI R.F. Note: Density ( P ) and specific gravity (5) should be taken at
/~
flowing t empera t ure, (¡ -IJ1
(a) Statie he ad , psi = (f t . heed x p)/144 =f)3,,5"5)(l14· .
0
12"·/· Note: When there is a Buction lift, Líne 4
1s negative.
(b) Start calculations on Line 5 with statie head
PUMPV1 caleulated by (a) when there is saturated liquid f1ow.
Fig. 3-Example configuration of suction piping. (c) When there is suction line6p only, include it on
Line 8.
(d) Lines 9 and 10 must be positive.
TABLE l-flow data, unlr friction loss, and (e) Required NPSH from manufacturer'. head-capacity curves.
total suction pipe reslstance for example
shown in fig. 3

Flow Data:
Liquid pumped: Heavy gas-oil
Flow rate at temperature: Q = 900 gpm
Speeifie gravity: S = 0.88
Density: p == 55 lbs.zcu. ft. , 5
r-t
Viscosity: ¡J == 0.6 Cp 10 @
Minirnurn liquid level in suction drurn, h i. = 18 in. a::
With hL = 18 inches, the veloeity from Fig, 1, !1 == 8 ft./sec. ::c
Suetion nozzle size: d = \10.408 Q/v ~
z
== \10.408 (900)/8 800 900 1000
= 6.78 ineh Fig. 4-Manufacturer's NPSH diagram.
Nominal nozzle and pipe header size: d = 8 in., Schedule 40
d5 = 32,380 ¡n.5
Unlt Friction Loss:
Reynolds Number: Re = 50.6 (Q/d) (p/¡J) tive. Line 6 should inelude the maximum equipment re-
= 50.6 (900/8) (55/0.6) sistance in the suction line (the resistance of a dirty
= 522,000
The friction factor from Moody's! diagram, at this Reynolds strainer, for example). Similarly, Line 7 should inelude
Number,f = 0.016 the possible increased resistance of the deteriorated pipe
APloo (8-in.) = 1.35fS(Q2/d5) wall (if there are solids in the liquid, or water ftow for
= 1.35 (0.016) (0.88) (9002/32,380)
= 0.475 psi/IDO ft. example) .
The sum of Lines 5 ancl 8 is the available pressure
Suction Line Loss: Equivalcnt Unir Loss Total Loss which can be convcrted to sta tic head and is used to calcu-
Length Ft. psi/IDO ít. psi late tlic available NPSH, (Line 10). This must bc corn-
Lille length: 45 pared with the requircd NPSH (Line 11) obtained from .
3 clbows: 3(22) = 96
1 tee: 14 the pump manufacturero Available NPSH must be greater
gateovalve (open): 9 than the required NPSH. The comparison should be made
st ramer ; 40
reducer (6·il1. x 8-in.) 6 to the same base line: pump centerline, pump base plate
or face of the vertical nozzle to givc three possible alter-
Total: 180/100 x 0.475 = 0.855 nates. Manufacturer's base line is usually the pump center-
Equivalent static head loss == (144 x psi)/p lineo
= (144 x 0.855)/55 A manufacturer's required NPSH diagram is shown on
= 2.24 ít,
Fig. 4. With an available NPSH of 10.8 feét, a maximum
of 1,050 gpm can still providc reliable suction conditions.
atmospheric and vacuuI}1 pressures. For subcooled-liquid By adding Line ! and 4, the maximum suction nozzle
flow, the pressure on the liquid surface is greater than the pressure isobtained for nozzle rating. By summing up Line
vapor pressure and Line 3 becomes a positive value. The 1 plus Line 4 minus Line 8, the nozzle pressure is obtained
static-head pressure (Line 4) is positive if the liquid sur- for pump total head calcuJations. ¡-
!--
face in the suction drum is aboye the pump; it is negative Indexing terms: Cornputing-B, Flow-fi, Er ic t io n-fi, Nozzles-S, NPSH-9,
Piping.9J. Pressurc-G, Prcssure Drop-E, Purnps-é, Rcsistance-Ii, Size-7, Sizing-B,
if the liquid level is below the pump. Line 5 must be posi- Suction-S, Vapor Prcssure-Ii, Velocirv-B. .

12Q__ . ~. _ April 1972 HYDROCARBON

PROCESSING
_._--~-----'.._.__ ._------------------------~_.. ._-,.,,--...:...;;
 ~
",",:~\~.::~?
::.:. ::'(,,',1 D
~;,'

How to design iping

for reboiler systems
Interactions between hydraulic requirements and piping configurations
require close attention to many fluid and mechanical .details, in order
to obtain the most efficient and economical distillation units." . .

Robert Kern, H offmann - La Rache Inc.

o Familiarity with graphic piping design is an essen- after the 'lines leave their vertical run, are governed by
tial requirement for the designer of hydraulic systems. the elevations .of the main pipe rack. Lines that fun
The accuracy of his calculations, predictions of'flowratedirectly to equipment at grade (more or less in the
;direetion of the main pipe rack) often have th¡,: same
and pressure differential,..rdiability of.operatión, and
the economyof capital, energy, ~aintenanct! and oper- elevatiónas the pipe bank. .
ating costs depend to a great extent on pipe configura- Lines from tower nozzlesbelow the pipe rack should
tions and pipe components.' . approach the pipe bank roughly' 2 ft below the pipe-
In these articles, we haverecognized. the irriportance rackelevation, The same elevationis used for those lines
of graphic piping design, and to a limited degreehave thát-run to pumps located below'the pipe rack.
presented its fundamentals. We will now.evaluate the ,....Pump-suctioñlines cán also be arranged on this ele-
flow systems and piping design for a distillation col- :vation: They should be as short as possible élnd run
umn, which is a more integrated unit thanthe individ- without loop~ ,or pockets. Pipelines.. dropping .frorn
ualsystems discussedin our earlier articles, './ j'. above the 'pipe-rack elevation, 'wíll approach the pipe
qaIll<;;roughly 2 (t higher than: the elevation of .the
Layout for distillation columns <.. , pipe bank. This elevation is also used for steam ·m.ain
A process flow diagramof a.typical distilla:tion col- lines to reboilers.These steam lines usually connect to
umn with bottom pump, thermosyphon reboiler, over- the: top of the headers to avoid excessive condensare
head condenser, reflux drum and 'reflúxcpurnp are ~raiIlagetoward process equipmt!Ilt.. . ce i'.
shown in Fig.l (F/1 ).The eqriípment COmPo?entsare X>'Theplan view (F/l) of the tow~rsh()~s the seirne.~ts
located adjacent to each 'otber in the actualpJant. Also\ . t>~Lits circumference "allotted:.í();f'pipiIlÚnozzlf.!~,mari~
-.in FIl, we fínd elevation and plan drawirigs for the >!i?oles, platfop#".brackets and I~d,ders:Such a_¿pattern
.. ' column.These show .how the principaLele~eqts9f a ;!\~~'U~Uyl~ads;~~;.~<weH-organize~'~rrangementf()rthe
.'.".distillation column are usually .integrated irít?\:a:noyer- >pI'ó'cessequipfnent ,ancl auxiliar'y:c()mponents..,
.; ..all plant arrangernent. Manholes face access'.r6~ds(or .•.•.·:.¡;.;'f~t¡:)m'a·lay'out'.Úandpoint, ifis"pf'eferable :~ohi:1ve.
,'". accessaisles.at housed.•installations)...Each rnap.e.()lehas '.'; '~~cJ~~1 pla~forw:l:>ra,~lcet,:spac.iJ:lg,
a?~·'tJ;leori(!nt~g()Il:·()f.
··········.·;r f~~~!~r~!~~rrhei~t~:~f~~a}¿~s c::~!~i~~~~~!~s~fe,· V};~~1t:~lR~~~~~oi:~e~;r;;~~t·~:~~:::ft~1;.:;~;h~ 7
••·.....•••
" -t.: Eor ·economy"and·easy.support; piping"sli~úld dropo:..•..• 3";"á7~astructurálmeTbers,.·Accordillg td OSHA,.ladders '
:.'_1e~~ing,:.;
;y:,:::'::~::: ;'~_i~:qlediat.e!_!~:~;':~_p_~:~ t~.~:',:,~oW'er,,:_~'~.~z~_~~:'~;:,.~~d'~,: t+?~;::;.~{~1?~ger_.-t~1:án·---:~,8
.r~n, ,':::~i,::~\+.~~~,~~~e_n_·;,:pla_tfo~~Y'~_P:9;~~d_: ..~..~_t~~:·~
parallel;and'as close as possilJ~e,to the towe(itself. A.·r '.)<";Area segments :f~r piping g?lng JO equipnient at
verticaLlin~.leIlds...itself a~.a .s'Uitabh~lOf.~.~?~·for.thei" . Lfg'ra,~~are. ayail~pJ~,between.thétladg~rs. and'()p.-b()th
straight 11m oC anoorificerThe horizontaltielevatións, .gide~of the m~llho1eS.Lines appr9aching the pipe rack
.' :."; ::- '/:.:.::.:_~_~.;:Ú-',>'.: . :-'.\j -: -:> ,~'~",-,\
,'--i ~:.'::::- -. ,'.' - <--'-~~ ,
-: >_. _'.-",;,.:,'-.
-~ "" ". ~-,~<'-;'.~.',.~ :::.'\,~ -,;/; - _.\~j,:;1,}:t~;;.:::;:::!,:r>· ':.. ::'_~--..;--::'j:~'\;::.--;;,,;,:~'~
...;~.
:>
:"J
\. ' •
. ;' ;-,_.~:::;,:.:.::
~},~,'::\,.
.
."
"""-" ,. . '·>-:~:¡)i'~; . '.,-
í.Q7Y~~';:·.;:.; ':,;,~ ;.< -,">.'_ .:'
L..•"'.·.,.·.... ;<:;'il;r
:<;::?1:;';;~
;,;,~~:~--:\
:-..-:._-.y.:: j{:"i" -:){h~i~~;:;J-:"" ,c'--::io,;1 r, /.:,.:;.-...._-~_>. ',- :', /.:'; ' .... >'.~'_;"'>:;'.' ..,:.:,"y....;;:. '.:\.-:-::~~';~.::.:~:.i' :r'" ' ':'~ 'j.-' ~,--·3:-·;·;:::r~
ciLi~~:2:.':::::::'!=.i:C;;~
.' ;'.....
::::;..:.,..,.':~~.-~":_":__"";"~;",,:~;:á",:,i¡..., ":';~,.",;.i; ...2~ J:'i _F~ ..
 ,., Unes with both ends higher
/' than top pipe rack

,Unes with one end below

Distlllation
column
j I/ and other end above pipe
rack on either pipe
,1-
I I rack elevation
/' " I
:
/
,. _ Unes with both
ends lower than
I / bottom pipe rack
I /
 1
I
reboiler-inlet nozzles, as well as between the reboiler
!
outlet and return connection onthe tower, are preferred Maximum !
'1
in order to have equal flow in the reboiler circuit. A liquid level
nonsymmetrical piping configuration may also be ac- !¡
cepted for a more-econoÍnical or more-flexible piping I
.~~. '

. R~boílers often have two outlets and two parallel- \

pipe segments. When sizing and arranging nonsym- i
metrical piping, an attempt should be made to equalize
the resistancetnrough both legs of the reboiler piping.
More resistance in one leg produces a smaller flow than
in the other. Hence, uneven heat distribution will occur
in the reboiler-one segment of the riser will be hotter
a. Bottom of reboiler should be elevatedjust aboye top of
than the other. condensate poto
At startup in reboilers having high, liquid drawoff
_ -Oistillation column
nozzles, a gravity-flow bypass is usualIy provided from
the tower's liquid space, to a low point of the down-
comer.
Valves are rarely included in rehoiler piping, except
when a standby reboiler is provided, or when two or
three reboilers are used and operated at an extrernely
wide heat-capacity range. Sorne companies require line
blinds to blank off the tower nozzles during shutdown,
turnarouIld and maintenance.
The heating media (steam or a hot process stream)
connect to the tubeside of horizontal reboilers.The inlet
piping usually has a temperature-regulated control
valve (with block valves and bypass globe valve, if
required). This is normally arranged at grade near the
reboiler's tubeside inlet. .
Reboiler elevations
Most reboilers are at grade next to the tower, with
centerline elevations of about 3 to 5.5 ft aboye ground
level for exchangers .about 1 to 3 ft dia. Exchangers
at grªcl~ provide econornical arrangements-i-valves and
-{nstruments are accessíble, tube-bundle handling .is
convenient, and maintenance is easy. In this arrange-
ment, the static heads are well determined betweenthe
exchanger's centerlineand the drawoff and.return.noz-
zles on the tower. Vertical reboilers aré usually sup'":
portéd on the distillation column itself.
Sorne reboilers have a condensare or- Iiquid-holdings-
pot lócated after.the tubeside outIet, as shown in ..J':/2i
lri·such cases, the centerline elevation of the reboilér '.
istsomewhat higher than units that do not have these ..-._,,_J_:_; .. -, ,_)
Requiredelevation'
control vessek' . ..;' . differel1ce between :
The arrangement in F/2a is a high-capacity steam iiquid.leve] in tower
trap. .The top of the condenser pot should not be higher and exchanger .
.'. than .the bottorn of the exchanger shell, to avoid fíoods;
ing the tubes with condensare and adversely affec;ting
the exchanger's heat-transfer duty. _. '--:;;; . : .
The arrangement. in X/2b maintains a recfliirecf
".'.'condensare leyel..in .thereooiler, ".to provide [oré á ~idy:';
.. range of heat-transfercontrol. :erocessconditions clyteI''':
..•...mirietheprecise. relationship between .the.·.·é.xchiiinger'
• »and the vertical condensate-contro"t,pot. . '.
'" ·In Fj3. we show an example where a reboiler has"
been'elevated".to. me~t.the· NPSH. I'7q~rt!ment;o(th~,.i
. ···centrifugal·
pump; Thedévated··rebóiler;.inturll, ráis~;'
the tower because the mínimum liquid level in: the.
bottom of the tower must be higher than the liquid,'
...: leYf::!iI1.
~heexcljan~e~<Theelevationicli~~rence(diri;i;,en~·i;;'
.... ,,; , :i:', "', ;':¡' ':'109'
,.. ,"..,';iFK;~fi;0,,· .' ce ..- "A;-,~-.:~.': )' .... CH;~;d~'E~~~ERl~G AUQUSTt/1975
:-";:;:),'~.,:;':-
'. .>', ~:.~'.:';.:;.t'
.' -
",;~~~-,~n~~';:::,~
': :':"'~.'.~~'
.;_'.-,: ,:.:,::,::,:>,-,_
'¡".•"
.i.'_;:}';;; _:, ','.j-_\'" <'" :':';:".'; ,.:':,:.'/.:.~::' .:.~:,", :;v
y \";:-f::-f'"
>.'-::.'
..
~.

,••••.•.••
~f<ó~~~'~;';JC'7"-fD""-"¡~7h~1fu~:"¡2:~~;f~~·,~~,'2~·;~
~,.·..'"'~~"~;\¡ji·,··'
... <~;.,.<:;.,.~·::".m
.. ."" ~..,;.,.
.')::~;~:.~:;,:,,;·E~:___,,:_~~"~,~;~~
"'_~_'".,;..:::~,;_-_~~_,_¿~::,.:
..:L_:,_" __·._,,,:.:::.., '_ \,5" ~~_._:.::'_',;,~.'~,
" _':.:.~.:;_~cc..._ ._~,,,'_ • --.-_, ,;,.:.;; ~~ '.' ;.-?iL:~
 av.
thi
"tO
,
f·

I~
gr;
th
Pl Ut
th
el
Reference line
tr
i,

3.5 to- 5.5 ft E

os
d
ti
 2. For vertical exchangers (see F/4b and F/4d):
, Pz' == (PzHz + P3H3)/144, psi (3)
where P2 is again the rnixture's density, as expressed
by Eq. (2) for horizontal exchangers, and P3 is the
average density of liquid and liquid-vapor mixture in
the reboiler:
(4)
Eq. (4) provides a conservativeestímate ofthe density
gradient in vertical reboilers,Actual density will be less
than that expressed by Eq: (4). In aIl equations, the 800~====~~~~~~~t1
~ 6001---"""'-'?'b-"7..17t--#+-7
units for pare lb/ft3, and for H, ft. We also note that
the verti~alreboiler should be flooded. The maximum 400 1==:::::;;:z;¡¡:2;;t:;~7
elevation of the top tubesheet should not be higher than 3001---Y~ ~~~
the mínimum liquid level in the tower. 200

Hydraulics in horizontal reboilers,

In the following discussion,the hydraulic conditions
only in horizontal exchangers will Be developed. (The
derivations are the same for verticalexchangers.jexcept
that P2' will replace P2.) For horizontal exchangers:
PI - Pz = áP = (1/144)(PIHl - PZH2) (5)
If a safety factor of 2 is introduced, then the available
pressure difference for friction lossesis halved, and:
(6)
The quantity (H1 - Hz) is usually 3 ft' (see F/4a).
Consequently, a minimum driving force of áPmin =
(3/288)Pl;::::; O.OlPl is always available al:' horizontal
, exchangers.
at.the maximum value, any inaccuracy is well compen- ,
. The maxirrium possibledriving force dependa on the
sated for by the safety factor of 2, and by the necessity
elevation difference between the drawoff nozzle and
to usecommercially available pipe sizes that are nor-
exchanger centerline (dimension H1) and on the total
mally larger than calculated pipe diameters.
evaporation taking place.in the reboiler.Neglecting the
vapor-column backpressure in the .returnline, the rnax- Friction losses in reboilers
imum usable driving force is: ' '..
..' The total friction losses in a thermal-circulating re-
boilersystem must 911
smaller than the available driving
force. The pressureIoss caused by friction takesplace
In most applications, the actual driving force is not
in two .main locations: in the exchanger itself, áPe,.and
much below this maximum. H1 can range from 6.to
in, the piping, ápp' .Hence: ".,
24 ft, depending on the size of the arrangernent and
on NPSH fora pump taking suction at the bottom of: " ':;.;aPt + App <,y
the tower, For these H1 valúes: .
Friction lossesin reboilers, áp~,are generally given !
as 0.25 to OS psi. (A note should indicate -whether ¡
entrance and exit losses are included.) Unit losses in !
downcomers and risers are in fractions of 1 psi! 100 ft. ,;':, ,1
Thus, 'thedriving force is reduced to.·;¡·"functionof e,.',..•
·C¿¡lSulation·proceduresfor-Iiquid ·lines..havé-been '.r: ,.: iF
the dOWIlC?merliquid. density at. operating teIIlpera- '...•outlined in Partzofthis series,Ch,e~.Eng., Jan. 6, 1975, .: '1
ture. .For example, if the piping geometry' produces pp, 115-120 (Example 1); and f9r'the two-phasé flow ': .·,
.. 1.'.•
Hl =
12 ft, and Pl =
50,lb/ft3 for ker6sene~ risers in Part 8; June 23, 1975, pp .. 145-15L (Exam- ":..! t
. , ',;.'
ARma" ... = .(1.
~
',2./.288)5.
O ;::::;2;0..psi pl7 1). We calcula.tereboilerreturns as dispersed fíow,
regardless oí .the intersection:()f,itheBaker para.rIt~ters
'.,/
.,
lt
':'I:t
.;:.'} Thesesimple relationshipsare'usefuLwhenthe evap~ '(seeFig. 1 in part',S). '. ¡;'.i , ' . :), :.11.'
'." oration rate is not known; and .line sizes ha~~ .to be .,...,.'.... .To avoid .trial-and-error calcúJ§1tions;a selection
'..•. ,,'" ,·tl
,ji;::): i estimat~d;Tl1'e available driving force ~ilI,be near 'Out ,chaI1:,for reboiler pipe size is prés¿;ntedin F/5! Ihis <v,,)1
, ;.;\ :. less th<.l.~,.A-PmaJ:· ." ... ,.. i ú, },' . "........ •.••.. ch~ Isbased on liIIliting velociti~ for flow,in d()wn- .,,' f 1

" APi:d~k{~~~raluatled ..here is,.of cours~f aIl.'extreme", ,'.C?mers of 2to/f,(t!s, We ,enter~lJ-egraph with known . .·.'.•.,.l.•.
~;;~;t~:L ..l~
valué ra 'ell at tota evaporation, In'ieboile~; partial 'liguid-flow qüali~Wes;We obtai~cé~9wncomerpipesizes ;:;':~, ''1~
< > evaporation. usually .takes '.place, •which will reduce from the shaded.p'ortion oCth9:9graph, and als91ind ".: ";11
);;t i llP_. ~oweve" even jf th~ driving fo,Cej, ;""uUjed . the =ponding ..flow veloci'!l~:o, he compu!f ~~~{ ; I
:-~.~'-7i~:;;:\?::'i.h\;r'--~/: )\):,¿.:~;i:~;:~: .::iª~://:;Y: -. -. ," .' /:-'><.-: ',--::~, . '~'.-:. . -<';:i}¡¿.:'~',::':~·.~··:::g~~-:--:.:~ -;:.:.};.>~:':'>( .'
'e~i,\f/'
->:0'- , ..,:.~,". <_.

.. . ,.' j " .;·Ú:)~·t~,/'··>:}.; ;ié r>· " F ;;;'~;,;'. -" . ·2i"7Y';ti·j$~Wf:

~~;;'i:i;'"J!·i!}·~.·"~;~i~"""'-;:"-"'·~~\~;?~,,,¡;·;,,~,""7',;~;.;,i;,,:'::;~é~E.;;,
.•,.;.,.;,."-;~,;;:;~':~',""',,~~~~d~~,,-;~~t:~.···~~'··;;.··.·:'~;~i;.\;'
........···.···,"'"'.,*:;;j!,t'f"""~"..'.,.,'~>:;;..·.·.'.1
 Reynolds numbers. The riser can be assumed as one
or two sizes larger 'than the downcomer pipe,
- In vertical reboiler circuits, reboiler losses are greater,
and pipe losses smaller, than in horizontal circuits. In
this case, a safety factor of 1.25 applied .to the driving
force can be used. In kettle-type reboilers, evaporation
rates are high. For these reboilers, a large-diameter re-. -
turn Jine is usuaIly necessary.
Elevation oí the drawoff nozzle
The minimum elevation, Hp for the downcomer
tower nozzle aboye that for the centerline of the hori-
zontal reboiler rnay be fourid from Eq. (6), where
H2 =Hl - 3, ft:
Hl = 288~p - 3P2
Pl - P2
The downcomer nozzle cannot be lower than H1. ~P
replaces D.P in Eq. (6), and is the sum of the down-
comer, .riser and exchanger friction-losses:
~P = t::..Pd + ~Pr + ~Pe
The value of Hl is useful when elevation adjustments
are made to vessel heights duringgraphic piping design,
or when the vessel can be located at a mínimum eleva-
tion. The coefficient for P2 in Eq. (9) is the elevation
difference between the downcomer and riser. nozzles. If
this is other than 3 ft, the correct dimension should be
inserted. - ";#'"
And, we calculate volume flowrate, * Q, from:
Q= W/500S
Q = 85,000/500(36.7/62.37) = 289 gpm
We will begin by sizing the downcomer and then
calculate the overall pressure loss in it, We follow up
with similar computations for the riser-remembering
that the line has vapor/Iiquid flow. The simplest part
of this analysis is finding the preliminary size of the
reboiler lines. The computations for checking whether
these line sizes are adequate require considerable detail.
We should also note thatthe reboiler has.two'inlets and
two outlets (F/6). Consequently, we find full flow
(100%) in each line from the column to the "tee" con-
nection on the reboiler's inlet and outlet piping; but
(9) only 50% of total flow in each line segment after the
tee. In the following procedures, we will see how this
flow arrangement affects our design calculations.
" Doumcomer=Yox a liquid flow of 289 gpm, we find
the pipe size for the downcomer as 6.in from the selec-
tion .chart of F/5. (For a 6-in, Schedule 40 pipe,
LD. = 5.761 in, d5 = 6,346 in5.)
Inorder to calculate the unit loss for the 100% flow
section, we must calculate the Reynolds number from:
NRe = 50.6(Q/d)(p/¡L)
N' = 50.6( 2.89 )(.36.7) = i55 300
Re 5.761 0.6 '

, Forthis Reynolds number, we obtain .the friction

Many towers have a bottom drawoff pump: NPSH factor,}; as 0.0182 from the chart in Part 8 of this series
requirements usually cause the process vessel and. the (Chem. Eng., June 23, 1975, p. 147), and calculate the
reboiler, drawoff nozzle to be raised higher than that unit loss .from:
ofthe reboiler's minimum elevation. This increases the
static head in the vertical legs, and also the driving 6.p.¡_¿o = 0.0216fptCQ2/d5)
force in the circuir, With increased tower height, it lS t::..PI00 = 0.0216(0.0182)(36.7)[(289)2/6,346]
worthwhile to check the reboiler circuit for a possible
reduction in size of the Iiquid and .return lines-
~P100 = 0.19 psi/lOO ft
especially where large-diameterlines are necessary. Un- W~can then find tÍle unit 10ss at50% flow:
economical reboiler lines are just carelessly oversized ór:
poorIy routed.

Example demonstrates calculations " ..' ...·,~Ptoo(50%)·•=

;,;"."
....•.
.
·0.19 ('144.5
. 289
0.022 .)
0.0182
)2(
Let us size the reboiler lines for the kerosene distil- ~Ploo(50%) == 0.0574 psi/lOO ft
lation unit, assketched in F/6. F16w data are:
,We now determine th(!;,equivalent'length of pipe and
- Downcomer fittings .for each segmente from tables iri<Part 2 of this
Liquid
series (C}¡em. Eng.,jan. 6/1975, pp. 115.2.120),as follows:
Liquid yapor
Flowrate, W; lb/h· 85,000' 59,500 25,500 Segmentfor
_Density-(hot),.p,Jp/ft3 36.7 - 36 :J.31 50% Flow,
'Viscosity, ¡L, cP' 0:6 ' 0.5- ~-.:;ROl' -- Ft
Molecular weight, M .-.•.....
53 ...:•••
:_·}·ü¡¡}t,tual·.·.··length 6
.; '_'.·;.i-.'Entranceloss
The flow data for the riser refíeci that 70% ()ft6ial ..Elbows*
liquid·and'30% vapor: ·We'obtairi 'ihe
-. _.r: flow -.ís.• vaP6r .'}'~h,ll!Ptee
'~" '

'.~~:(
,>-,
10
30
density,* Pv' intheriser from: ;:. ' .. ' -,-:-; •;'.,
. ..., -.--:--.:.,'/ - _'
'-"," , .,,::,\ '-,' "'-""_- \Fo:EXit.loss "
36
"''',' "0""'", .. " • _":" '"
82
'

~~~~lbo~l9_r50% flow $egment;,?for tOO~ ",,__;._,._

•...',.'.•..

,,'; ,Q.Yef~llpressure Jqss;br the downcomer:

. ._. '" ,.__ ._.:',,, ~-', . ' . - --,,, • , - -- - ¡, ' -'.. "" •

",~f ~·{).19(64/i()())-+O.057(82/1()O}.=
:.:':":-~": ~.. ;':":.. - -.

.- -:;;:_ .. -::.'; ;:_~.

:---:-:i:':,;: ," . ,,',; '-'¡'"

'. -'H-"<!.,·-'· :"1· '1..2' ...•:_.•.:.-/; ~'. ::';.. . '-:.;:'~i·"'· ':,'/c'_

-'--~=:'::':::=-==:=::::-:=-:-=:=="'-.:-::-::-:--
CI:iEMICAL El)!:O!N~ERING AUG\lsr,¡.; 1975
;}:
. ' ...•. ,;:}.~!5 U /.' .....
, -":.,'.--.~-~-:':,,:••'-:- <:¿8;.;,;;"_;_:' .. . _': ~ :"~,,.-:.',:'::":
 Let us estimate that the unit loss in the 50% flow
section is one-third that in the 100% flow segmento
Hence:
D.Ptoo(50%) = 0.34 psi/lOO ft
Again, we determine the equivalent length of pipe
and fittings for each segment of the riser as follows:
Segment for Segment for
50% Flow, 100%Flow,
Ft Ft
Actual length 6 18
1 Elbow 14 14
1 Sharp tee 24
1 Entrance loss 24
1 Exit loss 48
Total 68 80
Óverall pressure loss of the riser:
I1P = 1.01(80/100) + 0.34(68/100) = 1.04 psi
In summary, the total pressure loss is obtained by
.adding the loss in the dówncomer, riser and reboiler:
6-in Downcomer. . '0.167 psi
8~inRiser ~ l.02 psi
Reboiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 0.35 psi
Total /1P , 1.557 psi
Reboiler flow relations and elevations for problem •. ~
By substituting the .appropriate values into Eq. (6)
for this example, we determine the available pressure
difference, as: .
Riser-Since the downcomer is a 6-in pipe, let us use D.P = (1/288)[(36.7)(13.5) - (4.05)(10.5)] = 1.57 psi
a riser having a nominal size of 8 in. (For an 8-in The available pressure difference of 1.57 psi is greater
Schedule 40 pipe, LD. = 7.981 in, d5 32,380 in,5 = than the calculated pressure lossesof 1.557 psi. There-
A = 0.3474Jt2.) ,,-: _ ~.
fore, the design and sizes are acceptable. . -, .
. In arder to calculate the unit loss for the 100%ftow Finally; we check the minimum elevation of the
section, we mus! calculate the vapor-phase Reynolds drawoff nozzle above the centerline of the reboiler by
number from: .
sub1ll:itutinginto Eq. (9):
NRe = 6.31Wv/d!Lv
288(1.535) - 3(4.05) = 15.55 ft
=
NRe 6.31(25,500)/(7.981)(0.01) 31.7 - 4.05
NRe = 2 X 106
Sincethe drawoff nozzle is actually J 6.0 ft above the
For this Reynolds number, we obtain a friction fac- reboiler'si centerline (F/6), the minimum value of
tor,j,of 0.014 from the chart in Part 8 of series; and 15.55fyis ~sceptable.<.
then calculate the vapor-phase unit loss from:· . The next article in this serieswill appear in the Sept.
=
D.PlOo 0.000336(f/Pv)(Wv2/d5) .
15, 1975, issue. This article will review the design of
pipelines for the hydra~lic and thermal conditions oc-
=
D.p!oo 0.000336(0.014/1.31)[(25,500)2/32,380] curring in overhead condensíng systems,
D.p!oo = 0.072 psí/lOO ft
" ...• ,', '-'.' . " ,: .' " ~''':.- .. ,;: '.
'

Since the riser handles vapor/liquidJlow, we must

now determine the rwo-phase ftow modulus * from: .

a
'I'""t<"."" u. hvdraulic-svstems design,
and
the author of a number
fíelds, and has taught
for the design of process
layout, graphic piping and
jt.; ,,~~.. both in the V.S. and South
• ~~ ~. Previously, he. was associated
W. Kellogg Co. in England and
Mr. Kern has an M.S. in
.•mecnamcai engineering from the
. _,._~ ..~ University of Budapest.

'. . . .•...~ .......•....•.

 How to design

The statc of Huids in pipelines, and the physical arrangement

of equiprncnt around the distillation tower, establish the design
parameters for rneeting hydraulic and piping conditions of the system.

Robert Kern, Hoffmann - La Rache Inc.*

o The state of fluid in [he pipelines, and the hydraulic
and thermal conditions in condensing systems of dis-
tillation columns, are the reverse of those in reboiler
circuits.
The inlet line to eondensers can carry superheated
or saturated vapor, or dispcrsed vapor-liquid mixtures.
Fluid is cooled in the cxchanger, and partial or full
condensation takes place. The condenser's outlet line
can have stratified and dispersed two-phase flow, satu-
rated liquid, or subeoolcd liquido In addition, the fiow-
ing fluid can be a mixture of two substances. Thus, this
type of condensation offers a wide range of dassification
from a thermodynamic standpoint [1].
.,
Gravity-flow reflux
Horizontal conderisers-A condenser in "gravity-flow ar-
rangements is located aboye the level of the terminating
point of the condenser's outlet line, as shown in F /1
and F/2. For the horizontal condenser in F/lb, vapor
enters the exchanger at the top, and subcooled liquid
leaves at the bottom. The looped-outlet pipe ensures
a permanent liquid level in the condenser. This liquid
level is controlled through the reflux branch and
through the takeoff line to storage.
The static-head pressure difference, D.Ps' between .the
vertical overhead line and the condenser's outlet line
for the arrangements in F /1 can be written as:

j
In contrast, saturated liquid normally flows in the
downcomer of reboilcrs. The liquid is vaporized while (1)
passing through the exchangcr. The reboiler's outlet Ms must be equal to or greater than the sum of (1)
line carries a dispersed vapor-iiquid mixture having a the pipe-system resistance, D.pp, between reference
I
1
vapor content of 30 ro 90% of total flow. (See Part 9 points A and B; (a) exchanger pressure drop, D.pe; and
of this series for more details, Chem. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975, (3) required pressure difference across the control valve,
p. 107.)
D.pcv:
In this article, we will examine the hydraulics for
the folIowing: (2)
1. Condensers with graviry-flow return lines.
¡ The required distance, H, between fractionator inlet
2. Condensers with pumped-reflux lines. and exchanger centerline can be caIculated from Eq.
i 3. Two-stage condensation.
(1) as:
! Within these groups, hydraulic-design and plpmg-
design conditions vary, depending on the state of fluid
in the lines and the physical arrangement of the instal-
(3)
The vapor column can be neglected by assuming
Iation,
Vacuum technology has its own systems, equipment
=
P2 O in Eq. (1) and (3). AH pressures are in 'psi;
densities, p, in lb/ft'; and dimensions, H, in ft.
and terminology. Piping dcsign of vacuum-condensing
As Eq. (3) shows, for a mínimum of elevation differ-
systems are outside the Euler-Bernoulli-Darcy theories
ence between the top of the column and the exchanger
and are not inc!uded in this article,
centerline, the piping and components resistances must
"For biography of author, see eh,m. Eng., Aug. 4, 1975, p. 113. also be minima!.
129
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER 15, 1975
I
¡
·1
I

·1
J
!
[

Polnt 8- 1
s
i
B. 'Saturated liquid (shellside conderisation} f
]

I
1

f
i
1
í

Horizontal condensers with gravity-flow reflux @

Generally, in condensing systems,the unit loss in the

piping is low-about a tenth or a hundredth of 1
psi/lOO ft. Inlet and outlet resistances to process equip-
ment usually take a considerable portion ofthe pipeline
resistance and should not be ignored in the calculations.
(Using three decimal places in the calculations is not
unusual.)
In horizontal condensers, condensation takes place in
the shell. This gives lower resistance than the tubeside,
A baffle (or baffies) in the exchanger is in the horizontal
plane through the exchanger's centerline. If necessary,
two inlet and two outlet nozzlescan halve the total flow,
and reduce entrance and exit resistances considerably.
In this case, the inlet and outlet piping should be sym-
metrical.
The subcooled liquid for the arrangement in FIlb
can be drained or pumped directly to storage. The
product stream for Fila is usually directed through a Vertical condensers with gravíty-fiow reflux co.ndense~. ....
cooler before storage.
vapors on the sheilside or tuheside 01 exchan9'!r {P
130
-C-H-E-M-¡(-:,-\¡-_E-:N-'(-;¡-N-E-EI-,ING SEPTEMBI~-R-I:;~:;·~-
 i
E v--~
..•.•
.
,
:
Seal loops prevent a reversed flow of vapor in gravity-fiow condensing svsterns
Control val ves in tlwse svstcrns should be located at
a low point of the n-turn linc and product stream,
Sufficient static head bcíorc the valve inlet will prevent
vaporization across the valvc. A product cooler should
not receive a liquid-vapor mixture.
Vertical condensers-Arrangcments for these condensers
with gravity-flow outlcts are shown in F /2. Conden-
sation can take place in the shell (F/2a), or tubes
(F/2b). A single-pass vertical condenser is more suitable
for liquid subcooling than a horizontal one. The seal-
loop height can be adjustcd within a greater range than
with horizontal condcnscrs (F /2c). The required liquid
level in the exchanger shell is determined by the ex-
changer's designer.
The hydraulic balance for the arrangements shown
in F/2 is:
(1/144)(H1Pl + H2P2) > (1/144)H3P3 + 6.P
vhere 6.P is the sum 01' piping, 6.Pp, exchanger, 6.Pe'
"and control-valve (ir any), 6.Pcv' resistances:
6.P = 6.P + uPe + 6.pcv
p (5)
The elevation difference, as expressed from Eq. (4),
between the condenser's outlet and the refiux inlet noz-
zle will be:
HI > (l/pl)(f(¡P3 - HzPz + 1446.P)
where PI is the density of condensate in the reflux line,
P3 is the vapor density in the overhead line, and P2 is
the average density in the vertical exchanger:
Seal loop prevents flow reversal
In gravity-flow condcnsing systerns, a seal loop is
·provided to prevent a reversed flow of vapor in the
condenser's outlet line. This loop can .be used for hold-
ing a liquid leve! in the condenser, as shown in F/la
and F/2c.
If the gravity-flow reflux line terminates in a vertical
cm:!lllCAL
leg (Z2 dimension in F /3), the piping design should be
such as to prevent siphoning that can empty the seal.
If dimension ZI is smaller than Z2' and the pressure
just before the seal loop and at the terminating point
after the sealloop is identical (for example, with greatl¡
reduced flow), liquid can be siphoned out of the seal;
and intermittently, the condenser will not operate well.
This can be prevented if Z1 is designed to be longer
than Z2 (see F/3a).
For the arrangement in F /3b, the final vertical leg
has a larger diameter than the gravity-flow reflux lineo
.Again, this can prevent the siphoning of liquid from
the seal loop.
Another arrangement (F/3c) has a closed vent lineo
This can be opened at reduced condensa te flow to keep
the seal loop filled with liquido With this type of vent-
ing, the pressure difference across the vent valve should
(4)
be zero. Therefore, it is essential to connect the end-
points of the vent line to locations where pressures are
expected to be about equal.
Pumped-reflux arrangements
Typical overhead lines for hydrocarbon distillation
columns are shown in F/4. Fluid circulation in the
piping is the result of the thermosiphon effect in grav-
ity-reflux condensatíon. For the systems shown in F/4,
(6)
there is (and most of the time must be) a pressure
difference between the top of the tower and reflux
drum. The reflux drum has a pump, which returns the
liquid to the top of the tower or sends it to storage. ¡
In .these arrangements (besides the sum of the static
(7)
I
heads), actual pressure differences, 6.Pp, also enter into
the calculations: .
(8)
For the dimensions given in F /5, the static-head
difference will be: 1¡
t
(9)
where PI is usually vapor density, and P2 is vapor-liquid ¡
131
ENGINEEIUNG SEI'TEMBER 15, 1975
¡
1
t .
¡ ,

~:;::~.The .simplest ev'erhead b, Subcooled liquid

,- line 9!V8S the in toe
srnailest pipe SiZ9. cravitv-ftow
;u'det Iine.

Overhead condensers for distillation columns ~

mixture (or liquid) densíty. The overall available D..P

is the sum of Eq. (8) and (9), or:
tJ.p = tJ.Ps + tJ.Pp . (10)
If the righthand side of Eq. (10) becomes negative,
the condenscr 1l1l!S¡ be placed at an elevation closer to,
or aboye, the reflux drum. A negative value indicates
that thc static-head backpressure (p2Hz) in Eq. (9) is
greater t.han ihc SUIll of (1) pressure difference between
the top 01' t hc t owcr and the reflux drum plus (2) the
vapor st a 1 ic lJ(';¡d ((¡ .H 1) in the overhead lineo The
greatcr rhc ('('Ilc]C'!IS,l tion, the heavier the mixture be-
comes in t!«: C<lrJ(icll,er's outlet line, which results in,
a greaier bac..·Lp.lc,.sun·. Of course, P2H2 becomes posi-
tive W11C1l dI(' ¡int' has a gravity-fiow arrangement be-
tween th« CO!1(!c-ll'C! outlet and the reflux-drum inlet,
as shov,n in F -la and F/4b.
Eq. (1()) sIH)\\', t he driving force in the overhead
svstern. This mus! bc' greater than the sum of piping,
inlet aud ('xi t lusscs, 2::.l'p, and exchanger resistance, tJ.Pe:
(11)
tJ.PI'
usuu llv is r)t:t wecn 2 to 6 psi, and condenser tJ.Pe
rangcs [rorn O.:) to 5 psi.
The max imum possible condenser-centerline location
below t hc rcllux drun¡ (dimension Hz in F /5) can be
calculalcd [rorn the combination of Eq. (9), (10) and
(11), to give:
(1/144)(p¡fll - p}J2) +
'Dimensional relations for a .condenser at grade tJ.Pp .. (tJ.pp + D.pe) = O (12)
As a safery factor, the positive static-head column pres-
132
CHl~M[CAL ENG1NEERING sEÍiil:illiúi"~,;, 1!J'/')
 ,
([[J .

:lj ¡I

Elevated condensers and details of reflux drum

sure of the overhead vapor line can be neglected.Con-

sider:
P1Hl = O.
ExpressingH2 from Eq. (12) in feet, we get:
H2::: (144/P2)(Mp - b.pp ~ b.pe) (13)
In layout design, usually the reflux drum is elevated
first in accordance with the required NPSH (net posi-
tive suction head) of the reflux pump. The dimensions
shown in Detail A of F/5 will establish the condenser
elevation from grade.

Slug flow is undesirable

Slug flow can develop in the pocketed condenser-
outlet line shown in F/5, depending on vapor-Jiquid
proportion and fluid velocity. Slug flow should be
avoided because it can cause undesirable pressure
surges.
An empirical relation can .be used to estímate the
slug-flowregion. If the velocity (calculated with two-
. Liquid and vapor velocities determine type of flow phase density) in the pipeline is smaller than (5pd
Pv)1/2, slug flow is possible. The type of flow can also
133
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING SEPTEMBER 15, 1975
1
!
¡

Det.:;d e

r(?\nmdi2~("35' di "
\~ -In la,
\ .'\
_..,-
~-'_--
,_''':=

Two-stage condensing system has parallel flow through large surface condensers in series with air coolers

be estimatee! by calculating the Baker parameters ane!
using Fig. 1 in Part 8 of this series (Chcm. Eng., June
23,1975, p. 146), Flow-region maps such as are shown
in Fj6 are al so available for vertical Ilows. To use these
maps, the vapor-phase ane! Jiquie!-phase velocities are
calculatee! separately for the same pipe e!iameter. The
intersection of these in the appropriate e!iagram ofFj6
establishes the flow region.
The general criterion for selecting a suitable Iine sizc
is that th« pipe diameter must be suflicicnt ly small to
have (he highest possible vclocity, but large enough to
stay within available pressure diflercnrial. The possi-
1:H
CllEMICAL I-:N<:I~Ú::i:l;iN(iSEP'It:~jllllt
biliiv ,,1' ,J\¡,~11m,' ";11\ be rninimized by (a) increasing
(he pn'ssulc dlop i n ¡he condenser's outlet line and
reducirn; 111<' ¡r-'¡S{;IIH'C of the rest of the cone!ensing
sys1('1l1. ,1,) !¡¡{¡\'idilJe; 1wo parallcl lincs between con-
dens('f' .md Id)tL dl'Uln, (e) using valved alternative
pi¡»: ru n-. 1"1 ;t!i''1II;¡tivc ílowrates, and (el) changing
t o a grav!lv-Il.)\\ ;¡i'Ll!lgcrncnt.
Equipment arr;¡ng-ernent
In a gr;l\'ity-ll<Jw ill'rangcment, a structure is often
requln'(1, LltIOI" tll;11 inlluence layout design are shown
in 1-'/7, Iklow lile cll'Vall:eI condcuscrs, a platform is
1',- 1'1;',
usually provided. Structural members, space for piping
below the platform, and reflux-drum diameter or mini-
mum headroom requirement determine the platform
level for the reflux drum. Piping, NPSH or headroom
will establish the distance between grade and the re-
flux-drum platform.
The piping arrangement of condensing systems
should be as. simple as possible. Each elbow in the
overhead line represents a sizable percentage of the
overal! pipe-friction loss. However, lines can become
longer because of fiexibility considerations. Usually,
there is no valve in an overhead lineo Pressure loss in
fittings and line length have to be compensated for with
increased pipe diameter.
Piping design, and access to valves and instruments,
also depend on how well nozzles are located and ori-
ented on process vessels. The usual nozzle arrangement
of a reflux drum is shown in Detail A of F /7. The
condensate inlet is at one end of the topo Alternatively,
a bottom inlet with a standpipe in the refiux drum can
be designed, eliminating a couple of elbows and reduc-
ing pipe resistance. The pump drawoff nozzle is at the
bottom and opposite end of the reflux drum. Level-gage
and level-controller connections can be in the center.
At the center, the liquid level is least agitated by the
inlet and outlet streams. Pressure connections are usu-
ally in the vapor space, and temperature connections
in the liquid space near the pump drawoff nozzle. AI-
ternative manhole locations, and vent, drain and sup-
port connections are shown in Detail A of F /7.
Two-stage condensation
We will now describe a large, two-stage, condensing
system, and in doing so we will find additional design
ideas for the condenser piping.
Where cooling water is expensive, condensing systems
can be designed for use with air coolers or with a com-
bination of air coolers and water coolers in series. If
close condensate-temperature control is required, the
water coolers are located after the air coolers. For op-
timum heat transfer, a reversed sequence can be chosen.
A large-capacity condensing system handling the
overhead from the primary fractionator of an ethylene
unit is shown in F /8. The pressure difference between
the fractionator and reflux drum is small, D.P = 1.75
psi. With this limited pressure differential, it is essential
to have minimal resistance through exchangers, piping
and pipe components.
Resistance of the surface condensers has been mini-
mized by choosing three exchangers, each handling
one-third of the total flow; and by providing a flared
exchanger inlet, and four large outlets for each shell.
Exchanger resistance is given as 0.12 psi, exclusive of
inlet and outlet .resistances. The photograph in F /8
shows one of the exchangers being delivered.
Air-cooler resistance has been minimized by using
numerous single passes and large-diameter finned tubes.
Air-cooler pressure loss is estimated as 0.7 psi, excluding
nozzles.
Even with al! these provisions, close to 50% of the
available overalJ pressure difference has been consumed
by the exchangers alone. About 30% of the overall D.P
has been taken up by the inlet and outlet resistan ces,
leaving 20 to 25';; of 1.75 psi for pipe resistance. This,
and the rather lonz pipe configuration, mean very large
pipe sizes. These are indicated in F /8. Velocities in these
lines are less than 50 ít/s. Under these conditions, the
piping sysrem from t he fractionator to the reflux drum
has to be self-draining. Horizontal sections of the piping
slope toward the reflux drum.
Saturated vapor 110\\'S in the 72-in-dia. overhead lineo
(Overhead lines are not usually insulated, and it is rea-
sonable to assume that sorne condensation wiII take
place in thern.) Condensate, collected in the overhead
Iine, can drain to the surface condensers through the
three tangentiallv welded branch-connections (see De-
tail A in F /8). Quite likely, this condensed liquid.is not
distributed to the thrce surface condensers equally be-
cause of the nonsvmrnetrical arrangement of the branch
lines. Considcríng the small amount of liquid, and that
this liquid does not affect the heat-transfer duty of the
exchangers, the nonsymmetrical arrangeriÍent is ac-
cepted.
For equal vapor distribution to the three surface
condensers, butterily valves are installed at the inlet
flanges of the flared exchanger sections (see Detail B
in F /8). The butrerfly fiap in each valve has a reduced
diameter-leaving 50% of the cross-sectional area of the
inlet nozzle perrnanently open. In this way, it is as-
sumed that, with less resistan ce, a rnore-sensitive regu-
lation can be accomplished than with a valve having
a full-diameter flap.
Pipelines between the surface condensers and air
coolers have two-phase dispersed flow, Because of the
low velocity, elbows and tee connections, sorne liquid
separation (wit h stratified flow) at the bottom of the
lines is also assurned. (Under such conditions, and with
these Ene sizcs. it is difficult to assess how valid two-
phase-flow theories are.)
The outlet lines of the surface condensers connect
centrally to t hc inlct headers of the air coolers. Equal
fluid distribut ion is assured by the relatively great
differcnce in resi,tance between the very-low header loss
and the hit:h enirance resistance to the air cooler
branch-conncctiulls. For equal distributíon of the strati-
fied liquio al ¡Le bottom of the pipe, each branch-
conncct ion CXlt'¡l(h ahout 2 in up into the horizontal
air-co()krl"';lc.kt {;·;ce Detail e in F /8). These extensions'
dam up t hr: ¡¡(pIi:: in the bottom of the pipe, and the
overflow !aciliLllc, cqual liquid distribution across each
air-coolcr p:t'''' :YQlllnetrical piping at the outlet side
of a ir ('()okl's i, not considered as essential as at the
inlct side.
The next. ;,n.icie in this series of piping design will
appca r 1Il t l«: ISS\lC of Oct. 13, 1975, and wil! cover '
calcula tion pmc(,c1ures for compressible fluid flow under
isothennal ami adiabatic conditions in pipelines and
restrici ions.
Roferences
1. K<:~·n,U Q;. "Prun'\', lh':n Transfer," McGraw·Hill, New York, 1950.
I
I
2. (:¡¡¡,IU: r. 1 .:n,J:. :-"1!':ill!Ii!;, A, H., Two-Phase Vertical Flow Maps, [oint
S\'jilj>0;'l\lnl (JJI
SY~!>':·¡::",_.:ll .~,-'fJl\'(.1
·¡'oL ,l/un }:>'<".
l,ltlu! \í::challÍcs and Mcasurcmcnt in Two-Phaxe '-Flow
(I! Lt'('ds, Leeds, England, Scpt. 24-25, 1969; Proc.
-,JI \ .
11.""'1",,). Vol. 18' Pan 3C (1970)
I
'l. C..dv. 1'. 1). 11",\ ·1"
unhufl Frultl\,.
SI.¡j.l
;-';~'j)L l(I¡¡'~
Slug Fl~,~
in Condensei Outlet Piping Hydro-
,
4. (;/(,(:1,1(,:,.1.: L"l ~1;"1:1¡¡1l:1¡j~:al
Piping Arrangements Solve Two-Phase Flow
1)1:--III1HIlIOII 11~d),nIJ~. I{rf!tocflfóun ProcfJs.;.Fcb. 1967.
I
 ..,
A
1-
h i
I
Y
Ir
ti
.y

¡:
g
:'-
e
-;
I How to size piping and
components as gas expands
1

T
) at flow conditions

An evaluation of isothermal and adiabatic conditions leads to

practical formulas for establishing flowrate, pressure drop and the
-limiting velocity. for gases through pipelines and restrictions.

Robert Kern, Hcffmann - La Rache Ine. *

o Flow of gases and vapors through pipelines, and
piping components and other restrictions,is affected by
the changing conditions of pressure and temperature.
Therefore, we must.examine the nature of the flow,
i.e., whether it is isothermal or adiabatic, and apply
the appropriate flowrelations to the piping designoLet
us first review the principIes for such isothermal and
adiabatic flows,and then solve sorne typical problems.
Densitiesof gasesand vapors vary with pressure and
temperature. In isothermal. flow (temperature is con-
stant), density varies with pressure.In adiabatic flow,
a decrease in' ternperature occurs when pressure de-
creases.This results in a density-increasecorrection. At
high pressures and temperatures.. the compressibility
factor can be less than unity, and sorne increase in
density will occur. . .
When calculating flowrate or pressure drop for pip-
ing design, pressure wiU have the dominant influence
on density. As pressure decreases due to piping and
componentsresistance, the gas expands andits velocity
increases. . Thermodynamic derivations _assumethat the ideal
However,we may encounter 'a limitation.The veloc-
ity of flow in a pipeline of constant cross-séctíon (or
in the throat of a restriction) cannot gohigher than
the sonic or critical velocity. Even if the downstream
pressure is lower than the pressure-necessary to ¡;eadi
critical velocity, flowrate through a pipeline or restric-
tion will not increaseaboye that calculated.at the criti-
cal velocity. . ..
Useful fluid-flow relations
Accordingto available data, the relation between the
.Reynolds number and friction factor is the same for
liquid flow, steady gas flow, and expanding gas flow,
up to thelimit of sonicvelocity[l]. In short lines having
high pressure differentials, flow usually falls in the_to-
tally turbulent zone, and the friction factors in Table
VI of Part 1 can be .used [12]. At the beginning of long
pipelines, transitional turbulence is also possible, with
friction factors..higher than at total turbulence. These
friction factors: for steel pipes can be obtained from
Fig. 2 of Part 8 (15].. .
Interpolation. between the initial transitional-tur-
bulent friction factor over a length of'Iine, and the
totally turbulent friction factor ovér .the remaining
portion of the line, can give a close estímate of the
overall friction factor. This also means that the expres~
sions for the resistance coefficient,K, head loss,ht, and
coefficients of restrictions, e, (derived for steady flow)
can be usedin the calculations ofexpanding gas flow•.
gasIaws are applicable: i.e., PV =
a constant .for iso-
thermal flow,and PVk =
a constant for adiabatic flow.
While, theoretically, this .is true only for frictionless
flow, it makes little practical difference when calculat-
iIlg flowrate or pressure drop through pipelines and
components.
*l"0r biography of author, see eh"". Eng., Aug. 4, 1975, p. 113..

.. 125
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER 13, 1975
 ~. For a given pressure differential, the mass discharge
rate through a pipeline is greater for adiabatic flow
Wp = Flowrate through pipe
It
than the rate for isothermal flow. The difference will f
Wo = Flowrate through restriction
never be more than 20%. Practically, there will be no
difference if the pipeline is more than 1,000 pipe diam-
1
eters long [2]. Actual flows are somewhere between
isothermal and adiabatic conditions; and the difference
in flowrate stays well below 20%-even for lines having 1
lengths well under 1,000 pipe diameters.
In comparing the basic equations for adiabatic and
isothermal flows, isothermal fíow can be considered as
a hypothetical adiabatic flow where the adiabatic ex-
ponent k = 1. This proposition is useful because iso-
I
thermal derivations are simple and the solutions conve-
. nient compared with sorne of the lengthy and
complícated procedures of the relations for adiabatic
calculations.
Data for the adiabatic exponent, k; specific heats, cp
and c7}' and the gas constant, R, are given in handbooks,
usually at sorne standard pressure and temperature. Flow through ruptured exchanger
Increase in pressure and decrease in temperature tend tube and tubesheet orifice
to give higher k values and a Iower compressibility
factor, z. At high pressures and temperatures, z can be
considered as a correction factor for the gas constant,
R. These changes will make little difference in sizing
piping: and components, or estimating flowrates ando
pressure drop. . .. A Internal cross-section of pipe, ft2
Elevation changes in pipelines have negligible effect fJ Ratio. between restrictíon diameter and
on pressures, flowrates and pressure drops because gas inside diameter
densities are usually smal!. For restrictions in a pipeline C Mechanical flow coefficient
or flows through a short pipeline, we must pay close CK Kinetic-energy correction factor
attention to the design parameters in order to avoid ¡j Internal diameter of pipe, in
overly high flow velocities. High velocitiéscan cause do Diameter of restriction, in
,D Internal diameter of pipe, ft
vibrations or noise, or ~0tf.. f Friction factor
g Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/s2
Isothermal flow: flowrate through pipeliIles hL . Head loss, ft
Bernoulli's general equation for steady flow can be k Specific heat ratio
expressed graphically as: K Resístance coefficient
L Overalllength of pipe.. ft
M Molecular weight
P Absolute pressure,Jb/ft2

I
P Absolute pressure,psia
tlP Pressure loss or pressure difference between
two points, psi
llPE Pressure drop in steady fiow, psi
llPe Critical pressure drop, psi.
R Universal gas constant, 1,544/ M
p Fluid density, lb/ft3.
T Absolute temperature, °R
o Mean velocity offluid, [t/S
ve . Critical (or sonic) velocity, ft/s

... -
.P, !l.
.'.p + 2g+Z., =:
P2 ~
hL +¡; + 2g +Z.2
W
V
w
Specific volume, ft3/lb
Weight flowrate, lb/s
Weight flowrate, lb/h
1I
These relationships can also be written as: Weight flowrate for steady condition, lb/h
(l/P)(P2 ~Pl) + (1/2g)(v~ ..,- vi) + (z2 - zl)+ hi =O
New expansion factor i
z Compressibility factor
. For expanding-gas flow, v2 :f v1; and with horizontal Subscripts .
pipe, z2 = z1' Hence, the differential form of Bernoulli's . 1 .' Upfiow condition
eq~ati()n. can be written as: 2 Downflow condition .
o Orifice..',
-{l/p)dP = (l/g)vdv+ hL Pipb·····
Relief valve
is not toIlsúmt, and
where the cl.ertsiÍ'}';·p,
hL = Kv2/2g
 "
Weight flowrate through the pipe is: w = Apv, or complete break near the tubesheet, as shown in F/1,
w! A = ~v = constant. Expressing this relation in and (2) isothermal flow? (We will compare this calcula-
tion with that for adiabatic flow in Example 4 under
differential form, and remembering that both density
and velocity change along the pipeline: the same flow data.)
Flow data for this example are:
pdv + vdp =O
Pressure in exchanger tubes, P1 ::; 1,lOOpsig.
dv=-v(~) (3) Rélief-valve set pressure, P2 ::; 400 psig, on
shellside.
In expandíng-gas flow, the pressure-and-density ratio Gas temperature, 100~F.
stays constant: p/p = dp/dp = Pt/p . We can express Molecular weight, M::; 18.7.
this as two relationships: 1
Compressibility factor, z ::;0.9.
Exchanger tubes are % in, Schedule 160 for which
-=-
dp dp
(4)
d = 0.0512 ft =
0.614 in; d2 =
0.377 in2; and O.D. =
P P 1.050 in. '
TubeJength = 20 ft.
1 '(P)l
t= P: p (5) =
Friction factor, f 0.026 for complete turbulence.
First, we evaluate the upflow density, PI' from:
where PI and PI are the initial absolute pressure_and,
density, respectively. Inserting Eq. (4) into Eq. (3) Pl ::; MP/10.72Tz
yields: . 18.7(1,110 + 14.7)
::; 3.89 lb/ft3
dv ::; -v(dp/p) (6)
PI = 10.72(460 + 100)0.9
With Eq. (2) and Eq. (6), Eq. (l)becomes: Then, we evaluate the 'total resistance as follows:
Tube resistance:
" ,V2p(K dP)
-dP=g T-¡;, (7) k ::;jL/D == 0.026(20/0.0512) = 10.15
Tube entrance and éxit resistance = 1.5
Expressíng velocity in terms of weight flowrate: v = Total resistance 11.65
w/Ap; and inserting this into Eq. (7) yields:
For convenience, we will also evaluare the term:
-dp
,
=..!_(~)2_,1 (K _'dP)
gAp" 2 P.
(8) 2ln (PI/P2)iri Eq. (12) as:
2In (l.;124.7/414.7)::; 2
Inserting Eq. (5) into Eq. (8), and multiplying both
sides by 2p, we get: We can now calculate the flowrate, w" through the
completely broken exchanger tube (when the relief-
- 2p dp ::; (AW)2(h)' ('1)(
g K-
PI 2 dP)
¡; (9) valve set pressure is 400 psig) by substituting into Eq.
(12): .
In Eq. (9); pressure is the only variant. Integrating
"w = 1,335.6(0.3,77)},~11~~89 2, (1,124.7)2 - (414;7)2
Eq. (9) between two reference points in apipeliI)e: ,¡/: . + 1,124;7

-2t2pdPs:{~r(~:)(±)(~ _ 2~2 ;Y' W == 8,380 lb/h

Isothermal flow: .pipeline pressure drop
pi - pª == (~r(~:)(-i)(K + 2In~~) (10)
A convenient method for calculating pressure loss has -
been developed by others in a sequence of technical
Solving Eq. (10) for flowrate, w, lb/s, we get: papers [3,4]. _,' ,
Replacing w/A h{PIV1 in Eq, (10), multíplyíng by
l/pi, and rearranging, we get: '' "
(11)
( PI P
P2)2';" IviK + v
"- gPl gh ' "
(Pl i)21n(h)'P2 '.(13)
We convert Eq. (11) to convenient units by letting:
W = 3,600w, lb/h; A =
(d/12)Z('lTj4), where d is in.;
=
p 144P, whereP is psia; andX =jL/D. With these
expressions, Eq. (H) now becornes:
". ' " .
w= 1,335.6d2YPt/[K + 21n(PI/PZ)]X (15)
y't-:'(P=j:-_-, ",--P""'ª)-/P-l,' (12)
b.p¡j;ig the pressúreloss in steady flow, expressed in
Eq. (12) can be used to, c:alculate fíowratethrough consistent units. See Eq. (13) in Part 2 [13]. The co-
a pipe for expanding-gas flow under isothermal.condi- efficieIlt of the-logarithmic expression in Eq. (¡3) is:
'tións, provided that upstream and downstream pres- (plvi)/gPl= vi/v~ ,'.'
sures are known. •
Example !
What is the flowrate of natural. gas because:
through arrúptured exchanger' tube assurning' (I). a
127
'.

I
t

Eq. (16) is the critieal-velocity flow ex-. Eq~(18) can also 'be written as:
pressed in consistent units..
. By using Eq. (14), (15) and (16) in Eq. (13), and P2 == 1 _ CK(t:.PE) (19)
rearranging, we find: Pi· PI'
~!
.;._,(P2)2 = 2t:.PE ._
. PI Pt Ve·
(.v )\n(h)2
1
h
.,:_--

CheslerandJesser [4] introduced the followingprop-

osition: To obtain pressure loss, /),.p,. during expanding-
gas flow, multiply the steady-flow pressure Ioss, /),.PE'
by a kinetic-energy correction factor, CK:
(20)
PI - P2 = tJ.p = tJ.PE X CK (18)

...J
 -,

The original proposition of Eq. (lB) now bccornes:

(:.? 1)

where 6,P is the pressure loss rol' (,;';p;llldill~'g:IS ílow,

psi, and 6,PE, psi, is:

Eq. (22) was originally ¡m.·sclltcd as Eq. ( 17) in Part

2 of .this series [13].
In Eq. (20), vI/ve is the Mach 11 uru 1)('1. Th(' e:xpn:ssion
for the upstream gas velocitv, "1' \\ith init ial dc-nsitv,
~~
PI' is: e 0.75
O
(23) '0
31 0.70
x
The sonic velocity, ve' calculatcd wit h initial absolute UJ

pressure, PI' and initial dcnsitv, t'!, is: 0.65

Ve = 68..¡p;:¡;; (24) 0.60

The kinetic-energy correction factor. CK• in Ec¡. (21) 0.55

can be obtained from F /2, which is the graphical sol u-
tion of Eq. (20). The dimensionless r.u ios ()f j,Pf;/ p¡, 0.50
and corresponding values of (l'l/V,.)~, can be conve-
niently calculated with upstream gas conclitions. PI has k = 1.45
dimensions of psia, and CK is dimcnsionless. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Example 2-What is the overall prcssure drop in an k = 1.40
SOO-ft-Iong, well-insulated, 12-in Schedule 30 pipeline 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(d= 12.09 in, d2 146.17, d5 =
25B,:1(4)? Flowrate, = k = 1.35
W, = 250,000 lb/h of carbon dioxide having a molecu- 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
lar weight, M, == 44. Pipe inlet conditions are: p¡ = 80
k = 1.30
psia, Tl = 600oR, and viscosity, '.l, = 0.027 cp, 0.0 0.2 0.4 . 0.6 0.8 1.0
We calculate upflow gas density, p¡, from:
k = 1.25
P1 =;M.f¡/.J.0~2Tli 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

P1
= 44(80)
10.72(6nO)1
= 0.547 lb/ft'
!
Pressure ratio, ;:;,P/p¡

:.:...Source: Crane Co. and Ret , [7,8].

For steady fiow (based on upstream conditions) with Expansion factor for compressible
a friction factor off =
0.013 (for a Reynolds number, flow through nozzles.and orifices
NRe = 4.87 X 106), the pressure 105S is .found by substi-
tuting in Eq. (22). Hence:
'. .. 0.00000336(0.013)(800)(250.00W
tiPE == . (258,304)(0.547) including kinetic energy losses, will be:
~PE == 15.46 psi ~P = t1P E X CK = 15.46 X 1.18 = 18.24 psi
'Yo determine the value of CK from F/2. we must now Adiabatic flow
compute ~PE/PI and (v/ve)2:
Adiabatic flow can be assumed for flows through an
~PE/Pl = 15.46/80 = 0.193 orífice, flow nozzle or a short pipeline. In addition to
pressure change, there will be a change in temperature.
We substitute in Eq. (23) to find i' i : as:
This affects density, velocity and fiowrate. Temperature
u = 0.0509(250.000) = 159.L') fl.S change can be calculated frorn:
1 (146.17)(0.517) T3 = T (P /P¡)(k-l)/k = T¡(pjp¡)(k-U
1 2

and now substitute in Eq. (24) to find ,'c' as: The method of calculating flowrates through restric-
l.'e = 68 V80/0.547'= 82:2.;¡'i t'[ S tions and short pipelines is .identical to the rclarion
(U/vc)2 = (159.15;82:2. ).¡.j,~ == O.\.UTl expressed in Eq. (21). Without rnueh elaboratiou, ve
will develop certain procedures in wha 1 follO\\s. Ce-
Using these values, we obtain C'I{ :::: 1. la fr.un F/2. railed derivations are availahle in the li: r.uure [:J.!).
Therefore, the overall pre;isl.m~ dlóp in rh i» pipeline. *
Adiabatic llow through orífice
*Des¡~!it'r:-. otten calculate The mechanical principlcs are the sarne whether iiq-
t~srirnar\':·d- ,1\"·¡:,I1:C 'dC!1~ir_\" nnd -:u';,ld; .
qbtJ;n.g,-.e_.-11n' .uii hnu-tic "in ¡_t:i .. uid or expanding gas is flowing. In addirion, a chanuc
rhc ,¡-~,:-:"¡;,,\ll
'\,I,:ith
Eq. Cl',,!"i. L in rhe iutcrn.il energy takes place in thc expa ndi nu U::LS.
and <-1:;:. ;.¡(~-. ¡. '1'11i3 is niiccted by multiplying Darcv's equarion v

----. __<-._------.
(:HL:,-j!l :,\L L\:( ;i'\U':\" I.\{; (".'1 r( fr.U':" 1~, iq7~}
 a net expansion factor, Y:
W= WEY
where WE is:
WE = 157.66Cdo y¡;;;pf
Eq. (26) was presented as Eq. (5) in Part 3 r 14).
We will modify this equation by substituting hL :;::
144~P/ P1' and then substitute the modified equation
into Eq. (25):
W = Wo = 1,891d~CY~
where W or Wo is flowrate, lb/h; do is diameter of
. restriction, in; PI is upfíow density, lb /ft''; ~P is the
pressure difference between upflow and downflow, psi.
e is the orifice or nozzle fíow coefficient (from Fig. 1
and 4 in Part 3 [14]). Y can be obtained from F/3.
The net expansíon factor or adiabatic flow .coeffi-
cient, y, is a function of the adiabatic exponent, k :;::
cpl cv; absolute pressure ratio, ~P / PI; and the ratio
between restriction diame ter and ínside pipe diameter,
f3 :;:: do/ dl, Pl is upstream pressure, psia.
To design a pressure-reducíng orífice, we can calcu-
late its diameter from Eq. (27) as:
. . W
d; =. o , inz
1,891CyyAPPl
where ~P represents the required pressure reduction,
psi. The restriction diameter, do, is usually small com-
. pared with pipe diameter. After calculating6P/P1, we
can .obtain the value ofY from F/3 by usíng the line
for a nozzle ratio, dal dl :;::O to 0.2. We get the mechani-
cal flow coefficient, e, from Fig. 1 in Part 3 [14].
Example 3-What is the flowrate through the tube-
sheet at the place of a completely ruptured exchanger
tube? Data are the same as given -in Example 1 and
F/L
We will treat the ruptured tube as an orífice for which
do ':;::0.614in, and dl :;::24 in. Hence, f3 :;:: 0.614/24 :;::
0.026. To find the net expansion factor, y, we calculate:
AP/Pl = (1,124.7 - 414.7)/1,124.7
From F/3, we find y :;::0.79 for these valúes. Note that
k :;::1.3 (obtained from Table I in Part 1 [12]. The
mechanical flow coefficient, e, :;::0.62 from Fig. 1 of
Part 3 [14]. Substituting the appropriate 'Válues into '.
Eq. (27) and sclving..we find:
Wo:;:: 1,891{0.37_7)(0.62)(0.79)Y710(3.89).
. Wo = 18,351 lb/h·
Adiabatic flow throU~. pipé
. We will use the following equation previously devel-
oRed.as Eq. (17) in Part 2 [13]:
M = 0.00000336L(f/pd(WPd5)
w_e then let (12jL)/d:;:: K, andsólvé.Eq, (29)for
flowrate WE' lb /h. . . K=fL/D = 0.0178(20)/0.2557== 1.4
WE = 1,891d2V(APP1)/K
Using the.proposition.of Eq. (~6), Eg. ~30) becomes:
W = W" = 1,891d2YV(APPl)/K
internal diameter of pipe, in; M:;:: Pl
is the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet
points of the pipeline, psi; PI is inlet density, lb/ft3. \Ve
(25)
obtain the net expansion factor, y, from F/4.
Example 4-Let us now calculate the adiabatic flow,
rate of natural gas through the ruptured exchanger
(26)
tube for the data given in Example 1.
To find the net expansion factor, y, we evaluate:
AP/P1 = (1,124.7 - 414.7)/1,124.7 = 0.63
= 1.3 (from Table 1 in Part 1 [12])
k
K = 11.65 (calculated in Example 1)
(27) With these data, we enter F /4 and find Y = 0.765.
Inserting the appropriate values into Eq. (31) and
solving yields:
Wp = 1,891(0.765)(0.377)Y710(3.89)/11.65
W" = 8,397 lb/h
As this example demonstrates,the adiabatic flowrate
differs very little from that of isothermal flow (8,380
lb/h in Example 1). The L/D ratio is 20/0.0512 :;::390,
which is much less than the 1,000 pipe diameters previ-
ously discussed. As .it should be, the adiabatic flowrate
is greater than the isothermal flowrate,
The flowrate for sizing the relief valve, shown inF /1,
will be the flow through the restriction (Example 3) plus
(28) the flow through the ruptured exchanger tube (Ex-
ample 4):
WRV = 18,351 + 8,397 = 26,748 lb/h
Thisis also the flowrate through the relief-valve dis-
charge lineo .
Critical pressure
We can.also obtain the data for calculating the criti-
cal pressure drop, from F/3and F/ 4 at the lower end-
point of each lineo For example, in a flow nozzle where
=
f3 0.5 andk :;:: lA, F/3 gives a net expansion factor,
y = 0.698, and a pressure ratio, ~Pc/ Pl =
0047. There-
fore, the critical pressure drop is: ~Pc :;::0047PI' and the
critical downstream pressure at the point ofsonic veloc-
ity wiU be P2 :;::P1 ,....~Pc. The flowrate will not increase
= 0.63 even if downstream pressure. is decreased to less than
P2•
Example 5,.-Coke-oven gas is discharged to atmos-
pherethrough a 3-in Schedule 40 pipe (D O~2557ft, =
d2 = 9,413 i~2). The pipeline is 20-ft long and carries
gas from á vessel that has a: pressure of125 psig, Gas
properties are: molecular weight, M:;:: 12.18; tempera'-
.ture, t :;::140°F; k :;::1.4; and Pl :;::0.265 lb/fta. What
is the maximum flowrate through the line?
Actual pressure difference ~P' is 125 psi. Hence,
M IPI :;:: .125l( 125 + 14.7) :;::0.895. From Table VI in'
Part 1[12], we obtain the friction factor,1, :;:: 0.0178
for totally turbulent flow. We use this value to calculate
pipeline resistance .and total. resistance as. follows:
Pipeline resistance:
Exit.~na entrance losses = lA
. Tot:hl resistance 2.9
We enter·the chart in F/4: for k:;:: 1,4 with these
• (31) >."alues and find theirintersection falls beyond the limit-
- P2
130
ing .point of sónic velocity or critical pressure. Conse-
CHEMlCALENCIl'lEERINCOCTOBER 13.1975
1
 1.00
Limiting Faetors for
Sonie Velocity, k = l.4t
0.95
K !::..PIP, y
0.90
1.2 0.552 0.588
)... 0.85 1.5 0.576 0.606
c; 2.0 0.612 0.622
] 0.80 3 0.662 0.639
e 4 0.697 0.649
.ge 0.75 6 0.737 0.6.71
'"
Q. 8 0.762 0.685 ._,...
en 0.70 lO 0.784 0.695
15 0..818 0.702 .
0.65 20 0.839 0.710
"\'

~
,- .. 40 0.883 0.710
0.60 >~-:- .,.:; ",;. ;-',
~-
100 0.926 0.710
... -:-_."j>" -P- tk ls approximately 1.4 for air,
0.55
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
°
H2, 2,N2, CO, NO and HCI.
Pressure ratio, i;P IP,

Umiting Faetors for

Sanie Veloeity, k = 1.3*

K '. t:.PIP, y
1.2 0.525 0.612
1.5 0.550 0.631
2.0 0.593 0.635
3 0.642 0.658
4 0.678 0.670
6 0.722 0.685
8 0.750 0.698
10 0.773 0.705
15 0.807 0.718
20 0.831 0.718
40 0.877 0.718
100 0.920 0.718
'k is approxirnatelv 1.3 foroCO2,
S02' water vapor, H2S, NH~,
N20~C12; CH4, C2H2 and C2H4•
seu-ce: CraneCo. and Bet. {51 10]
Pressure.ratio, APIP,

Expansion factor for compressible flow through pipes to a larger flow area

quently, with a K value of 2.9, we must Usethe limiting References

factors for sonie velocity for which I1Pc/ PI = 0.66 and L Kennan,.}, H.,J. Appl. Mech., Vol. 6, All-20, A135-136 (1939).
Y=Q~ . 2.Lapple, C. E., lsothermal and Adiabatic Flow of Compressible Fluids,
The critical prc;:ssuredrop will be: Trans. AIChE, Vol. 39, 385-428 (1943). . .
3.: Lobo, W. E;, Fried, L. and Skaperdas, G. T., Pressure Drop in the Flow
¡).pe = 0.66P = 0.66(125 + 14.7) = 92,2
l
'of Compressible Fluids, [nd. Eng. Chem., Vol. 34, No. 7,821-823 (1942).
·4:' Chesler, S. and Jesser, ·B. W., Pressure Drop for Flow of Compressible
Fluids in Pipes, Appendix to Paper No. 51-SA·18, ASME, New York.
The critical downstream pressure, P2, just before the 5. Dodge, B. F., "Chernical Engineering Thermodynamics," McGraw·Hill s .
=
.end oí the pipeline,·is 125 - 92.2 32.8 psig. We now New York, 1944.
6. Shapiro, A. H" "The Dynamics and Therrnodynarnics of Compressible
calculare the maximum ftowrate through the 3-in pipe Fluid Flow," Ronald Press, New York, 1954.
by using Eq. (31): . 7. "Fluid Meters, Part 1," ASME, New York.
8... Cunningham, R. G., Orifice Meters with Supercritical Compressible Flow,
Wp = 1,891(9.413)(0.64) V92.2(0.265)/2.9 Paper No. 50-A-45, ASME, New York.
9. Smith, E. Se, Trans.ASME, Vol. 52, HYD 52:7b, 89-109.
Wp = 33,067 Ib/h ;JO. Flow of Fluid Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, Technical Paper No.
410, Crane Co., Chicago. .
Atthe end of pipelineswhere sonit velocities Can b~ 11. Smith,.B., Charts Used for Easier Pipe Sizing,·Hydrocarbon·PTocess., May
expected, application of a silencershould be considered. 1969. .
12. Kern, R., Chem. Eng., Dec. 23, 1974, p. 58.
The next article in this serieswill appearto the issue 13. Kern, R., Chem.Eng., Jan. 6, 1975, 115.p.
ofNov. lQ, 1975, and will deal with the major aspects ,d4: Kern, R., ehem: E"g., Feb.3, 1975, p. 72.
of pipingdesign for process plants. .., 15. Kern, R., Ch'm. Eng., June 23, 1975, p. 145.

132 .
<:;HEMlCAL ENGINEERING OCTOBER ,13, 1.975
I

I
.~

•Pipe systems for pro

Integration of process flows, equipment, instruments and controls
with an economical and functioning piping system depends onthe
use of systematic procedures for plant layout and piping designo

Robert Kern, Hoffmann - La Roche Inc.*

o The piping design of chemical process plants is a
collective effort that depends on successfully' dove-
tailing the activities of a great number of specialists
within an engineering/ design organization. The
smoothness 'and effectiveness of this operation depend,
to a great extent, on the hydraulic-systems designer.
Since piping design and associated activities are the
<. most complex part of plant design, let us examine the
major aspects for such design by answering the follow-
~g: . ..
1~What information is required for system and pip-
ing design?
2. How is.this information used by the hydraulic-sys-
. tems designer? .. .,. . balances; process flows (flowrates, specific gravities, mo-
3. What information is produced by systemand pip-
. ing engineers for the design and.construction.of a pro-
cess plant? !
The information flow for these procedures is outlined
in Fig. 1 (F/1). Whether one engineer, or an organiza-
tion having specialized departments, develops much of
this information makes no difference in the steps neces-
~ary",fordeveloping the piping and plant designo
.....
Information Required
To design the hydraulic systems, we need the follow-
lng kinds of information: ..
> 1. Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is the basic plan of an
industrial planto It shows how and what type of process
. equipment are used and interconnected with pipelines.
lt usually provides data on flow, material and energy
lecular weights, pressures, temperatures and viscosities)._.
. Generally, the PFD presents essential process-design re-
 t
J
quird
Instrument Symbol:;
PFDJ
FRC Flow recorder/controller 2·1
lG Level gage equip
PI Pressure indicator , eonstí
PRC Pressure recorder/cnntruller
TI Temperature indicator holes!
TR Temperature recorder sizes;!
TW Temperature well
menu
Other'Symbols
fLG'1 CW Cold Water
temp
\!!_)
DR Drain cluck
M Motor-driven pump equir
O Oíl
RV Reliel valve ginee
T Turbine-driven pump 3. ¡
00 all pipelínes, the coding tatiol
indicates type 01 fluid f1ow- eall';

P-IOO
\_,
,236,'~3gpH1
. ing, '¡¡ne number .and size, and
materials .specifications (Al,
the ¿
tion
-- 60¡900 Ib/h
33.5/hlft3
B1, ete.). pcr
pone
a. Process Ilow diaqrarn man
proc
Fl2i
Ir
. ~.... ro ATM.
I
eros:
grar
Cl 4.
~::::- basi
~
Spe

eng
•
anq

erai
•
sun
low
des
me
sys:
piF
t
acc
r=
la}:
dlí

an

otl
lis:
.1
quirements. A process description also supplements the
PFD. A typical portion of a PFD isshown as F/2a.
2. ProcessEquipment Data enumerare dctails about the
equipme~t used, such as sizc and rype; rnaterials of
eónstruction; operating descriptions: manholcs, hand-
holes, and process, utilitv and instrurncnt nozzles,and
sizes;.auxiliary eq~ipme~t and devices,special require-
.ments; and design, test and operating prcssures and
temperatures. References lo manufacturers are also in-
cluded on equipmentdat~l shcers.Thc PFD and process
e<;luipmentdata are usually workcd out by process en-
gmeers.
3.· Process ControlDiagram (peD) shows the instrumen-
tation requirements of thc proccss plant, such as 10-
eally-mounted and board-rnounrcd instrumenta, and
the connections betwcen lhe clcments 01' instrumenta-
tion loops. Instrumentatio!1 data sheets supplernent the
PCD and provide details 01" the iristrurncntation com-
porients, such as types of cquiprncm. dimensiona and
manufacturers; and details (JI' iustrument locations at
process vessels. A typical pan 01' a peD is shown as
F/2b.
Instrument symbols identifv, and a number system
cross-referencés: (a) the peD, (b) engineering fíow dia-
grams, and (e) piping drawinus.
4. Piping Design Speatications describe a company's
basic requirementsconcerninu p"ipingand.plant designo
Speeificationsgenerally applv to:
• Development, prescruution and intcrpretation of
engineering flowdiaarams: pipeline designation tables,
andmaterials of.construction.
• Design of process,utilitv ami auxiliary piping; op~
.erating i;.lnd_ safety C(~q(J.i!¡;>ns:_albwa.blc
design pres-
sures and temperatures: piping material, corrosión al-
lowanee, wall thicknesscs,and insulation requirernents;
desírable unit losses: piping-and-components sizing
methods. Valving is an important pan of hydrauIi~-
systems designoTableI (T;I) showsa typical page?fa
piping-design specificationfor valving. . Line sizesare given, and locations of sizeand speeifiea-
• Mechanical plant-dcsiun requirements; clearance,
accessheadroom, operutiou. rnaintcnance, grading and
paving requirernerus: eCOIlOITl"andrnethods of plant
layout and graphic pipín¡; desiun: .rnechanioal han"':'" piping-layout designer those lines that need special at-
dling requirements. and associatedequiprnent. . .•.•.. '.
It is essential for a11cnginccrs and designers to read
,andbe familiarwith a coinpanv's specifícations.i; •.ti'
5. National Standards, Coln and Sptá/icatio~ can be un}
othér information sourú: lur the piping designer.. TIÚ
'liststhe most importan!. CS. public3tiQns. Codes p~i-~
mariIy outline desit;ll f('(luin:ments and ·constructioh·
details for piping s\"telO", St<mdards give piping, fii:
tings and valve dimenslOlls;. materiaIs, pressure,.and'
···.témperature .rating:;.S!l<1;ltiGllionsd~cribe m<lieI"i~I~.·. .be cl<!arlyindicated (Jng&Is..•.....". .. <. ,\.
. for~~ernanufactun;i1.·tplpc,.m\d htting~.... e- ,:', >1:)-
...
l Ptoject Desil!TIDa:,l pm"'tdc.!litecOriditio~~:.~;~Ú-' .are not ir-terested in proeess data,. thes(!lines are IÍ()t' ,..
abl¿ cooIing-watcr {cm¡xr;tturn;available 01' require~)'
steam, brine, fue! l,ik ct,,~.data, '~ations and dis~'
.'.tances from feed an.d pt:nduCl_,Storag~.tanks are given.
Asite plan isincluutJ hctt •.u neccssary, with clima~ic .
<;op:clitions, averagcwtntcr .tnd .5UIllmer temperatures,
·¡rain· and sno\"taU qUilnhucs, seaS(}l1al· tem,pera!úte' '.
:'~::i~.
'
:\;·;0;)"':"·' ,. <r,' _LiKi'
'...':".........._-:::-:=-::-:..;.;;:;,;..;__--..;.:::.:~---'---"'"'-"-
source. These are compiled by contractors and owners
to record useful data, preferred design methods and
procedures, past operating experience affecting design;
and descriptions of actual experience with processes,
I
!
equipment and plants. f
Manufacturers' catalogs and reports give informa- r
tion about the latest developments and .available
equipment. Design data in manufacturers' catalogs can
be used at the preliminary stages of designoAt the final
stages, certified data and drawings of process equip-
ment. are required.
8. Plot Plan gives the physical relationships between
process equipmenr in plan and elevation. With this
drawing, the line léngth and assessmentsof pipe config-
uration can be made for pipe-sizing, control-valve and
pump calculations. A conceptual or proposed plot plan
can be developed from the PFD, process equipment
data, andproject design data ..
Design of hydraulic systems
For a smal! plant, .the process-flow, process-control
and engineering-flow sheets can be produced by a
single chemical engineer. The volume of work for de-
signinga large chemieal plant, however, requires an or-
ganization with departments of specialized skills.
Piping and Instrumentation flow diagrams (P&Is) are the
baste doeuments for final plant layout.andgraphic pipo
ing designoThe hydraulic-systems designer prepares the
P&Is from documents available and supplied to him.
When piping drawings are cheeked, theP&Is should
be complete in all minute details, P&Is should show all
necessarynotations and instructions so that the graphic
pipingdesigner can produce areliable and economical
piping layout. A section of a P&I is shown as F/2e.
The P&Is consolidare in one set of drawings the PFD
and=the PCD. P&Is show all pipinginterconnections
between processequipment, components, pipelines and
manifolds, utility and auxiliary piping connections.
tion changes are indicated. AH vaIves (including type)
are showriwíthproper loeations in the pipelines.
The piping-systems engineer should.indicate to the.
tention.These are:
a. Minimum~length fines or circuits.For example, length
of a transfer line on one hand, and a closed compressor
circuir on.the other (noting where the compressor suco:
tion begins). . . •••••.
< .'
b; Gravíty-jioUJ línes. Mostofthese. lines arereadily ree~
ognized (for example, pump suetibns qrcondenser out-
Iets). DiÍtlensions of sealloops in gravity:flow lines, '.'
sloping lines, and pocket~free gravity-fl?~lines should
. .•....
c: :1'wo~phase jiow lZnésVSirité most)ayqritdesigner~
readily reeognizetl; If the.systems designe¡-indicates the ....
line '!Vhefe'shig flow is possible, wheI'eivaporization
takes¡ pl(J.~e,or wher<::two-phase flow·!~~sts,.a mo~e .<-
careful ~t)-ldy,Iayouri·and piping desigJ)X:~anbe pro~ .....
duced: ,/ .. .. \. , ':;' . >;':>
'.d.,~Y"_l;netricalpipednes.,;these.are.req~ih;dfor evel1:"
···········'211
 ~;é~~
·f
~.:

.~

Tvpical design specifications for valving

Block valves shall be provided in the waterfnfet and outlet of exchanqer units when the exchangers
are provided with process isolation valves .for frequent inspection and Cleaning duríng operatíon of the
unit. In freezing cíimates, an antifreeze bvpass from the inlet to the outlet ptping (or other means] to
prevent freezing shal! be furníshed.
Block valves shall be 'provided at the following locations. in purnp, turbina, and cornpressor
piping:
O ln suction and discharge pipinq to purnps.
O At the équipment in auxilíarv piping for gland oil, flushi~g oil, and cooling water.
O At the header in overhead water-supply branches located outdoors in freezing climates.
O In all auxíliary piping when .necessary to allow removal of the equipment duríng
operation of the unit. "-
Block valves shall be provided at the following locations in steam piping:
O At.equiprnentjnstearn pipinq to steam-driven equipment.
O Upstream of control valves that are .spared (sep¡u:ate control valves furnished
standbys).
O At equipment in pressure exhaust-steam piping from steam-driven equipment.
O Adjacent toequipment in vacuum exhaust-steam piping frorn steam-driven equipment
when the equipment may be shutdown tor sustained periods during operation of
the unit.
Utilíty svsterns shall be provided with valves at service connections. WhelÍ a distribution svstern is
used tor water or for steam, a Block valve shall be furnished at the header.
Block valves shall be provided and located as required for bleed and aeration systems.
A block valve shall be provided in the rnain line of fuel-oil and fuel-gas piping to fired heaters, to be
located remote from the equipment, and be accessible forrapid operation in an emergency.
Block valves shall be provided for piping leaving and entering a building.
, . .

Two block valves wítha bleeder ora resilient double-seated valve.with body bleeder shallbe provided
in piping connectíng systerns.in services in which contamination cannot be tolerated. .

q INhen stearn svstems are connected to process <services and are operated at él
pressure than the process service, ene block valve shall be furnishedr-
Valving 61' operating ventand drain connections shall be as follows:
[J Services with ANSI ratings'600 psi or less: single blockvalve.
O Services with ANSI ratings 900 psi or over: single globe valve.
OUi:¡uid hvdrocarbon services vylth a vapor
block valves, ':
Ó Caustic services: ~ingle globe (~ég'tonly) or
Va(vingatsample ?onnections shallbe asíonows:
O Setvices with ANSlratings 300 psí oríess: single block valve.
O Services with ANSI ~atings 400~siovér: single globe valve .
•....
.OLi(¡lJid hydroc:arbOn· vapor
. t block valves; '.
 here can reduce initial and makeup catalyst quan- National piping eodes, f'f'\
tities). standards and speeifications V
1\t the final stages of design, the P&Is are usually re-
viewed by the plant operators for adequacy in valving,
ANSI Code for Pressure Piping:
instrumentation and pipe interconnections necessary
B31.1 - Power Piping
for operating, startup and shutdown. B31.2 - Fue! Gas Piping
P&Is, layout studies ando plot plans are simulta- 831.3 - Petroleum Refinery Piping
neously developed, and the final drawings released for 831.4 - Oil Transportation Piping
piping layout and detailing. 831.5' - Refrigeration Piping
Utility-Flow Diagrams are supply and return systems 831.6 - Chemical Plant Piping (In Preparation)
for steam, cooling water, process water, brine, conden- 831.7 - Nuclear Power Piping
sate, air, nitrogen, etc. From the start of a project, these 831.8 - Gas Transmission and Distribution.
are produced as engineering fiow diagrams, except oc- ANSI Standards:
casionally for steam, when an elaborate systerrrmight 816.5 - Steel Pipe Flanges
require a steam-energybalance. B16.9 - Steel Butt-Weldinq Fittings
Sinceprocesspiping interconnects equipment in a se- 816.28 - Steel Short Radius Fittings
quence, equipment arrangement usually does not in- 836.10 - Welded and Seamless Steel Pipe
fiuence its orientation. In contrast, utility-flow dia- 836.19 - Stainless Steel Pipe
grams must be drawn to a plot plan, so that leads to lssued by:
equipment connect in a plot-arrangement sequence to American National Standards Institute
utility headers. Otherwise, fiowrates in these pipe sec- 1430 Broadway
tions cannot be realisticallyestimated. New York, NY10018
Utility supply is controlled at sensing points in the
process piping. Supply and return leads usually have
. valves at the terminating points on the process vessels. Section I ~ Power Boílers
These valves, instruments and control loops are shown Section 1I - Material Specifications
Section 1II - Nuclear. Vessels
on the P&Is (for example, the steam-supply control
Sectiop__Vlll- Unfired Pressure Vessels
valve to a reboiler). In addition, valves are often re-
quired at the header (as shown on the utility-flow
sheetsj-sespeciallywhen a number of leads have to be The American Soco of Mechanical Engineers
provided.. 345 East 47th Sto
Utility headers are usually sized.with unit. losses in New York, NY 10017
decimals of 1 psi. Leads are sized with the available
pressure differencebetween supply and return points at
the header.
Flow Diagram Symbols. The piping and instrumenta-
tion syrribolsare the alphabet of all fiowdiagrams. Pip-
ing symbols usually represent the various valves and
components in the lineo Fittings are indicated where
they have significancefor processand piping designoA
few examples are: a cap .at the end of a header, a re-
ducer or increaser at changes in line size,fianges.where
pipe sections have to be removed, and swing.elbows
where alternate tie-in connectionsare required." .....
Instrument .syrnbols and interconnecting line desig-
nations have .been issued by the Instrument Soco of
America [1]. These symbolsindicate location of sensing
elements; local and board-mounted instruments; pres-
sure-, temperature-, fiow-'and 'level-controlloops; and
the instrumentation hardware in the pipeline......•. ...
Ir all the equipment, pipelines and symbols are
.shown on theoverall and detailed design of.a process
having automatic and manual control,' plant startup
and shutdown can be understood and evaluated v-.
[Graphic piping-design symbols have been issúed.by
ASME but are not widely accepted by rhe oil=and
chemical industries. Contractors and owners Usetheir
own piping symbols..These are identical.to a gr~~t ex-
tent amongthe various companies.] ......;..
A Pipeline List is prepared for severalreasons: tosup-
ply a complete record of pipeline data; t() provide a .
.checklist for material takeoff; to cross-referpncypiping
details;.plans, elevations .~nd ~ow díagráIn~; ~~)()cate
•....
• _o, " ,.,,' • • " -',' "', ." .... ,' " ~_ " • -';:'J. ,. " .
 (use F/5 inPart 9, Chem. Eng., Aug. 4,1975, p. 111). series
To avoid vaporization in a hot liquid line, a positive 15,l~
statichead can provide additional pressure to keep the Ele
liquid subcooled, An example of these conditions is or on
shown in F 13. Flashing through the orifice (and control ers al
valve) can be avoided with a static liquid column eleva'
Static ahead of the orifice. If the orífice is as close to the vessel be no
head
required aspossible, and if the piping up to the control valve has
Equípment I
1
onlyone elbow, we wiU need the minimum equipment Ecol
elevation elevation, orifice range and Iine length. To meet such Ec(
I Minimum conditions, we can eleva te a tower; drum or exchanger. maril
. Grade I elevation eon t iOI to de
'''r'·~-::·:-..''''\,~
$.\.""''Z\,<:.\.«'''''''·::........... . ipe"
o f pi - ,valve When vapor and Iiquid have to be separated, the va-
"Minirnum 31 D with' 2 'or 3 elbows. por-collecting drum is elevated, as shown in F/4. For sisten
Mínimum 14 D with 1 elbow (if h;;; 6D) example, the steam drum on a pyrolysis furnace (F / 4a) than'
collects the steam generated by the waste-heat boiler. Á Even
Static head before orífice prevents vaporization similar arrangement prevails for steam generated in a pone!
furnacé-heating coi!. In another exarnple, the elevated comp
steam drum (F/4b) prevents steam frorn collecting in This··
top of reactor jacket, and thus avoids overheating it. bling
~ricated pipes on drawings; and to place pipelihes in In F15, we.find a vapor-disengaging drumjhat is overl-
__iation to the processequipment, .' . placed over the heaters. Here, the liquid .level in .the waste
From the: line list, the specialist in pipe support and drum keéps the exchanger tubes fíooded, and the vapor waste
flexibility can obtain temperature and wall-thickness . space in the drum prevents excessive Iiquid carryover sults ¡
data. The metallurgist can verify chosen materials of in the vapor-outlet line .. This drum must be elevated andr
fabrication. Using ternperature data, insulation thick- over the -exchangers .and can: be mounted .directly on An
ness can be determined. For relief-valve sizirig, rhe de- the exchanger nozzles. . signer
signer can find what fluid is flowing, and the alternate Elevation .requirernents for proeess vessels to meet plant
pressures in the line under normal, máximum, test and pump NPSH, -relative distances between reboilers and tweer
emergency .:conditions, Frorn the list, the piping de- towers, and elevations for condensérs and reflux drums WI
signer can find the appropriate P&I; andthe construc- .. have already been discussed in Parts 6,9 and 10 of this ity ce
tion foreman can locate a fabricated, delivered and ' sure (
identifíed line on one of the 'piping drawings. signe:
grapl
Equipment elevations .'. t .1i lic-sy:
The systems designerworks out aÍl equipment eleva- bendi
tions, static-head pressure requírements, elevation dif- Pif
ferences between process equipment;: and elevation dif- from
ferences between the starting and terminating points of, ter sc;:
a pipeline; This is also essential 'information for plant' esserr
layout and piping designo . befar
.For unhouséd process units, the most ecoñomical.Io-j, contr
catiori for ..process equiprnent is usually at grade ..The); calcíí
units seldom require a structure; construction is easy;· ,. Fo
most valves and instrumenta can be made- accessible .. oppo
from grade; and operation and maintenance are conve-i" sign.;
nient and safe. . . .•......
. -.. plant
Minimum skirt heights for towers vary frorn 3 tof ft/ desig;
.for towers ranging from 2 to 12 ft dia., and having bot1:V"
tom ternperatures of 100 to 400 F. Higher tempera?;i. 0
Pip~.
tures (or cryogenic ternperatures) require the·addition%; . TIC
of 1.or 2 ft to these heights in order to avaid thé trans- tia14
missionofunduly high (or low) teinperattires to the~::; conn!
foundation oi supporting steel. Drums arid exchangers;i~\ threel'
.are·usually· elevated 1to 4Ji: frorrl grade to the bottom;/ dra~'
..... o,, oftheunit,depending.ondiameter, size and valvingJonh\ (1) ¡J';
the bottom-outlet piping. '> . o > (3)¡:f
When.. a pressure •..difference between fWo I?ieces of.'.
process equipment .is not '.available, gnivity flow ig']:', ce!1;1;
'caIled for.; The elevadón dif1erencé betw~n the eqúip~i~i" tabiíl~
ment wHI. be determined by pipe, fi!tings and valvé'i, that-~;
resistaIlces:, .. . ,:,.,. •. :.: • .. / ,;y plán{;:
, •.Gravity:flow lin~ faJl, pe
sized. forve!ocities similar.:,,'
,'..-•.,..···to}hos~for pump-su~.tio~'pr reboiler~do~comer liI!es....
A~~
spact!~
::',
~ -J.;>--'
.
,'-. ,~:".,:

..;_: ;~:.: =::~,:.,--_--;. "._.

'+::>" :.;/,.,.- .. ·il
 series (Chem. Eng., Apr. 28,1975, Aug. 4,1975 and Sept.
15,1975). ,
Elevation requirements should be noted on the P&Is,
or on data sheets so that the layout and piping design-
ers are fuIly aware of them. Similarly.vif equipment is
elevaied for layout reasons, the process engineer should
be notified.
Econorny ofsystems design
, Economy of piping and components depends pri-
marily on the skill of the engineer. A rational approach
to design development, systernatic methods, and con-
sistent data usage will yield far more reliable results
than intuitive judgments and rule-of-thurnb decisions.
Even with rational methods, calculated pipe and com-
ponents sizes end up oversized because piping and Disengagirig drum is supported on
- 'components are manufactured to standard.increments. éxchanger nozzles
This provides a .fairly safe and wlde latitude in assem-
bling.a process-piping system. However, the selection of
overly sized pipe, components and equipment is a shown, large and critical pipelines are routed, space for
waste of money. On the other hand, undersized systems main pipebanks is indicated, all equipmentand major
waste energy, if they work at al!. Undersizing often re- structures are located .and dimensioned, and .control-
sults inchariges to design, fabrication and construction, valve locations are given. Generally, all plant compo-
and tewórk, all of which are expensive. nents that occupy space should be shown on a layout
.Ó: .Ari important activity of a hydraulic-systems de- study in a well-organized manner. At this time, the
signer should be consultation with other specialists of most essentiallayout requirement is met-cproviding ac-
plant designo There must be a full understandirig be- cess space and access aisles for operating, maintaining
tween process and system designers. and constructing the planto .
When large and expensive piping is sized, when util- When released for detail design, layout studies
ity cost is high per unit loss, and when available pres- should be presented in a way that all disciplines can
sure differentials are limited, the hydraulic-systems de- work simultaneously and independently, and produce
signer mus! obtain a dimensioned sketch frorri the detailsthat wili not interfere with eachother when the
graphic piping designer. From this sketch, the hydrau- plantisbuilt. At this point ofdesign development, a fi-
_ lic-systems desjgne(,can. suggest . the elimination of nal plot plan is.drawn and.jfrequired, a .model is built,
bends and offsetsfor saving capital and utility costs, The next step is the production of constructíon draw- .
. Pipelines can be much longer than ene may estimate ings-including piping plans and 'isorrietrics, This is
from a plot plan. These lines can often be simplified af- large-scale operation in contrast tó thé work of the
ter sorne discussion with interested specialists, It is also single individual at the conceptl design phase and, gen-'
essential to obtain pump data from the pump specialist erally, to the two to four designers during the develop-
before calculating pump differentials, and to establish ment oflayout studies, .. ,
control-valve types with the instrument engineer before For' effective piping design and detailing, all infor-
calculating their sizes. '. matiozi'presented on engineering-flow diagrams, design
Forsubstantial capital-cose reduction, there is mote " " data; specifications, manufacturera' drawings, plot,'
opportunity during the process-developrnent and dé~i . plants and structural drawings must be' final. For ex";
sign phases (and during the mechanical-design and.: ample.iduringthe layout-study phase, the addition of
plant-layout phases) than during the hydraulic-systenis pressui~ or temperature point in a .pipeline will cost ••' ........•
design phase. . . nothing: During piping detailing, the same change can •.•....
'j.
. .'
cost as much as desígning and detailing the pipeline, in ; .
Piping desigIJ... .' .' '. (.' additiónto delays in making fabrication drawings. '.
.'•.....•...•
'Í'he pipiug designer has that exceptional .and esse9.,.}. ,.,' ~-,>: ;-.;.<:; ,:-,::',,-'
.tial talentto be able to visualize squi~ment andinter-: '0'
connecting piping presented.: on tlow diagrams .as<,~
iliree-dimensional plant, ando lO represent this on á l .. Ins~cmtation S}'ll1b61sand Ide~tification, Standard ISA.~5.1, Instru •.•.••.,'
ment SocoofAm~rica, Pitt~burgh, Pa., 1968. ., • ". i. :. ...:."...
:clra'VÍng.Pipin? d~~igll,i.s.executedin.}hree m~in stei>s:!T 2. Heitner; l.; Sorne Typícal F16v.:Shee~ and How~~ ~.;..., Petrol. Rt< >
finer,Oct ..1963. . . . .., ". ..... •. . ..
'.(1)láyoQ:r studles, (2}plpin~. plarlsan~ elevattons, aIl~
. <ª) piping details (,íwmetncSI: ;":. . ,;:, <O\;j,
.} The layout designc..rnl{)rQlna~esspeClficatlons; pro~
·éess~..project and equlpment. dOlgn d~ta; and well-es'"
\.tablished design practico too produce"a layout study
, .that informs aH disciplin~ 01' the phys!caLfeaturés'ofa

~...;~1~1:thissta~e,lpe~etf~Ü'~ all~·,tt~riOmiC<ll·.
'úse'~L';';
determil1cd... !:ilflJtl\1l"3;l..steel •.outlines •.
->J >,>".;' __'
are;
i'.~-,:.;~.:<