School of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Jain Global Campus, Kanakapura Taluk - 562112
Ramanagara District, Karnataka, India

2017-2018

A Technical Seminar Report on

“MATERIALS USED IN INSULATION ACCORDING TO IS/IEEE STANDARDS”

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
E L EC TR I C AL AN D E L EC TR O NI C S ENG I N E ERI NG

Submitted by

ANIRUDH B (14BT1EE006)
AVADHANAM SAI KUMAR (14BT1EE046)
VIJETH GV(14BT1EE034)
VINAYAKA E(14BT1EE035)
MAHESH WADI(13BT6EE010)

Under the guidance of

Assistant Professor
Nagendra. K
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
School of Engineering & Technology
Jain University
School of Engineering & Technology
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Jain Global campus
Kanakapura Taluk - 562112
Ramanagara District
Karnataka, India
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the technical seminar work titled “MATERIALS USED IN INSULATION
TECHNOLOGY” is carried out by Name1 (USN), a bonafide student of Bachelor of Technology
at the School of Engineering & Technology, Jain University, Bangalore in partial fulfillment for the
award of degree in Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering, during the
year 2017-2018.

Mr. Guide Dr. V Muralidhara

Assistant/Associate Professor HOD,
Dept. of EEE, Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
School of Engineering & Technology, School of Engineering & Technology,
Jain University Jain University
Date: Date:

NAME
USN

Name of the Examiner

Signature of Examiner

1.

2.
ABSTRACT
A detailed report on insulation technology and its method of use in rotating machines such
as motors and generators. History of insulation technology, formation of IEC/IEEE
standards and the specific tests on insulators According to IEC/IEEE standards.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a great pleasure for us to acknowledge the assistance and support of a large number of
individuals who have been responsible for the successful completion of this project work.
First, I take this opportunity to express our sincere gratitude to School of Engineering &
Technology, Jain University for providing us with a great opportunity to pursue our Bachelor’s
Degree in this institution.
In particular we would like to thank Dr. ……………, Director, School of Engineering &
Technology, Jain University for his constant encouragement and expert advice.
It is a matter of immense pleasure to express our sincere thanks to Dr. …………………… , Head
of the department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Jain University, for providing right
academic guidance that made our task possible.

I would like to thank our guide …………………….., Associate / Assistant Professor, Department
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Jain University, for sparing his/her valuable time
to extend help in every step of our project work, which paved the way for smooth progress and
fruitful culmination of the project.

I would like to thank our Technical Seminar Coordinator…………………….and all the staff
members of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for their support.
I also grateful to our family and friends who provided us with every requirement throughout the
course.
I would like to thank one and all who directly or indirectly helped us in completing the Project work
successfully.

Signature of Student

NAME
USN

HISTORY OF INSULATION TECHNOLOGY

 Electricity, one of the most important inventions of the modern age, is an
indispensable ingredient in modern life. Behind that technology lies a fascinating history.
This paper presents a historical survey of wiring systems used in late- nineteenth- and
early-twentieth-century American buildings. It was compiled primarily from a series of
electric-wiring and electricians' manuals from the period, available to the public in a largely
unknown basement archive at the John Crerar Library at the University of Chicago. The
period from 1890 to 1930 was one of constant and entrepreneurial innovation in the
electrical industry, including the development of many schemes of merit that were never
widely adopted.
Thus, many branches of the electrical revolution are not mentioned here but certainly
warrant further re- search. When electricity came into use, it was seen as heralding a
solution to all the problems of gas lighting, as it neither flickered, smelled, nor smoked. In
ex- change, however, electricity did bring the very real risk of fire, and due to un- reliable
distribution of power and poor wire insulation in its early years, fires were common, if not
occasionally expected.
A constant push was made to develop better insulation and distribution practices
that would allow electricity to be a consistently safe method of providing power for the
needs of daily life. Wiring Systems Electricity was, at first, a toy for the rich. One of the
first men to have it installed in his home was banker J. P. Morgan in 1882. Ironically,
Morgan's personal library also became one of the first interiors to burn due to an electrical
fire. By 1900, however, an increasing number of buildings had electrical wiring retrofitted
into their existing structures or, in the case of new buildings, installed from the start. By
1915 only eight percent of America's homes had electricity. Those that did were most often
in town or urban settings, where electricity companies had been extending their reach.
Types of Insulation From the beginning, copper was used for electrical wires because it
was known to be the best conductor; it was relatively inexpensive and available in
sufficient quantities to be used by the burgeoning industry.
Early electrical experiments were done with bare copper wires in inventor Thomas Alva
Edison's laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey, in 1879, but the system burned out before
even lighting up the light bulb.
Thus, some type of insulation around the wires seemed necessary. Aside
from keeping the strength of the electrical current intact, insulation helped protect the
wires from damage. There were many additional demands placed on insulation: heat and
chemical resistance, abrasion resistance, durability, strength, and malleability. No material
available in the late nineteenth century or first decades of the twentieth century had all of
those traits, so many different products were developed for different needs, costs, and
situations.
Rubber insulation was perhaps the most commonly used insulation
because of its wide acceptance by code officials, its relative durability, its suitability to
situations where dampness might be a problem, as well as its superb flexibility. However,
even in the early twentieth century, rubber was known to have a short life span about 25
years and could only handle temperatures of up to 120°F. Rubber also had a tendency to
degrade when exposed to the oils that were often used in other electrical components. The
first National Electrical Code, released in 1897, required that rubber insulation be at least
20 percent rubber by composition.
All of the above material mentioned are natural insulators and had a lot of disadvantages.
The selection of electrical insulation systems for electrical machines has always been
dependent on the materials available, their cost, the technical needs of the electrical
machine application, and the relative costs of the several manufacturing processes
available at the time. In the early years of the industry,there was a near total reliance on
naturally occurring materials, and much trial and error experimentation to find systems
that met minimum design criteria.
The first insulators which were used consisted of materials that were then common
in industry for other uses. These included natural fibers of cellulose, silk, flax, cotton, wool,
and, later, asbestos. The fibers were used both as individual strands for applications such
as wire servings, in groups of strands for support ties, and in combined forms as in
nonwoven papers and woven cloths.
Natural insulator are usually derived from trees, plants, and insects, and
petroleum deposits, and were used in combination with the fiber forms to make insulating
materials.

Disadvantages of natural insulators

Causes health problems for those working with it.
Due to this factor they are banned in some countries
High risk of wear and tear.
As the quality of the electric machines improved, we soon realized that the naturally
occurring insulators had less durability and hence came to its uses reduced .We realized
the quality of insulators must increase in order to meet the expectations of the of the
improved quality of the machines.So then came the EARLY SYNTHETICS .
Early synthetics
The history of synthetic products for insulation started with the work of Dr. L. H. Baekeland
in 1908.
This led to the development of a workable and reproducible process for the production of
phenol–formaldehyde resins that were used to make many types of electrical products.
Although “Bakelite” was formerly a trade name, in contemporary usage it describes the
broad variety of condensation products of phenols and cresols with formaldehydes that
grew out of Baekeland’s work (“phenolics”).

Examples for early synthetics included:-

New alkyds that were used to replace both and to blend with the natural resins in many
applications ( Semi-Synthetics).
Varnishes (New equipment finishes and insulating varnishes in solvent solutions found
use in many rotating machines).
Other early synthetics included (polyvinyl chloride, urea–formaldehyde, acrylic,
polystyrene and nylon and melamine–formaldehyde (1939).
Further research in this field led to discoveries such as Polyesters and
polyethylene's, fluorocarbons and silicones, polyurethane, polypropylene,
polycarbonate.
An important discovery after world war gave us the film insulation which is made up of
polyethylene glycol terephthalate or PET.

PLASTICS
In 1950, insulation engineers started to investigate the proliferation of new materials made
with synthetic plastic films and, later, polymer-fiber-based nonwovens, being offered by
suppliers as slot, turn, and phase insulation for random-wound induction motors.
The new materials offered the potentials of lower costs, better performance, and ease of
manufacture.

List of a few insulating materials

A.B.S.: Acrylonitrile, butadiene, and styrene combine to form this common plastic often used to
make housings or other mechanical parts.

ACETATE: Acetates have good electrical insulating properties and is the material used to make
movie and microfilm.

ACRYLIC: Lucite and Plexiglas are trade names for acrylic which has widespread use where
toughness and transparency are required. Solvent cement is quite effective for welding pieces
together.

BERYLLIUM OXIDE: A hard white ceramic-like material used as an electrical insulator where high
thermal conductivity is required. Beryllium oxide is highly toxic in powder form and should never
be filed or sanded and consequently has fallen out of common use. Power semiconductor heat
sinks can still be found with beryllium oxide spacers for electrical insulation.

CERAMIC: Ceramics are used to fabricate insulators, components, and circuit boards. The good
electrical insulating properties are complemented by the high thermal conductivity.

DELRIN: This DuPont acetal resin is made from polymerized formaldehyde and finds uses similar
to nylon. The material is rigid and has excellent mechanical and electrical properties making its
use common in appliances and electronics.

EPOXY/FIBERGLASS: This laminate is quite common due to its superior strength and excellent
electrical properties even in humid environment. Most modern circuit boards are made from a
grade of epoxy/fiberglass. (Grades include G10/FR4 and G11/FR5 extended temperature grade.)

GLASS: Glass insulation comes in a wide variety of forms including solid glass, fiber tapes,
fiberglass sheets and mats, woven tubing and cloth, and various composites. High temperature
operation is a key feature.
KAPTON: Polyimide film has exceptionally good heat resistance and superb mechanical and
electrical properties. Kapton tapes are fairly expensive but often indispensable.

KYNAR: As is Teflon, Kynar is a floropolymer with excellent chemical and abrasion resistance. It
is readily machined and welded.

LEXAN and MERLON: These polycarbonates have excellent electrical insulating properties.
Optical grades are available and the material is so tough that it meets U.L. requirements for
burglary-resistance. Non-transparent grades are machined to make strong insulators, rollers, and
other mechanical parts.

MELAMINE: Melamine laminated with woven glass makes a very hard laminate with good
dimensional stability and arc resistance. (Grades G5 is the mechanical grade and G9 is the
electrical grade.

MICA: Mica sheets or "stove mica" is used for electrical insulation where high temperatures are
encountered. Thermal conductivity is high so mica insulators are useful for heat sinking transistors
or other components with electrically conductive cases. Puncture resistance is good but the edges
of the mica should be flush against a flat surface to prevent flaking. Mica finds uses in composite
tapes and sheets which are useful to 600 degrees centigrade with excellent corona resistance.
Sheets and rods of mica bonded with glass can tolerate extreme temperatures, radiation, high
voltage, and moisture. This rather expensive laminate may be machined and it will not burn or
outgas.

NEOPRENE: Neoprene rubber is the material used for most wet suits. This black rubber is
commonly used for gaskets, shock absorbers, grommets, and foams.

NOMEX: Nomex is a DuPont aromatic polyamide with an operating temperature range over 220
degrees centigrade and with superb high voltage breakdown. It is an excellent choice for
standardization since it outperforms many other materials.

NYLON: Nylon has good resistance to abrasion, chemicals, and high voltages and is often used
to fashion electro-mechanical components. Nylon is extruded and cast and is filled with a variety
of other materials to improve weathering, impact resistance, coefficient of friction, and stiffness.

P.E.T.: Polyethylene terephthalate is a highly dimensionally stable thermoplastic with good

immunity to moisture. This excellent insulator has a low coefficient of friction and is excellent for
guides and other moving parts.

P.E.T.G.: A clear, tough co-polyester commonly used for durable "bubble-packs" or food
containers.
PHENOLICS: Phenolic laminated sheets are usually brown or black and have excellent
mechanical properties. Phenolics are commonly used in the manufacture of switches and similar
components because it is easily machined and provides excellent insulation. Phenolic laminates
are widely used for terminal boards, connectors, boxes, and components. (Grades x, xx, xxx are
paper/phenolic and grades c, ce, l, le are cotton/phenolic which is not the best choice for
insulation. Grade N-1 is nylon/phenolic and has good electrical properties even in high humidity
but exhibits some cold flow.

POLYESTER (MYLAR): A strong material often used in film sheets and tapes for graphic arts and
electronics. Those shiny balloons and "space blankets" are usually made from metalized Mylar.
Mylar is also used as a dielectric in capacitors.

POLYOLEFINS: Polyethylene is the white Teflon-like material used for food cutting board.
Different densities are available with the ultra-high molecular weight grade at the top offering
toughness outlasting steel in some applications. Polypropylene is another widely used polyolefin.

POLYSTYRENE: A clear insulator with superb dielectric properties. Polystyrene capacitors

exhibit little dielectric adsorption and virtually no leakage. Liquid polystyrene or Q-dope is a low-
loss coil dope used to secure windings and other components in RF circuits.

POLYURETHANE: Polyurethane is another common polymer which features abrasion and tear
resistance along with a host of desirable characteristics. Degrading little over time or temperature,
polyurethane is popular in both commercial and consumer applications.

PVC: Polyvinylchloride or PVC is perhaps the most common insulating material. Most wiring is
insulated with PVC including house wiring. Irradiated PVC has superior strength and resistance
to heat. PVC tapes and tubing are also quite common. Electrical and electronic housings are
commonly molded from PVC.

SILICONE/FIBERGLASS: Glass cloth impregnated with a silicone resin binder makes an

excellent laminate with good dielectric loss when dry. (Grades include G7.

SILICONE RUBBER: A variety of silicone foam rubbers are available for insulating and cushioning
electronic assemblies. Silicone rubbers exhibit a wish list of characteristics including superb
chemical resistance, high temperature performance, good thermal and electrical resistance, long-
term resiliency, and easy fabrication. Liquid silicone rubbers are available in electrical grades for
conformal coating, potting, and gluing. Silicone rubbers found in the hardware store should be
avoided in electronic assemblies because they produce acetic acid. Silicone rubbers filled with
aluminum oxide are available for applications requiring thermal conductivity.

TFE (TEFLON): Teflon is an excellent high temperature insulation with superb electrical
properties. Teflon tubing and wire insulation comes in a variety of colors and typically feels
slippery. The insulation is impervious to the heat and chemicals normally encountered in
electronics manufacturing but the material will "cold flow" so Teflon insulation is avoided where
sharp corners or points are encountered. Laminated TFE circuit boards take advantage of Teflon's
excellent microwave characteristics. Teflon emits a dangerous gas when exposed to extreme
heat. White Teflon terminals are commonly used where extremely good insulation is required.
The slick surface repels water so the insulation properties are fantastic even in high humidity.
High quality I.C. sockets are made from Teflon to reduce leakage currents. Teflon and Teflon
composite tapes with adhesive are available. FEP is a lower temperature Teflon.

THERMOPLASTICS: Other thermoplastics include Polysulfone, Polyetherimide, Polyamide-

imide, and polyphenylene with trade names like Noryl, Ultem, Udel, Vespel, and Torlon. These
materials are grouped here for completeness and are not particularly similar. For example Vespel
is SP polyimide with amazing properties but commanding an equally amazing price- a 10 inch
sheet could cost thousands of dollars, whereas Polysulfone (Udel) is a rather good engineering
material with a cost for the same 10 inch sheet near thirty dollars.

ELECTRICAL INSULATING PAPERS

A variety of insulating papers are available specifically designed for insulating electrical circuits.
Rag and craft paper often called Transformer Paper is often used to separate windings in
transformers or in applications where no sharp edges might poke through the relatively weak
paper. Grey and tan are common colours. Fish paper is a curious name referring to a grey cotton
rag paper usually vulcanized and often laminated with Mylar. The Mylar may have paper on one
or both sides and many thickness grades are available. Tear and puncture resistance are
excellent and the thinner grades are easily cut with scissors. Other "sandwich materials" are
available including 100% polyester laminates and are usually a distinct colour. The paper/Mylar
laminates resist soldering heat better since the paper doesn't melt and the Dacron/Mylar
laminates resist moisture best. Laminates with thicker polyester centers are fashioned into
insulating plates in many electro-mechanical devices. A typical application may be observed
inside most older electrical timers where a printed and folded piece of laminated paper keeps the
user's fingers away from the high voltage when adjusting the position of the on and off trippers.
Papers made with temperature resistant nylon and/or glass weaves have excellent electrical
properties and good temperature resistance. Thin sheets of epoxy-fiberglass usually green in
colour are commonly used for insulating PCB's and electronic assemblies with potentially sharp
projections. Puncture resistance is superb even for sheets thin enough to be quite flexible. A
simple clear polyester sheet is sometimes used for insulation but is offers far less puncture and
temperature resistance than the laminates. The ordinary appearance may prove to be a liability
also: one computer maker uses such a sheet to insulate the motherboard from the chassis and
many novices have left this critical insulator out when reassembling their computer with disastrous
results. Die-cut laminates look important and are easily printed.

TAPES: - Tapes are made from many of the above materials. Vinyl tapes are commonly used for
wire insulation and are available in all the colours necessary for colour coding. Mylar tapes are
common in electronics: film capacitors often have a final wrap of yellow Mylar tape. Acetate tapes
are used where good conformability is desired as when covering coils as is white cotton cloth
tape. Glass cloth electrical tape with thermosetting adhesive (adhesive that permanently sets with
temperature) is used to secure and protect heater windings or insulate components exposed to
heat. Kapton, Teflon, and other insulators from the above list are used to make high performance
specialty tapes for harsh temperature or chemical environment.

FOAMS: - Foams are available for both thermal insulation and mechanical / acoustical insulation.
Choosing a foam for vibration damping can prove difficult. Many foams become stiff at cold
temperatures and will "take a set" at elevated temperatures. Some foams may have excellent
temperature characteristics but exhibit too much "spring" giving the assembly an unacceptable
resonance. Evaluate several materials before choosing- foams are made from many of the
insulating materials mentioned above. Some of the more common foams are listed below.

NEOPRENE: Neoprene foam (black) is often used for shock absorbing and vibration damping.

POLYSTYRENE: Styrofoam is the white foam used in inexpensive ice chests and packing
peanuts. It is an excellent insulator but cannot tolerate elevated temperatures.

POLYURETHANE: Urethane foams are available in both rigid and flexible forms. The insulating
properties are excellent and elevated temperature tolerance is good. Machined pieces of rigid
polyurethane are often used as thermal insulators in electronic equipment. The soft foams are
good for vibration and sound attenuation and are available with a wide variety of properties.

SILICONE: Silicone foams provide excellent vibration damping characteristics and excellent high
temperature performance and chemical resistance.

VINYL: Vinyl foam has very little "spring" and is useful for vibration damping.

LAMINATES: Various foams are often laminated with a heavy centre layer to create a sound and
vibration barrier. Lead has been used as the massive layer but the obvious concerns have led to
different materials such as metal oxide filled plastics. The complete list of foam rubbers, plastics,
and other foam materials could fill a bookshelf so this partial list should not confine the
imagination. The yellow pages of any large city will yield the names of plastic companies which
usually carry the solid insulating materials mentioned. Gasket suppliers will have a surprising
assortment of sheets and foams including specialty electronic materials. The manufacturers can
often supply the name of distributors but if they don't it doesn't mean that local suppliers aren't
there. Check thoroughly before buying some huge minimum quantity from the factory-almost all
of the materials mentioned are available from distributors in small quantities. Industry directories
will supply the name of material suppliers if the local distributors cannot. Used bookstores often
have old copies of "E.E.M.", "Gold book" or "Thomas Register" which can give you a list of
manufacturers. Ask for the name of the local factory representative since he will probably know
the names of local suppliers in his territory since he probably visits them on sales calls.
 Even though there were many developments in the field of insulators.
There was no particular standard or categories by which the insulators could be classified. Hence
came the classification insulators. The insulators were classified according to their heat resisting
properties(maximum Temperature rise).To make sure the insulators were made according to a
standard (approved internationally) the scientific community came up with a committee which was
a collaboration of UL(Underwriters Laboratories), NEMA(National Electrical Manufacturers
Association) and IEC(International Electro technical Commission).This collaboration ensures that
whenever an insulator is fabricated or extracted, the standard is maintained and the following
standard is under the norms put forth by this committee. In India this committee works under the
name of BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) which works under Ministry of Consumer Affairs,
Food & Public Distribution, and Government of India.BIS was formerly known as
ISI (Indian Standards Institution).
The IEC (International Electro technical Commission) is a worldwide organization for
standardization comprising all national electro technical committees (IEC National Committees).
The object of the IEC is to promote international co-operation on all questions concerning
standardization in the electrical and electronic
Fields. To this end and in addition to other activities, the IEC publishes International Standards.
Their Preparation is entrusted to technical committees; any IEC National Committee interested in
the subject dealt with may participate in this preparatory work. International, governmental and
non-governmental organizations liaising with the IEC also participate in this preparation. The IEC
collaborates closely with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in accordance
with conditions determined by agreement between the two organizations.

2) The formal decisions or agreements of the IEC on technical matters express, as nearly as
possible, an International consensus of opinion on the relevant subjects since each technical
committee has representation from all interested National Committees.

3) The documents produced have the form of recommendations for international use and are
published in the Form of standards, technical reports or guides and they are accepted by the
National Committees in that Sense.

4) In order to promote international unification, IEC National Committees undertake to apply IEC
International Standards transparently to the maximum extent possible in their national and
regional standards. AnyDivergence between the IEC Standard and the corresponding national or
regional standard shall be clearly Indicated in the latter.

5) The IEC provides no marking procedure to indicate its approval and cannot be rendered
responsible for any Equipment declared to be in conformity with one of its standards.
This standard is applicable to all rotating electrical machines except those covered by other IEC
standards. Machines within the scope of this standard may also be subject to superseding,
modifying or Additional requirements in other publications.

The following normative documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text,
Constitute provisions of this part of IEC 60034. At the time of publication, the editions indicated
were valid. All normative documents are subject to revision, and parties to agreements based on
this International Standard are encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the most
recent editions of the normative documents indicated below. Members of IEC and ISO maintain
Registers of currently valid International Standards.

IEC 60027-1:1992, Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology Part 1: General

IEC 60027-4:1985, Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology Part 4: Symbols for
Quantities to be used for rotating electrical machines.

IEC 60034-2:1972, Rotating electrical machines Part 2: Methods for determining losses and
Efficiency of rotating electrical machinery from tests (excluding machines for traction vehicles).

IEC 60034-3:1988, Rotating electrical machines Part 3: Specific requirements for turbine-type
Synchronous machines.

IEC 60034-5:1991, rotating electrical machines Part 5: Classification of degrees of Protection

provided by enclosures of rotating electrical machines (IP code).

IEC 60034-6:1991, Rotating electrical machines Part 6: Methods of cooling (IC code).

IEC 60034-12:1980, Rotating electrical machines Part 12: Starting performance of single
speed Three-phase cage induction motors for voltages up to and including 660 V.

IEC 60034-15:1995, Rotating electrical machines Part 15: Impulse voltage withstand levels of
Rotating A.C. machines with form-wound stator coils.

IEC 60034-17:1992, Rotating electrical machines Part 17: Guide for the application of cage
Induction motors when fed from converters.

IEC 60038:1983, IEC standard voltages.

IEC 60050(411):1996, International Electro technical Vocabulary (IEV) Chapter 411: Rotating
Machines.

IEC 60060, High-voltage test techniques.

IEC 60060-1:1989, High-voltage test techniques – Part 1: General definitions and test
Requirements.
IEC 60072, Dimensions and output series for rotating electrical machines.

IEC 60085:1984, Thermal evaluation and classification of electrical insulation.

IEC 60204-1:1992, Electrical equipment of industrial machines – Part 1: General requirements.

IEC 60279:1969, Measurement of the winding resistance of an A.C. machine during operation at
alternating voltage.

IEC 60364-4-41:1992, Electrical installations of buildings Part 4: Protection for safety

Chapter 41: Protection against electric shock.

IEC 60445:1988, Identification of equipment terminals and of terminations of certain designated

Conductors, including general rules for an alphanumeric system.

IEC 60449:1973, Voltage bands for electrical installations of buildings.

IEC 60971:1989, Semiconductor convertors. Identification code for convertor connections.

IEC 61293:1994, Marking of electrical equipment with ratings related to electrical supply – Safety
requirements.

CISPR 11:1990, Limits and methods of measurement of electromagnetic disturbance

Characteristics of industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio-frequency equipment.

CISPR 14:1993, Limits and methods of measurement radio disturbance characteristics of

Electrical motor-operated and thermal appliances for household and similar purposes, electric
Tools and electric apparatus.

CISPR 16: Specification for radio disturbance and immunity measuring apparatus and methods
ISO 497:1973, Guide to the choice of series of preferred numbers and series containing more
Rounded values of preferred numbers.

In this report we will be reporting about three major electrical devices and machines
Induction machine
Synchronous machine
Transformers

INDUCTION MACHINES
An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in
the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic
field of the stator winding. The insulation used in induction motor will depend on the purpose of
use for the induction motor. The insulating materials are classified in to 10 types.
As we already know insulators are classified according to their heat resisting properties. By these
insulators are classified into 10 types.
The insulators given below are used in the induction motors according to its purpose.
Class Y: - Maximum temperature 90° Celsius (Paper, Cotton, Silk, Wood, fiber).
Class A: - Contains all the materials from Class Y but these are impregnated in natural resins,
cellulose, esters etc.Class A insulation consists of materials such as cotton, silk and paper when
suitably impregnated or coated or when immersed in a dielectric liquid such as oil. Other materials
or combinations of materials may be included in this class if by experience or tests they can be
shown to be capable of operation at the Class A temperature.
Maximum allowed temperature: (IEC60034-1 & NEMA MG1-12.43): 105C, 221F.
Class B:-Class B insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials such as mica, glass
fibre, asbestos, etc., with suitable bonding, impregnating or coating substances (beware a few
older applications used asbestos). Other materials or combination of materials, not necessarily
inorganic, may be included in this class, if by experience or tests they can be shown to be capable
of operation at the class B temperature.
Maximum allowed temperature: (IEC60034-1 & NEMA MG1-12.43): 130C, 266F.
Class C:-Class C insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials such as mica,
porcelain, glass, quartz with or without an inorganic binder (beware a few older applications used
asbestos). Other materials or combinations of materials may be included in this class, if by
experience or tests they can be shown to be capable of operation at temperatures above the
Class H limit. Specific materials or combinations of materials in this class will have a temperature
limit, which is dependent upon their physical, chemical and electrical properties.
Maximum allowed temperature: (IEC60034-1 only): >180C, 356F.
Class E:-Class E insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials, which by
experience or tests can be shown to be capable of operation at Class E temperature (materials
possessing a degree of thermal stability allowing them to be operated at a temperature 15
Centigrade degrees higher than Class A materials).
Maximum allowed temperature: (IEC60034-1 only): 120C, 248F.
Class F :- Class F insulation consists of materials or combinations of materials such as mica,
glass fibre, asbestos, etc., with suitable bonding, impregnating or coating substances, as well as
other materials or combinations of materials, not necessarily inorganic, which by experience or
tests can be shown to be capable of operation at the Class F temperature (materials possessing
a degree of thermal stability allowing them to be operated at a temperature 25 Centigrade degrees
higher than Class B materials).
Maximum allowed temperature: (IEC60034-1 & NEMA MG1-12.43): 155C, 311F.
Class H: - Class H insulation consists of materials such as silicone elastomer and combinations
of materials such as mica, glass fibre, asbestos etc., with suitable bonding, impregnating or
coating substances such as appropriate silicone resins. Other materials or combinations of
materials may be included in this class if by experience or tests they can be shown to be capable
of operation at the Class H temperature.
Maximum allowed temperature: (IEC60034-1 & NEMA MG1-12.43): 180C, 356F.
CLASS N:-Maximum temperature 200 °C (200-220°C), Materials under this class is as same as
Class B, and including Teflon.
CLASS R:-Maximum temperature 220 °C (220-250 °C), Materials under this class is same as
CLASS N but further refined.
CLASS S :-Maximum temperature >250 °C, Materials under this class is same as CLASS R but
improved numerically at 25 °C increments.

Tests conducted to determine the insulation to be used in induction motors (according to BIS
standards after revision in 2012)
Nominal efficiency of motors has been categorize now in three part IEl, IE2 & IE3Applicable to 2,
4 & 6 Pole Motors. Duty type S3 (mterm1ttent periodic duty) has been Added. The efficiency
levels of the Motors covered in the standard are upgraded as per the Following details:

The efficiency performance values of motors under the scope shall be IE3 only and shall be
effective from 31Januarv2014 (refer foreword of IS 12615:2011).However, when these motors
are used with variable frequency drives, they shall Conform to IE2 values of efficiency. The
efficiency performance values of motors of Category IE I and IE2 may be Treated as withdrawn
for BIS certification purpose except mentioned at I .Ob) I)Above. The concurrent running of old &
new standard is allowed for one year from date of Establishment of standard (ref note SC G
&CS/Misc. dated 30110/2013).

As the Implementation of revised standard is already delayed, the concurrent running is proposed
to be considered up to 31 May 2014. The revised standard and draft revised STI were circulated
to all ROs/BOs vide note dated24/09/2013 for comments. A note to ETD was also sent for
comments on draft STI. Only
CBTO has replied vide note dated 17/10/2013, however, no comments are offered for revised
standard & STI. ETD has also examined draft STI and reported to be found in order.

SCHEME OF TESTING AND INSPECTION FOR CERTIFICATION OF ENERGY EFFICIENT

INDUCTION MOTORS –THREE PHASE SQUIRREL CAGE
LABORATORY: A laboratory shall be maintained which shall be suitably Equipped and staffed,
where different tests given in the specification shall be carried out in accordance with the methods
given in the specification.
TEST RECORDS: All records of tests and inspection shall be kept in suitable forms approved by
the Bureau.

2.1 All testing apparatus shall be periodically checked and calibrated and records of such
checks/calibration shall be maintained.

2.2 Copies of any records and other connected papers that may be required by the Bureau shall
be made available at any time on request.

3.0 QUALITY CONTROL: It is recommended that as far as possible, Statistical Quality Control
(SQC) methods may be used for controlling the quality of the product during production as
envisaged in the Scheme [See IS 397(Part I), IS
397(Part 2), IS 397(Part 3), and IS 397(Part 4)].In addition, effort should be made to gradually
introduce a Quality Management
System in accordance with IS/ISO 9000 series as appropriate to the activities of the organization.

4.0 STANDARD MARK: The standard mark(s) as given in column (1) of the First Schedule of the
license shall be printed on the label applied to each container and the covering carton, provided
always that the materials in the container to which the Mark is thus applied conforms to every
requirement of the specification.

4.1 Marking – Each motor shall bear applicable information on the name plate affixed to it as
given at Cl 18 of IS 12615, and Cl 10 of IS/IEC 60034-1.

4.1.1 The Earthing on the motor and terminal markings shall be provided in accordance with
clause 10 and 16 of the standard.

5.0 LEVELS OF CONTROL: The tests as indicated in Table 1 and at levels of control specified
therein shall be carried out on the whole production of the factory covered by the scheme and
appropriate records and charts maintained in accordance with clause 2.0 above. All the
production which conforms to the Indian Standard and covered by this license shall be marked
with Certification
Mark of the Bureau.

6.0 RAW MATERIALS: Raw materials and components used for the manufacture of motors shall
be suitable for the application and shall conform to relevant Indian Standards wherever these
exist. Whenever it is not practicable to meet this requirement, it shall be subject to agreement
between the manufacturer and the purchaser.

6.1 It is recommended that, as far as possible, each consignment of raw materials should be
accompanied by a test certificate certifying its conformity to the relevant Indian Standard.

6.2 In respect of all other clauses of the standard the factory shall maintain appropriate controls
and checks to ensure that their product conforms to the various requirements of the standard.

7.0 REJECTIONS: A separate record shall be maintained giving information relating to the
rejection of the production not conforming to the requirements of the specification and the method
of its disposal. Such material shall in no case bestrode together with that conforming to the
specification.

8.0 SAMPLES: The licensee shall supply, free of charge, the samples required in accordance
with Bureau of Indian Standard (Certification) Regulations, 1988, as subsequently amended, from
his factory or go downs. The Bureau shall pay forth samples taken by it from the open market.

9.0 REPLACEMENT: Whenever a complaint is received soon after the goods with Standard
Marks have been purchased and used and if there is adequate evidence that the goods have not
been misused, defective goods are replaced free of cost by the licensee in case the complaint is
proved to be genuine and the warranty period (where applicable) has not expired. The final
authority to judge the conformity of the product to the Indian Standard shall be with the Bureau.

9.1 In the event of any damages caused by the goods bearing the Standard Mark, or claim being
filed by the consumers against BIS Standard Mark and not “conforming to” the relevant Indian
Standard, entire liability arising out of such on conforming product shall be of licensee and BIS
shall not in any way be responsible in such cases.

10.0 STOP MARKING: The marking of the product shall be stopped under intimation to the
Bureau if, at any time, there is some difficulty in maintaining the conformity of their product to the
specification or the testing equipment goes out of order. The marking may be resumed as soon
as the defects are removed under intimation to Bureau. The marking of the product shall be
stopped immediately if directed to do so by Bureau for any reason. The marking may then be
resumed only after permission by the Bureau. The information regarding resumption of markings
shall also be sent to the Bureau.
11.0 PRODUCTION DATA: The licensee shall send to BIS as per the enclosedproforma-1 to be
authenticated by a Chartered Accountant a statement of quantity produced, marked and exported
by him and the trade value thereof end of each operative year of the license.

LEVELS OF
TEST DETAILS CONTROL
Clause Requirements Test Method No. of Frequency Remarks

Samples
Clause Reference

10 Earthing and
Terminal As per IS 3043 Each
Marking Motor
19.9 Insulation
Resistance As per IS 7816 -do-
test
19.10 High Voltage
Test 9.2 of IS/IEC 60034-1 -do-
19.2
Measurement of 8.6 of IS/IEC60034-1 -do-
and 5.7 of IS 15999
resistance of windings of (Part
stator 2/Sec1)
19.3 No Load test IS 15999(Part 2/Sec1) -do-
and 9.1 of
IS/IEC60034-
1
19.5 Locked Rotor
reading IS 15999(Part 2/Sec1) -do-
of voltage, current &
power input at a suitable
reduced Voltage.
19.4 Reduced
voltage IS 15999(Part 2/Sec1) -do-
running up test (for
squirrel cage motors up
to 37 kW only)
19.6 Full load test From If any motor
to IS 15999(Part 2/Sec1) One every fails,
determine efficiency, motor 50 motors all the motors
power factor & slip or less, of produced
subsequently
identical shall
(also see Note1)
type & be tested till that
design time five
manufactu
re consecutive
D in a Samples pass.
week. For
Min of one every failure,
appropriate
motor per steps
Week. shall be taken to
rectify the cause
of
the defect in
subsequent
motors
& record of the
Same
maintained.
11.1 Momentary excess
torque -do- -do- -do-
11.2 Pull up
torque -do- -do- -do-

TEST
DETAILS LEVELS OF CONTROL
Clause Requirements Test Method No. of Frequency Remarks
 Samples
Clause Reference

Temperatur If any motor fails,

19.7 e Rise test 8 IS/IEC60034-1 One From every all
200 motors produce
(Also see Note 1). Motor or the motors d
subsequently shall
less, of be
teste tha
identical type d till t time
and design, three consecutive
manufacture Samples
d pass. For
in a Month. every failure,
appropriate steps
Min of one shall
moto be taken to rectify
r per the
cause of the
Month. defect in
subsequent
motors and
recor sam
d of the e
Maintain
ed.
9 Dimensions IS 1231 or IS 2223 -do- -do- -do-
19.1 In case the test
1 Test for Vibration IS 12075 One From every facility
motors no availabl
Severity of motor Motor 500 or is t e with
licencee, this
(also see Note 2) less, of the test
may be got done
identical type from
and design, an outside BIS
manufacture Recognized
d laboratory.
Quarte
in a r.
Min of one
 moto
r per
Quarter.
19.12 Test for
Noise IS 12065 One From every
Levels Motor 5000 motors -do-
(also see Note 2) or less, of
identical type
and design,
manufacture
d
In six
months.
Min of one
moto
r per six
Month.

TEST DETAILS LEVELS OF CONTROL

Clause Requirements Test Method No. of Frequency Remarks

Samples
Clause Reference

Degre cas
19.13 Test for e of IS/IEC60034-5 One From every In e the test
Protection by Motor 5000 motors facility is not
availabl
Enclosure. or less, of e with the
(also see Note 2) identical type licence, this test
 ma
and design, y be got done
manufacture from an outside
d BIS
In six
months. recognized
Min of one Laboratory.
moto
r per six
Month.
Temperat
19.14 ure Rise test 8 of IS/IEC60034-1 -do- -do- -do-
value
at limiting s of
voltage and
frequency
variation (also see
Note 2).
19.15 Over speed test 9.7 of IS/IEC60034-1 -do- -do- -do-
(also see Note 2)
19.16 Test on insulation IS 13508 and -do- -do- -do-
system IS 14222
(also see Note 2)

Note 1: After carrying out Temperature Rise Test, determination of Efficiency and Power Factor,
No Load and Locked rotor test shall be repeated and reading shall be noted.

TRANSFORMERS

A transformer is a electrical device which either steps up or steps down the voltage without
changing the frequency. A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy
between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one
coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces a voltage in a
second coil. Power can be transferred between the two coils through the magnetic field, without
a metallic connection between the two circuits. Faraday's law of induction discovered in 1831
described this effect. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in
electric power applications.
Since the invention of the first constant-potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become
essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical
energy. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power
applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in
volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

Insulators used in transformers.

In transformers mainly three insulating materials are used.

Transformer oil
Insulating paper
Press board
Of the three, the major insulating material used is transformer oil.
Transformer oil
Transformer oil

As said earlier transformer oil is the major insulating material used in transformer. It is one of the
important factors that determine the life and satisfactory operation of the transformer.
The transformer performs the following two functions.
1. It provides insulation in combination with the insulating materials used in the conductors and
coils.
2. It also acts as a coolant to extract heat from the core and the windings.
Transformer makes use of hydrocarbon mineral oil. It mainly consists of four generic classes of
organic compounds. They are aromatics, paraffins, napthenes and olefines. Transformer oil will
provide better insulation when aromatics, paraffins, napthenes and olefines are present in it at a
right proportion. Transformer oil is desired to have more of saturated paraffins and less of
aromatics, napthenes and olefines for better insulation. For more stability, more aromatics and
napthenes are necessary. To get transformer oil at insulating property and stability, there must
be an optimum mix of four organic components. This can be obtained by careful refining of crude
oil. Vegetable and animal oils cannot be used in transformers because they form fatty acids and
attack the fibrous insulating materials.
The transformer is affected by its operating conditions. The presence of moisture or suspended
particles in transformer oil affects its dielectric property. Hence transformer oil it should be tested
periodically. If the oil is containing moisture or suspended particles it should be filtered or replaced
by fresh oil.
Physical constants of Transformer oil
Property Recommended value
Permitivity 2.2
Thermal conductivity 0.12 W/m deg C
Specific Heat 2.06 kJ/kg deg C
Co-efficient of Expansion 0.00078/ deg C
Mean density factor 0.00065/ deg C
The above parameters are based on IS 335

Insulating paper
Insulating paper is made from the vegetable fibers. These fibers mainly consist of cellulose. The
main properties of these papers are listed below:
Grammage
Grammage is the ratio of mass to the area. It influences most of the electrical and mechanical
properties. The recommended value for 125 micrometer thick paper is 100 gm/mt2.The maximum
allowable variation is 5%.

Density
The paper recommended in transformer use can have a density range of 0.6 to 1.3 gm/c.c.

Moisture content
Moisture content reduces the dielectric property of the paper. Since paper is hygroscopic,
moisture ingression takes place with usage. The maximum allowable moisture content is 8%.
Oil and water absorption
The dielectric property of paper increased when impregnated in oil under vacuum and decreases
with water content. Even though the water content is not recommended the maximum permitted
water content is 10%.

Air permeability
Permeability is the rate at which the air can pass through it. The dielectric strength of paper is
inversely proportional to the air permeability. The recommended value of air permeability is 0.2-
0.5.

Tensile strength and elongation

Paper must be able to withstand the tension during wrapping. Recommended value of tension is
78 - 85 N-mt/gm in wrapping direction and 25 - 30 N-mt/gm.
The electrical parameters of insulating paper are indicated below.
Property Recommended Value
Break down voltage 7- 7.5 kV/mm (min) at 90 deg. C
Dissipation factor 0.003 (max)
Conductivity 10 ns/mt (max)

Test done on transformers according to BIS standards.

A Routine test of transformer is mainly for confirming operational performance of

individual unit in a production lot. Routine tests are carried out on every unit
manufactured. All transformers are subjected to the following Routine tests:
Insulation resistance Test.
Winding resistance Test.
Turns Ration / Voltage ratio Test
Polarity / Vector group Test.
No-load losses and current Test.
Short-circuit impedance and load loss Test.
Continuity Test.
Magnetizing Current Test.
Magnetic Balance Test.
High Voltage Test.
Dielectric tests (Separate source AC voltage/ Induced overvoltage/ Lightning impulse
tests).
Test on On-load tap changers, where appropriate.
Type tests
Type tests are tests made on a transformer which is representative of other transformers
to demonstrate that they comply with specified requirements not covered by routine tests:
Temperature rise test (IEC 60076-2).
Dielectric type tests (IEC 60076-3).
Special tests
Special tests are tests, other than routine or type tests, agreed between manufacturer and
purchaser.
Dielectric special tests.
Zero-sequence impedance on three-phase transformers.
Short-circuit test.
Harmonics on the no-load current.
Power taken by fan and oil-pump motors.
Determination of sound levels.
Determination of capacitances between windings and earth, and between windings.
Determination of transient voltage transfer between windings.
Tests intended to be repeated in the field to confirm no damage during shipment, for
example Frequency Response Analysis.
Pre commissioning Tests
The Test performed before commissioning the transformer at site is called pre
commissioning test of transformer. These tests are done to assess the condition of
transformer after installation and compare the test results of all the low voltage tests with
the factory test reports. All transformers are subjected to the following Pre commissioning
tests:
IR value of transformer and cables
Winding Resistance
Transformer Turns Ratio
Polarity Test
Magnetizing Current
Vector Group
Magnetic Balance
Bushing & Winding Tan Delta (HV)
Protective relay testing
Transformer oil testing
Hipot test.
Routine Tests of Transformer Insulation Resistance Test
Test Purpose
Insulation resistance test of transformer is essential to ensure the healthiness of overall
insulation of an electrical power transformer.
Test Instruments
LT System: 500V / 1000V Megger. & MV / HV System: 2500V / 5000V Megger.
Test Procedure
First disconnect all the line and neutral terminals of the transformer. Megger leads to be
connected to LV and HV bushing studs to measure Insulation Resistance value in between the
LV & HV windings. Megger leads to be connected to HV bushing studs & transformer tank earth
point to measure Insulation Resistance IR value in between the HV windings & earth. Megger
leads to be connected to LV bushing studs & transformer tank earth point to measure Insulation
Resistance IR value in between the LV windings and earth.
NB: It is unnecessary to perform insulation resistance test of transformer per phase wise in three
phase transformer. IR values are taken between the windings collectively as because all the
windings on HV side are internally connected together to form either star or delta and also all the
windings on LV side are internally connected together to form either star or delta. Measurements
are to be taken as follows:

Oil temperature should be noted at the time of insulation resistance test of transformer. Since
the IR value of transformer insulating oil may vary with temperature. IR values to be recorded at
intervals of 15 seconds, 1 minute and 10 minutes. With the duration of application of voltage, IR
value increases. The increase in IR is an indication of dryness of insulation.
Absorption Coefficient = 1 minute value/ 15 second value.
Polarization Index = 10 minutes value / 1 minute value
Tests can detect: Weakness of Insulation.
DC Resistance or Winding Resistance Test
Test Purpose
Transformer winding resistance is measured. To check any abnormalities like Loose
connections, broken strands and High contact resistance in tap changers. To Calculation of the
I2R losses in transformer. To Calculation of winding temperature at the end of temperature rise
test of transformer.

Test Instrument
The Resistance of HV winding LV winding between their terminals is to be measured with
Precision milliohm meter/ micro ohm meter/ Transformer Ohmmeter / Wheatstone bridge / DC
resistance meter.

Method No: 1 (Kelvin Bridge Method for measurement of winding resistance)

Test Procedure

The main principle of bridge method is based on comparing an unknown resistance with a known
resistance. When electric currents flowing through the arms of bridge circuit become balanced,
the reading of galvanometer shows zero deflection that means at balanced condition no electric
current will flow through the galvanometer.
Kelvin Bridge

Very small value of resistance (in milliohms range) can be accurately measured by Kelvin Bridge
method whereas for higher value Wheatstone bridge method of resistance measurement is
applied. In bridge method of measurement of winding resistance, the error is minimized. All other
steps to be taken during transformer winding resistance measurement in these methods are
similar to that of current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance of transformer.

Method No: 2 (current voltage method of measurement of winding resistance)

DC Winding Resistance Test (Current-Volt Method)

Test Procedure

The resistance of each transformer winding is measured using DC current and recorded at a
ambient temp. In this test resistance of winding is measurement by applying a small DC voltage
to the winding and measuring the current through the same. The measured resistance should be
corrected to a common temperature such as 75OC or 85OC using the formula: RC=RM x
((CF+CT)/(CF+WT)) where RC is the corrected resistance, RM is the measured resistance. CF
is the correction factor for copper (234.5) or aluminum (225) windings. CT is the corrected
temperature (75OC or 85OC)
WT is the winding temperature (OC) at time of test. Before measurement the transformer should
be kept in OFF condition at least for 3 to 4 hours so in this time the winding temperature will
become equal to its oil temperature. To minimize observation errors, polarity of the core
magnetization shall be kept constant during all resistance readings.
Voltmeter leads shall be independent of the current leads to protect it from high voltages which
may occur during switching on and off the current circuit. The readings shall be taken after the
electric current and voltage have reached steady state values. In some cases this may take
several minutes depending upon the winding impedance.
'The test current shall not exceed 15% of the rated current of the winding'. Large values may
cause inaccuracy by heating the winding and thereby changing its resistance. For Calculating
resistance, the corresponding temperature of the winding at the time of measurement must be
taken along with resistance value.

Required Precaution
According to IEC 60076-1, in order to reduce measurement errors due to changes in
temperature, some precautions should be taken before the measurement is made.

For Delta connected Winding: for delta-connected transformer, the resistance should be
measured for each phase (i.e. R-Y, Y-B & B-R). Delta is composed of parallel combination of the
winding under test and the series combination of the remaining winding .It is therefore
recommended to make three measurements for each phase to-phase winding in order obtain the
most accurate results. For Delta connected windings, such tertiary winding of auto-transformers
measurement shall be done between pairs of line terminals and resistance per winding shall be
calculated as per the formula: Resistance per Winding = 1.5 X Measured Value

For Star connected winding: the neutral brought out, the resistance shall be measured
between the line and neutral terminal (i.e. R-N, Y-N, B-N) and average of three sets of reading
shall be the tested value. For Star connected auto transformers the resistance of the HV side is
measured between HV terminal and IV terminal, then between IV terminal and the neutral.

For Dry type transformers: the transformer shall be at rest in a constant ambient temperature
for at least three hours.

For Oil immersed transformers: the transformers should be under oil and without excitation
for at least three hours. In case of tapped windings, above readings are recorded at each tap. In
addition, it is important to ensure that the average oil temperature (average of the top and bottom
oil temperatures) is approximately the same as the winding temperature. Average oil temperature
is to be recorded. Measured values are to be corrected to required temperatures. As the
measurement current increases, the core will be saturated and inductance will decrease. In this
way, the current will reach the saturation value in a shorter time. After the current is applied to the
circuit, it should be waited until the current becomes stationary (complete saturation) before taking
measurements, otherwise, there will be measurement errors. The values shall be compared with
original test a result which varies with the transformer ratings.

Test Acceptance criteria

DC Resistance Should be <=2% Factory Test orTest Current <10% Rated Current

Test can detect

Short Turns, Loose Connection of bushing, Loose Connection or High Contact Resistance on
Tap Changer and Broken winding stands.

Turns Ratio / Voltage Ratio Test

Test Purpose

Turns Ratio Test / Voltage Ratio Test are done in Transformer to find out Open Circuited turns,
Short Circuited turns in Transformer winding. The voltage ratio is equal to the turn’s ratio in a
transformer (V1/V2=N1/N2). Using this principle, the turn’s ratio is measured with the help of a
turn’s ratio meter. If it is correct , then the voltage ratio is assumed to be correct. This test should
be made for any new high-voltage power transformer at the time it is being installed. With use of
Turns Ratio meter (TTR), turns Ratio between HV & LV windings at various taps to be measured
& recorded. The turn’s ratio is measure of the RMS voltage applied to the primary terminals to the
RMS Voltage measured at the secondary terminals. R = Np / Ns
Where, R=Voltage ratio. Np=Number of turns at primary winding. Ns= Number of turns at
secondary Winding. The voltage ratio shall be measured on each tapping in the no-load condition.

Test Instruments
Turns Ratio meter (TTR) to energies the transformer from a low-voltage supply and measure
the HV and LV voltages. Wheatstone bridge Circuit.

Method No 1 Turns Ratio Testing

Test Procedure

Transformer Turns Ratio Meter (TTR)

Transformer ratio test can be done by Transformer Turns Ratio (TTR) Meter. It has in built power
supply, with the voltages commonly used being very low, such as 8, 10 V and 50 Hz. The HV and
LV windings of one phase of a transformer (i.e. R-Y & r-n) are connected to the instrument, and
the internal bridge elements are varied to produce a null indication on the detector.
Values are recorded at each tap in case of tapped windings & then compared to calculated ratio
at the same tap.
 The ratio meter gives accuracy of 0.1 per cent over a ratio range up to 1110:1. The ratio meter
is used in a ‘bridge’ circuit where the voltages of the windings of the transformer under test are
balanced against the voltages developed across the fixed & variable resistors of the ratio meter.
Adjustment of the calibrated variable resistor until zero deflection is obtained on the
galvanometer then gives the ratio to unity of the transformer windings from the ratio of the
resistors.

Bridge Circuit
A phase voltage is applied to the one of the windings by means of a bridge circuit and the ratio
of induced voltage is measured at the bridge. The accuracy of the measuring instrument is < 0.1
%.

This theoretical turn ratio is adjusted on the transformer turn ratio tested or TTR by the adjustable
transformer as shown in the figure above and it should be changed until a balance occurs in the
percentage error indicator. The reading on this indicator implies the deviation of measured turn
ratio from expected turn ratio in percentage.

Theoretical Turns Ratio = HV winding Voltage / LV Winding Voltage

% Deviation = (Measured Turn Ratio – Expected Turns Ration) / Expected Turns Ration

Out-of-tolerance, ratio test of transformer can be due to shorted turns, especially if there is an
associated high excitation current. Open turns in HV winding will indicate very low exciting current
and no output voltage since open turns in HV winding causes no excitation current in the winding
means no flux hence no induced voltage. But open turn in LV winding causes, low fluctuating LV
voltage but normal excitation current in HV winding. Hence open turns in LV winding will be
indicated by normal levels of exciting current, but very low levels of unstable output voltage. The
turn ratio test of transformer also detects high resistance connections in the lead circuitry or high
contact resistance in tap changers by higher excitation current and a difficulty in balancing the
bridge.

Test Caution
Disconnect all transformer terminals from line or load. Neutrals directly grounded to the grid can
remain connected.
Method No 2 Voltage Ratio Testing
This test is done to check both the transformer voltage ratio and tap changer. When “Turns Ratio
meter” is not available, Voltage Ratio Test is done at various tap position by applying 3 phases
LT (415V) supply on HT side of Power transformer. In order to obtain the required accuracy it is
usual to use a ratio meter rather than to energies the transformer from a low-voltage supply and
measure the HV and LV voltages. At Various taps applied voltage and Resultant voltages LV side
between various Phases and phases and neutral measured with precision voltmeter and noted.

Test Procedure
With 415 V applied on high voltage side, measure the voltage between all phases on the low
voltage side for every tap position. First, the tap changer of transformer is kept in the lowest
position and LV terminals are kept open. Then apply 3-phase 415 V supply on HV terminals.
Measure the voltages applied on each phase (Phase-Phase) on HV and induced voltages at LV
terminals simultaneously. After measuring the voltages at HV and LV terminals, the tap changer
of transformer should be raised by one position and repeat test. Repeat the same for each of the
tap position separately. At other taps values will be as per the percentage raise or lower at the
respective tap positions. In case of Delta/Star transformers the ratio measure between RY-rn, YB-
yn and BR-bn.
Being Delta/Star transformers the voltage ratio between HV winding and LV winding in each
phase limb at normal tap is 33 KV OR 33x√3 = 5.196 ,11 KV / √3 11. At higher taps (i-e high
voltage steps) less number of turns is in circuit than normal. Hence ratio values increase by a
value equal to.5.196 + {5.196 x (no. of steps above normal) x (% rise per each tap)} 100. Similarly
for lower taps than normal the ratio is equal to 5.196 - {5.196 x (no. of steps above normal) x (%
rise per each tap)} 100

Test Acceptance Criteria

Range of measured ratio shall be equal to the calculated ratio ±0.5%. Phase displacement is
identical to approved arrangement and transformer’s nameplate. The IEEE standard (IEEE
Standard 62) states that when rated voltage is applied to one winding of the transformer, all other
rated voltages at no load shall be correct within one half of one percent of the nameplate readings.
It also states that all tap voltages shall be correct to the nearest turn if the volts per turn exceed
one half of one percent desired voltage. The ratio test verifies that these conditions are met. The
IEC60076-1 standard defines the permissible deviation of the actual to declared ratio. Principal
tapping for a specified first winding pair: the lesser ±0.5% of the declared voltage ratio or 0.1 times
the actual short circuit impedance. Other taps on the first winding pair and other winding pair must
be agreed upon, and must be lower than the smaller of the two values stated above.
Measurements are typically made by applying a known low voltage across the high voltage
winding so that the induced voltage on the secondary is lower, thereby reducing hazards while
performing the test. For three phase delta/wye or wyes/delta transformer, a three phase
equivalency test is performed, i.e. the test is performed across corresponding single winding.

Test can detect

Shorted turns or open circuits in the windings. Incorrect winding connections, and other internal
faults or defects in tap changer.

Polarity / Vector group Test

Purpose of Test

The vector group of transformer is an essential property for successful parallel operation of
transformers. Hence every electrical power transformer must undergo through vector group test
of transformer at factory site for ensuring the customer specified vector group of transformer.

Test Instruments

Ratio meter, Volt Meter. A Ratio meter may not always be available and this is usually the case
on site so that the polarity may be checked by voltmeter.

Test Circuit Diagram

Polarity Test of Transformer

Test Procedure
The primary and secondary windings are connected together at one point. Connect neutral point
of star connected winding with earth. Low-voltage three-phase supply (415 V) is then applied to
the HV terminals. Voltage measurements are then taken between various pairs of terminals as
indicated in the diagram and the readings obtained should be the phasor sum of the separate
voltages of each winding under consideration.
Condition: (HV side R-Y-B-N and LV Side r-y-b-n). R and r should be shorted. Apply 415 Volt
to R-Y-B. Measure Voltage between Following Phase and Satisfy Following Condition.

Short Circuit Test

Test Purpose
The value of the short circuit impedance Z% and the load (copper) losses (I2R) are obtained.
This test should be performed before the impulse test-if the later will be performed as a routine
test- in order to avoid readings errors.

Test Instrument
Megger, Multi meter, CT, PT

Test Procedure
Suitable Low Voltage (3-phase 415V, 50Hz) will be applied to the terminals of one winding
(usually the H.V.) with the other winding short circuited with 50 sq. mm. Copper cable. (Usually
the L.V.) The applied voltage is adjusted to pass the needed current in the primary/secondary. In
order to simulate conditions nearest to full load, it is customary to pass 100%, 50% or at least
25% of full load current.
Voltage to be increased gradually till the current in the energized winding reaches the required
value (50% to 100% rated current). Measure the 3 Phase line currents at all tap position. If the
tap-switch is an Off-Circuit tap-switch, the supply has to be disconnected before changing the tap.
 A consistent trend in the increase or decrease of current, as the case may be, confirms the
healthiness of the transformer. If transformer is equipped with a tap changer, tapping regulations
are applied.
If tapping range within ±5% and rated power less than 2500kAV, load loss guarantee refer to the
principal tap only.
If tapping range exceeds ±5% or rated power above 2500kAV, it shall be stated for which tapping
beside the principal tap the load losses will be guaranteed by the manufacturer.
Three phase LT supply is applied on HV side of power transformer at normal tap with rated
current on HV side and currents measured in all the phases on HV side and phases & neutral on
LV side values noted. Readings to be taken as quickly as possible as the windings warm up and
the winding resistance increases. Hence, the losses value will increase accordingly. Using
appropriate instruments (conventional three wattmeter method or digital wattmeter with ammeters
& voltmeters) measurements of voltage, currents and power can be recorded.

Short Circuit Test (Without using CT, PT)

To avoid CT’s and PT’s, this method can be used at current levels of 2 to 5 A and measurement
of load losses is done at this condition. This measured load loss is then extrapolated to actual
load currents to obtain load losses at the operating current.
Short Circuit Test (Without CT)

Short Circuit Test (With CT)

Acceptance Criteria
Measured impedance to be within guaranteed value and nameplate value. Load losses to be
within guaranteed values.

Test can detect

Winding deformation. Deviation in name plate value.

Open Circuit / No Load Test

Test Purpose
In this test, the value of No-Load power (Po) & the No-Load current (Io) are measured at rated
voltage & frequency.

Test Instruments
Watt meters. Ammeter, Voltmeter or Power analyzer.

Test Procedure
 Test is performed at rated frequency. Three phase LT Voltage of 415V applied on HV side of
Power transformer keeping LT open. Two voltmeters are connected to the energized winding,
one is measuring the voltage mean value and the other is for the Voltage R.M.S value. Voltage
applied to winding (usually to H.V. windings). It will be in a range from 90% of winding rated
voltage to 110% of the same in steps, each of 5% (i.e. for a 33/11kV transformer, applied voltage
values will be 29.7kV, 31.35kV, 36.3kV).
Readings of watt meters, Voltmeters & Ammeters are recorded to obtain the values of V (r.m.s),
Vmean, Po and Io at each voltage step. Test results are considered satisfactory if the readings of
the two are equal within 3%. If it’s more than 3%, the validity of the test is subjected to agreement.
Measured value of power loss is corrected according to the following formula: Pc = Pm (1+d) and
D = (Vmean - Vr.m.s) / Vmean
Measure the loss in all the three phases with the help of 3 watt meter method. Total no load loss
or iron loss of the trf = W1 + W2 + W3

Test Caution
This test should be performed before the impulse test-if the later will be performed as a routine
test- in order to avoid readings errors.

Acceptance Criteria
No Load losses to be within guaranteed values.

Continuity test

Purpose of Test
To know the continuity of windings of the transformer.

Test Instruments
Megger or Multi meter

Test Procedure
Check Continuity of Transformer by using multi meter or by Megger between following Terminals.

Test can detect

Open circuit / loose connection of winding.

Magnetic Current Test

Test Purpose
 Magnetizing current test of transformer locates the defects in the magnetic core structure,
shifting of windings, failure in turn to turn insulation or problem in tap changers. These conditions
change the effective reluctance of the magnetic circuit, thus affecting the electric current required
to establish flux in the core.

Test Instrument
Multi meter or Mill Ammeter.

Test Circuit Diagram

Magnetic Current Test

Three phases LT Voltage of 415 V applied on HV side of Power transformer and currents are to
be measured with mill ammeter. The value shall be = (1 to 2 percent of rated full load current of
TC / HT KV) X Voltage Applied

Test Procedure
First of all keep the tap changer in the lowest position and open all IV & LV terminals. Then apply
three phase 415V supply on the line terminals for three phase transformers and single phase
230V supply on single phase transformers. Measure the supply voltage and electric current in
each phase. Now repeat the magnetizing current test of transformer test with keeping tap changer
in normal position and repeat the test with keeping the tap at highest position.
Generally there are two similar higher readings on two outer limb phases on transformer core
and one lower reading on the centre limb phase, in case of three phase transformers. An
agreement to within 30 % of the measured exciting current with the previous test is usually
considered satisfactory. If the measured exciting current value is 50 times higher than the value
measured during factory test, there is likelihood of a fault in the winding which needs further
analysis.

Test Caution
This magnetizing current test of transformer is to be carried out before DC resistance
measurement.

Magnetic Balance Test

Test Purpose
Magnetic balance test of transformer is conducted only on three phase transformers to check
the imbalance in the magnetic circuit.

Test Instrument
Multi meter or Mill Ammeter.

Test Circuit Diagram

Magnetic Balance Test

Test Procedure
First keep the tap changer of transformer in normal position. Now disconnect the transformer
neutral from ground. Then apply single phase 230V AC supply across one of the HV winding
terminals and neutral terminal. Measure the voltage in two other HV terminals in respect of neutral
terminal. Repeat the test for each of the three phases. In case of auto transformer, magnetic
balance test of transformer should be repeated for IV winding also. There are three limbs side by
side in a core of transformer. One phase winding is wound in one limb. The voltage induced in
different phases depends upon the respective position of the limb in the core.
The voltage induced in different phases of transformer in respect to neutral terminals given in
the table below. 415V, Two phase supply is to be applied to any two phases terminals on HV side
of Power transformer and voltages in other two phase combination are to be measured with LT
open. Sum of the Resultant two values shall be equal to the voltage applied.

High Voltage tests on HV & LV Winding

Purpose
 To checks the insulation property between Primary to earth, Secondary to earth and between
Primary & Secondary.
Test Instrument
High Voltage tester (100KV & 3KV).
Test Circuit Diagram

HV High Voltage Test

LV High Voltage Test

Test Procedure
HV high voltage test: LV winding connected together and earthed. HV winding connected
together & given Following HV Supply for 1 minute.
LV high Voltage test: HV winding connected together and earthed. LV winding connected
together and given Following HV Supply for 1 minute.
433V Winding = 3KV High Voltage
11KV Winding = 28KV High Voltage
22KV Winding = 50KV High Voltage
33KV Winding = 70KV High Voltage.

Dielectrical Test

Test Purpose
To check the ability of main insulation to earth and between winding
 To checks the insulation property between Primary to earth, Secondary to earth and between
Primary & Secondary.

Test Instruments
3 Phase Variable Voltage, Frequency Source & Auto Transformer.

Test Procedure
The following Dielectric tests are performed in order to meet the transformer insulation strength
expectations.

Switching impulse test: to confirm the insulation of the transformer terminals and windings to
the earthed parts and other windings, and to confirm the
insulation strength in the windings and through the windings.

Lightning impulse test: to confirm the transformer insulation strength in case of a lightning
hitting the connection terminals.

Separate source AC withstand voltage test: to confirm the insulation strength of the
transformer line and neutral connection terminals and the connected windings to the earthed parts
and other windings.

Induced AC voltage test: (short duration ACSD and long duration ACLD): to confirm the
insulation strength of the transformer connection terminals and the connected windings to the
earthed parts and other windings, both between the phases and through the winding.

Partial discharge measurement: to confirm the “partial discharge below a determined level”
property of the transformer insulation structure under operating conditions.

Method No 1 (separate source voltage withstand test)

All the terminals of the winding under test should be connected together and the voltage should
be applied. The secondary windings of bushing type current transformers should be connected
together and earthed. The current should be stable during test and no surges should occur. A
single phase power frequency voltage of shape approximately sinusoidal is applied for 60
seconds to the terminals of the winding under test. The test shall be performed on all the windings
one by one. The test is successful if no breakdown in the dielectric of the insulation occurs during
test. During the Separate source AC withstand voltage test, the frequency of the test voltage
should be equal to the transformer’s rated frequency or should be not less than 80% of this
frequency. In this way, 60 Hz transformers can also be tested at 50 Hz. The shape of the voltage
should be single phase and sinusoidal as far as possible. This test is applied to the star point
(neutral point) of uniform insulated windings and gradual (non-uniform) insulation windings. Every
point of the winding which test voltage has been applied is accepted to be tested with this voltage.
The test voltage is measured with the help of a voltage divider. The test voltage should be read
from voltmeter as peak value divided by 2. Test period is 1 minute.
Dielectric Test (Seperate Voltage Source withstand Test)
Method No 2 (Induced source voltage withstand test)
The aim of this test is to check the insulation both between phases and between turns of the
windings and also the insulation between the input terminals of the graded insulation windings
and earth.
During test, normally the test voltage is applied to the low voltage winding. Meanwhile HV
windings should be keeping open and earthed from a common point. Since the test voltage will
be much higher than the transformer’s rated voltage, the test frequency should not be less than
twice the rated frequency value, in order to avoid oversaturation of the transformer core. The test
shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage and it shall be quickly increased up to
desired value. The test voltage can either be measured on a voltage divider connected to the HV
terminal or on a voltage transformer and voltmeter which have been set together with this voltage
divider at the LV side. Another method is to measure the test voltage with a peak-value measuring
instrument at the measuring-tap end of the capacitor type bushing (if any). Test period which
should not be less than 15 seconds. It is calculated according, Test period = 120 seconds x (Rated
frequency / Test frequency). The duration of the test shall be 60 second. The test is accepted to
be successful if no surges, voltage collapses or extreme increases in the current have occurred.

Acceptance Criteria
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during test.
Dielectric Test (Induced Voltage Test)
During test, normally the test voltage is applied to the low voltage winding. Meanwhile HV
windings should be keeping open and earthed from a common point. Since the test voltage will
be much higher than the transformer’s rated voltage, the test frequency should not be less than
twice the rated frequency value, in order to avoid oversaturation of the transformer core. The test
shall start with a voltage lower than 1/3 the full test voltage and it shall be quickly increased up to
desired value. The test voltage can either be measured on a voltage divider connected to the HV
terminal or on a voltage transformer and voltmeter which have been set together with this voltage
divider at the LV side. Another method is to measure the test voltage with a peak-value measuring
instrument at the measuring-tap end of the capacitor type bushing (if any). Test period which
should not be less than 15 seconds. It is calculated according, Test period = 120 seconds x (Rated
frequency / Test frequency). The duration of the test shall be 60 second. The test is accepted to
be successful if no surges, voltage collapses or extreme increases in the current have occurred.

Acceptance Criteria
The test is successful if no break down occurs at full test voltage during test.
Method No 3 Lighting Impulse Test
All the dielectric tests check the insulation level of the Transformer. Impulse generator is used
to produce the specified voltage impulse wave of 1.2/50 micro seconds wave. One impulse of a
reduced voltage between 50 to 75% of the full test voltage and subsequent three impulses at full
voltage. For a three phase transformer, impulse is carried out on all three phases in succession.
The voltage is applied on each of the line terminal in succession, keeping the other terminals
earthed. The current and voltage wave shapes are recorded on the oscilloscope & any distortion
in the wave shape is the criteria for failure.

The above content shows the tests done on a transformer during manufacturing and setting up
process.

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor in which, at steady state,[1] the rotation of the
shaft is synchronized with the frequency of the supply current; the rotation period is exactly
equal to an integral number of AC cycles. Synchronous motors contain multiphase
AC electromagnets on the stator of the motor that create a magnetic field which rotates in
time with the oscillations of the line current. The rotor with permanent magnets
or electromagnets turns in step with the stator field at the same rate and as a result, provides
the second synchronized rotating magnet field of any AC motor. A synchronous motor is only
considered doubly fed if it is supplied with independently excited multiphase
AC electromagnets on both the rotor and stator.

Testing of Synchronous Motors

Large synchronous motors tend to be well built and sturdy. They are often overbuilt with material
to withstand the severe loads that are applied. The most common failures for industrial
synchronous machines, in order, are:

Bearings due to general wear and contamination

Rotor fields due to high temperatures, these will often burn up from the inside out

Amortisseur windings mostly in reciprocating loads. Because of the amount of energy

absorbed, the winding bars will often crack. In particular if the rotor fields are beginning to fail and
short, making it easier for the rotor to fall out of synch.

Stator windings - general wear and contamination. Stator windings in synchronous machines tend
to be form wound and heavily insulated.

Almost all of the winding faults that occur in a synchronous motor start between conductors in the
rotor or stator coils.
Common Test Methods, Strengths and Weaknesses

Following are the traditional test methods for evaluating the condition of a synchronous motor:

Insulation resistance testing: Using applied DC voltages as specified by IEEE 432000, a potential
is placed between the stator windings and ground. This measures only direct faults between the
stator windings and the stator frame. Is also performed through the slip rings on a brush type
machine.

Polarization Index: Is a 10 minute to 1 minute ratio of insulation resistance. This has been
traditionally used as a method to gage the condition of the insulation between the stator windings
and frame. As with insulation resistance testing, this can also be performed through the slip rings
on a brush type machine. As stated in IEEE 43-2000, this test method is only truly valid on pre-
1970 insulation systems.

High Potential testing: Most common on large machines is DC high potential testing which is
performed at a value of twice the motor nameplate voltage plus 1000 volts, times the square root
of 3. On an existing insulation system, this value is often reduced to 75% of the potential voltage.
This test highly stresses the insulation system and is potentially damaging (per IEEE Std s 388
and 389). This type of test should NEVER be applied to the rotor windings of a synchronous
motor.

Surge Comparison testing: Evaluates the turn to turn condition of the stator only by comparing
the waveforms of two windings when a fast rise time pulse of twice the voltage plus 1000 volts. If
there are correctable issues, such as contaminated windings, this test may damage the motor
windings.

Partial Discharge testing: Is a non-destructive test method that measures radio frequencies from
discharges in voids within the insulation system of the motor windings. This is effective for trending
on machines that are over 6.6 kV and only provide a brief warning from 4 kV. It does not detect
any rotor faults.

Motor Current Signature Analysis: Was designed for rotor testing of induction motors. Has limited
applications on synchronous motors and cannot detect faults in de-energized equipment.

Voltage Drop Test: Requires that the motor is disassembled. A 115 AC voltage is applied to the
rotor windings and the voltage drop is measured with a volt meter across each coil. If there is a
short, the voltage drop will vary more than 3%.
The above list does not include equipment for mechanical testing of synchronous motors.

About the ALL-TEST

The ALL-TEST IV PRO 2000 is a simple electronic instrument that performs in much the same
manner as a multimeter, except that it provides a series of readings that cover the AC parameters
of the motor circuit. It is a data collector and tester that sends a low voltage DC signal for simple
resistance testing, in the same manner as a milli-Ohm meter, and a low voltage, high frequency
AC signal for AC readings. The instrument then uses a series of balanced electrical bridges to
provide test results in engineering units of resistance, impedance, inductance, phase angle,
current/frequency response and an insulation resistance test to ground.
The primary differences between electronic testing of power equipment versus traditional power methods
are:

A more complete view of the motor circuit, including influences from changes in the condition of rotor
field coil insulation.

One instrument for a large range of equipment size. The test is limited only to the simple resistance range
of the instrument (0.001 Ohm to 999 Ohms).

Non-destructive no harmful voltage is applied.

Easier data interpretation A few simple rules for data interpretation (See data interpretation below).

Hand held vs equipment that may weigh from 40 to well over 100 lbs.

Internal power source for the instrument.

The ALL-TEST IV PRO is literally looking for changes to the electro-chemical makeup of the materials
of the insulation system as well as direct break-downs of the insulation, such as cracks and damage. As
an insulation system ages, or if the insulation system is contaminated and it is effecting the integrity of
the insulation, the electrical circuit of the motor changes. Because the rotor is an integral part of the
circuit, changes to the electrical integrity of the rotor circuit and insulation system are directly reflected
through the stator windings, as well. This allows both immediate troubleshooting and long-term trending
of the motor.

Unique test information allows the ALL-TEST to view enough parameters of the insulation
system to detect and isolate:

Shorted stator windings

Shorted rotor fields

Broken amortise winding bars

Air gap eccentricity

Winding contamination (rotor and stator)

Ground insulation faults

For further details on how these tests are performed and detected, see Guideline for Electronic Static
Winding Circuit Analysis of Rotating Machinery and Transformers.

Basic Steps for the Analysis of Synchronous Machines with ALL-TEST

The steps for testing synchronous machines are similar to those for evaluating the condition of standard
induction motors. However, because there are field coils on the motor rotor, a few additional steps are
involved when troubleshooting a fault.

When testing a synchronous machine from the motor control centre or starter:

De-energize the equipment. Ensure that secondary sources of power are also de-energized.

Perform the standard ALL-TEST IV PRO 2000 tests on the stator following the menu prompts on the
instrument.

Evaluate the test results (See Expected Test Results)

If a fault is indicated, begin troubleshooting:

Adjust the position of the rotor, as much as possible, up to 45 degrees (any movement will do if
The rotor is difficult to turn, but no less than 5 degrees)

Re-perform the tests and review the readings. If the fault has shifted, or changed by more than a digit,
then the fault most likely is located in the rotor.

If the fault remains stationary (does not change with rotor position), then disconnect the leads at the
motor terminal box and retest. If a fault is still indicated, it is most likely in the stator, if not, it is most likely
in the cable.

The average test time, other than troubleshooting, is approximately 3-5 minutes.
When testing a disassembled synchronous machine, it is important to remember that the
readings will be very different without the rotor in place:

Perform the ALL-TEST IV PRO Auto test on the stator and evaluate the test results. This
will provide an immediate indication of any faults.

For the rotor test:

Perform the Auto test and compare to a past reading; or,

Perform the Auto test and compare to an identical rotor; or,

Perform the Auto test across each field coil instead of a voltage drop test. o All parameters for
all three should meet the evaluation limits.

Because of the style of testing, these results can be trended and compared between like
machines.

Other applications for motor circuit testing include evaluation and acceptance, and predictive
maintenance.

Expected Test Results

As mentioned in the last section of this paper, the test results are similar to those found in
three phase induction machines. Fault patterns are very straight-forward and apply regardless
of equipment size, within the test range of the ALL-TEST . Following is a brief overview of
the test measurements and their results for basic troubleshooting:

Simple resistance measurements: Are an indicator of high resistance connections, loose

connections or broken conductors in the circuit. This test is important, especially if the
resistance problem is in one spot as,

Based upon I R, a resistive spot will put out a great deal of heat energy (in Watts). For
instance, a 0.5 Ohm
Resistance across a point in a circuit that is seeing 100 Amps would give off: (100Amps) (0.5
Ohms) = 5,000 Watts (5kW) worth of energy. This is about the same energy used to turn 6
horsepower worth of electric motor.

Inductance measurement: Is an indicator of magnetic strength of a coil and the influence of

other coils on one coil. It is impacted by the number of turns in a circuit, the dimensions of the
coils and the inductance of other coils. This measurement, by itself, is only a good indicator of
the condition of the amortise winding and rotor eccentricity. Inductance will only show a
shorted winding if it is severe.
Impedance measurement: Is the measurement of the complex resistance in the circuit. It can
be used, much like inductance, for checking the amortise winding and rotor condition.
However, when used along with inductance, it can be used to detect overheated windings and
winding contamination quickly. By viewing the relationship of inductance and impedance
between each phase: If the inductance and impedance are relatively parallel, then any
inductive and impedance unbalance is in the relationship between the rotor and stator (rotor
position); if they are not parallel, then there is an insulation problem such as insulation
breakdown or winding contamination.

Phase angle and I/F (Current/Frequency): Are both indicators of insulation faults between
turns in the stator or rotor.

Synchronous Machine Rotor Windings the presence of faults in rotor winding insulation can
sometimes be indicated by a change in machine performance rather than by the operation of
a protective relay. For example, if a coil develops a short circuit, a thermal bend may develop
due to an asymmetric heat input into the rotor. This could lead to an increase in shaft vibration
with increasing excitation current. This change can be used in some cases to determine if the
interturn fault is significant. The location and severity of a fault cannot always be found easily
even when the rotor is removed. This is especially true in large turbine-generator rotors whose
concentric field windings are embedded in slots in the rotor body and covered by retaining
rings at the ends. Many ground and interturn failures disappear at reduced speed or at a
standstill. This makes their detection very difficult and emphasizes the need for on-line
detection technique. The following tests are used to determine if faults exist in the rotor
winding and/or indicate their location. Solid-state devices used in exciters should be shorted
out before conducting any test involving the induction or application of external voltages to the
rotor winding.

Open-Circuit Test for Shorted Turns. An open-circuit test can be used to confirm if shorted
turns in rotor field winding exist when there are indirect symptoms such as a change in
vibration levels with excitation. The machine should be taken out of service for a short while
but does not need to be disassembled.
Figure 16.7 illustrates the open-circuit characteristic of a synchronous machine. It relates the
terminal voltage to field current while the machine is running at synchronous speed with its
terminals disconnected from the grid. The open-circuit curve can be used to verify shorted
turns if an open-circuit test characteristic with healthy turn insulation was done previously. A
higher field current will be required to generate the same open- circuit voltage if there are
shorted turns in a rotor field winding. If the difference between the two curves in more than 2
percent, the possibility of a turn insulation fault will be confirmed. The difference in
characteristics to indicate a shorted turn depends on the number of turns in the field winding
and the number of shorted turns. For example, a sin- gle shorted turn cannot be detected by
this test if the connected field winding has a large number of turns. This test is done while the
machine is running at synchronous speed with its stator winding terminal open-circuited and
the field winding energized. Generators can easily be driven at synchronous speed because
their drivers are designed to operate at synchronous speed. Motors may need to be driven by
ac or dc drive at synchronous speed.

If the test indicates the possibility of shorted turns, further confirmation should be obtained by
performing additional tests. This test has these limitations:
● It may not detect shorted turns if the machine has a large number of turns and/or there are
parallel circuits in the field winding.
● Differences in the open-circuit curve will also be created when the machine’s magnetic
characteristics change, for example, when the rotor wedges are replaced with a different
material.

Air Gap Search Coil for Detecting Shorted Turns. Interturn faults in rotors are detected by
air gap search coils. Methods have been developed for on-line and off-line testing. This
technique is especially useful for detecting faults present at operating speed which disappear
on shutdown. The coils and slots having shorted turns as well as the number of turns shorted
can be identified by this method. Permanent flux probes have already been installed on some
machines. Each rotor slot has local fields around it. This leakage flux is related to the current
in the rotor. The magnetic field associated with a coil will be affected if the coil is shorted. The
search coil records the high-frequency waveform (known as slot ripple) generated in the air
gap. Each rotor slot generates a peak of the waveform in proportion to the leakage flux around
it. If an interturn fault occurs, the peaks associated with the two slots containing the faulted
coil will be reduced. The recorded data are analyzed to identify the faulted coil and the number
of (faults). Shorted turns also generate significant levels of even harmonics (multiples of the
frequency) while a fault-free rotor generates only odd harmonics.
The search coil is normally mounted on a stator wedge. A gas-tight gland is required for the
leads of the probe. Shorted rotor turns should not be a cause of grave concern if the rotor
vibration is not excessive and the required excitation is maintained. A generator can operate
adequately for a period of time under this condition. However, these shorted turns are normally
caused by serious local degradation of the interturn insulation and possibly major distortion of
the conductors. In some cases where static exciters are used, arcing damage and local
welding have been found.
It is difficult to interpret the on-load test results from the search coil due to the effects of
saturations and magnetic anomalies in the rotor body. More complex and time-consuming
detection techniques are required. However, modern on-line monitors have overcome these
difficulties. They are designed for use with turbine generators equipped with air gap search
coil. The output from the search coil is continuously being processed. An alarm is initiated
when a current-carrying shorted turn occurs in the rotor winding.
Impedance Test with Rotor Installed. Shorted turns in a field winding can also be detected
by periodic measurement of rotor impedance using an ac power supply. These tests should
ideally be performed while the machine is operating at synchronous speed because shorted
turns may only exist when centrifugal forces are acting on the turn conductors. When the
machine is shut down, there may not be any contact, or the fault resistance may be high.
Shorted turns can be detected more accurately by impedance rather than resistance
measurements. This is due to the induced backward current in a single shorted turn, which
opposes the magnetomotive force (mmf) of the entire coil, resulting in a significant reduction
in reactance. This technique is particularly effective in salient-pole rotors, where one short-
circuited turn eliminates the reactance of the complete pole. There is a sudden change in
impedance when a turn is shorted during run-up or rundown (Fig. 16.8). A sudden change of
more than 5 percent is needed to verify shorted turns.
The highest field current used for this test should be significantly lower than the normal current
required for rated stator voltage at open circuit. The voltage applied should not exceed the
rated no-load stator voltage. A normal winding will exhibit a reduction in
impedance up to 10 percent between standstill and operating conditions due to the effects of
eddy currents on the rotor.
This test can only be performed if the field winding is accessible through collector rings
because the low-voltage ac power should be applied while the machine is running. A 120-V,
1-phase, 60-Hz ac power is applied. The voltage, current, and shaft speed are measured. The
power supply should be ungrounded because the rotor could get damaged if the field winding
has a ground fault.
The test includes these steps:
1. Perform an insulation resistance test on the field winding of the machine to be tested to
check for ground faults. The impedance test should not be performed if a ground fault is found.
The ground fault should be located using a different procedure.
2. Connect an instrumented and ungrounded power supply to the field winding (Fig. 16.9).
The instruments used should be properly calibrated.
3. Take the reading from the local speed indicator to determine the relationship between
impedance and speed.
4. Adjust the field winding voltage to give a maximum permissible current of 75 percent of the
current required to achieve the rated open-circuit stator voltage.
GENERATOR SURVEILLANCE AND TESTING 16.15
5. Increase and decrease the speed of the machine while the stator windings are disconnected
from the power supply. Measure the current, voltage, and speed starting at zero and
increasing the speed at 100 rpm intervals until the rated speed is reached. Continuous
measurements can also be recorded simultaneously on a multichannel strip chart recorder.
The values of the impedance (Z = V/I ) should be plotted against the speed (Fig. 16.8). A
sudden change in impedance of 5 percent or more or a gradual change of more than 10
percent will indicate a strong possibility of shorted turns in the winding. This test is not as
sensitive as the previous two described earlier. It is also important to note that solidly shorted
turns will not produce an abrupt change in impedance.
Detecting the Location of Shorted Turns with Rotor Removed. The exact location of a
shorted turn should be found to minimize the disturbance to the winding when making repairs.
One or a combination of the following procedures should be used:
Low-Voltage AC Test. When the field winding of a synchronous machine rotor having shorted
turns is connected to a low ac voltage (typically 120 V), the tips of the teeth on either side of
the slot(s) having the shorted turns will have significantly different flux induced in them. Figure
16.10 illustrates how the relative magnitudes of tooth fluxes can be measured. The teeth are
bridged by a flux survey using a laminated-steel or air-core search coil, which is connected to
a voltmeter and wattmeter. The voltage is measured by the voltmeter while the direction of the
induced flux is given by the wattmeter. The search coil is moved across all the teeth of the
rotor, and voltage and wattage readings are taken. The search coil readings depend on its
axial location along the rotor. Therefore, all the read- ings should be taken with the coil located
the same axial distance from the end of the rotor. Since the readings vary significantly near
the end of the rotor, the coil should not be placed near the end of the rotor. It is important to
note that core saturation may occur when a 60-Hz power supply is used. A higher frequency
should be used, if possible, to reduce this problem.
The equipment used for the EL-CID test, described later, can be used to detect the shorted
field winding turns. This test can be done without removing the end-winding retain- ing rings if
the rotor has steel wedges and no damper winding. If the rotor has a separate damper winding
or aluminum alloy slot wedges (shorted at the ends) used as a damper winding, they must be
open-circuited at the ends before the test can be done. In this case, the retaining rings should
be removed. Since many shorts are created by the action of centrifugal forces, they may not
appear at standstill.
Figure 16.11 illustrates the flux distribution for a rotor with and without shorted turns. The sharp
change in direction of the induced flux indicates the slot containing the shorted turns.
Low-Voltage DC Test (Voltage Drop Test). This method is used to locate the shorts based on
dc voltage drop between turns. The end rings should be removed to provide access to the
turns. In some cases, the shorts should be induced by applying a radial force to the coils. This
is normally done by tapping the wedges with a wooden block or clamping the coils at the
corner.
The test is done by applying a dc voltage to the field winding and measuring the drop in voltage
across the turns. If a short occurs, the voltage drop across the turn will be lower than normal.
Field Winding Ground Fault Detectors. A large generator rotor operates at 500 V dc and 4000
A normally. If the insulation between the winding and the body is damaged or bridged by
conducting materials, there will be a shift of the dc potential of the winding and exciter. The
part of the winding where the fault occurred becomes the new zero potential point. In most
cases, this will not cause an immediate problem if there is no additional ground fault. A second
ground fault in the rotor will be catastrophic.
A rotor ground fault detector is used to enunciate when a fault occurs. Some units are tripped
automatically due to possible extensive damage to the rotor body by a dc arc across a
separate copper connection. Ground fault detectors have various configurations. The rotor
winding is grounded in simple dc schemes on one end through a high ohmic resistance.
However, these schemes become insensitive if the fault occurs close to this end. Ohm’s law
determines the magnitude of leakage current from the rotor winding to the ground fault relay.
The shaft should also be grounded.
A sophisticated technique was developed to continue operation of a generator having a known
ground fault (second ground fault detector). It uses a microprocessor and measur- ing resistors
to determine whether the power dissipated by the leakage current exceeds a value that would
cause a failure if there were two or more ground faults from the winding. A search coil mounted
in the air gap has been used to detect interturn faults and a second ground fault.
If a fault is identified, measurements of slip ring to shaft voltages will give an indication of the
location of the fault. (Is the fault at the middle or end of the winding?) After dis- connecting the
ground fault detector and while the generator is still on-line, the voltage readings between the
brush holders and the shaft are taken. If one ground fault is present, the approximate location
of the fault in percent of winding resistance is

During rundown of the unit (when it is unloaded and tripped), an insulation resistance tester is
used to test the fault resistance. The brushes are raised or the field circuit breaker is opened
to determine if the fault is in the generator rotor, external bus, or exciter. The fault is also
monitored as the speed drops. If the fault disappears, it will be impossible to find its location.
The operator may decide to put the machine back in service. If the fault reappears when the
unit is returned to service, the process should be repeated. If the fault is sustained, a low
voltage is applied across the slip rings while the rotor is at standstill. It is usually pro- vided
from a 12-V car battery or from a 120-V ac variac. The voltage between the rotor body and
each slip ring is measured. If the readings are full voltage with one and zero with the other,
there is likely a low-resistance path at the slip rings. It could be caused by carbon dust or
insulation failure. It may easily be corrected with a good cleanup. The rotor should be
withdrawn if the fault is within the winding. When the rotor is removed, the low-volt- age source
is reapplied to the slip rings, and a voltmeter is installed between the rotor body and a long
insulated wire. The insulation is removed from the last 5 mm of the wire, and a probe is used
to contact the rotor winding metal through ventilation holes and under the retaining rings. This
technique will identify the slot, bar, or ventilation hole having the clos- est voltage to the rotor
body. The fault is usually located under the wedge near this location. The problem is rectified
sometimes by cleaning the ventilation ducts. Otherwise, additional dismantling may be
required.
If the ground fault is transient and needs to be found, a failure is forced with a moderate high-
potential test and the same technique is used. The hipot test should be used as a last option.
Surge Testing for Rotor Shorted Turns and Ground Faults. This off-line method is used to
detect rotor winding faults on stationary and rotating shafts. The location of the fault is
identified. This method is very effective in finding ground faults and shorted turns. There is
electrical symmetry in a healthy rotor winding. The travel time of an identical electric pulse
injected at both slip rings through the winding should be identical. The reflection of the pulse
back to the slip rings would also be identical. If there is a short or ground fault, some of the
pulse energy will be reflected back to the slip ring due to the drop in imped- ance at the fault.
The reflections will change the input pulse waveform depending on the distance to the fault.
Therefore, a fault will generate different waveforms at each slip ring unless it is located exactly
halfway in the winding.
Recurrent surge oscillography (RSO) is a technique based on the above principle. This test
cannot be done on-line because the winding should be isolated from the exciter. Two identical,
fast-rising voltage pulses are injected simultaneously at the slip rings. The potential at each
injection point is plotted versus time. Identical records should be obtained if there is no fault
due to the symmetry in the winding. Differences between the traces are indicative of the
winding fault. The fault is located from the time at which irregularity occurred. Ground faults
having a resistance less than 500 D will be detected by the RSO method. These faults are
also normally detected by the generator protection systems. The RSO technique is used to
confirm ground faults. Interturn faults having a resistance of less than 10 D will also be
detected by RSO. Faults which have a resistance more than 10 D are more significant during
operation and less severe off-load. These faults cannot be detected by RSO.

The above shows testing of the synchronous machines during manufacturing.