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Daoist dietetics Huangdineijing Yellow Emperor’s Esoteric Classic
Influence
Daoism and Chinese culture
Daoist contributions to Chinese science
Daoist physiological techniques have, in themselves, no devotional character.
They have the same preoccupations as physicians: to preserve health and to prolong
physical life. Medicine developed independently from about the 1st century CE, but
many Daoist faith healers and hygienists added to medical knowledge.
The earliest surviving medical book, the Huangdineijing, or “The Yellow
Emperor’s Esoteric Classic” (3rd century BCE?), presents itself as the teachings of a
legendary Celestial Master addressed to the Yellow Emperor.
Experiments with minerals, plants, and animal substances, inspired to some
extent by Daoist dietetics and by the search for the elixir of life, resulted in the 52
chapters of pharmacopoeia called Bencaogangmu, or “Great Pharmacopoeia”
(16th century).
This interest in science is considered a reflection of the Daoist emphasis on
direct observation and experience of the nature of things, as opposed to Confucian
reliance on the authority of tradition. Zhuangzi declared that tradition tells what
was good for a bygone age but not what is good for the present.
The Daoist secret of efficacy is to follow the nature of things; this does not
imply scientific experimentation but rather a sensitivity and skill obtained by
“minute concentration on the Dao running through natural objects of all kinds.”
This knowledge and skill cannot be handed down but is that which the men of old
took with them when they died (Zhuangzi). The image for it is the skill of the
artisan admired by the Daoists in their numerous parables on wheelwrights,
meatcutters, sword makers, carvers, animal tamers, and musicians.
Though extolling the intuitive comprehension and skillful handling of matter,
the Daoists did not observe nature in the Western sense and rejected technology out
of their aversionto the artificial. Any new idea or discovery in China was phrased as
“what the old masters really meant.” This ideology of rediscovery makes it hard to
study the evolution of scientific thought. Some progress over the ages (for example,
in alchemy) can be seen, but the Daoist contribution to Chinese science might be
smaller than it has been assumed.
Daoist imagery
Daoist literature manifests such richness and variety that scholars tend
naturally to seek the symbolic modes of expression that served as points of unity
within its historical diversity. No image is more fundamental to all phases of
Daoism than that of the child. Daodejing praises the infant’s closeness to the Dao in
its freedom from outside impressions, and Zhuangzi describes the spiritual beings
nurtured on primal substances, air and dew, as having the faces of children. Thus
many of the spirits, both indwelling and celestial, in the esoteric system are
described as resembling newborn babes, while the Immortals who appear in
visions, though hundreds of years old, are at most adolescent in appearance. Other
persistent images are those of mountain and cavern. Present in the older texts, they
are carried over, with particular connotations, into the later works. The mountain as
a meeting place of heaven and earth, gods and men, and master and disciple (as
already in Zhuangzi), takes on a vast downward extension. Beneath the mountains
are the great “cavern-heavens” (dongtian) of esoteric Daoism, a hierarchy staffed
by numerous Immortals. Thus, for example, while Maoshan is only some 400
metres (1,300 feet) high to the gaze of the profane, the initiate knows that its
luminous grottoes plunge thousands of metres into the earth. And light is
everywhere in Daoist revelation: spirits and paradises alike gleam with brilliance
unknown in the world of men.
Influence on secular literature
Already during the Warring States period and the early Han, Daoism had
made its appearance in the works of the other schools. Both direct quotations and
patent imitations were frequent, and citations from Daodejing and Zhuangzi abound
throughout later Chinese literature, as do reminiscences of both their style and their
content. Esoteric Daoist writings, too, held great fascination for men of letters.
Their response might vary from a mere mention of the most celebrated Immortals
to whole works inspired directly by specific Daoist texts and practices. Many a poet
recorded his search, real or metaphorical, for Immortals or transcendent herbs or
described his attempts at compounding an elixir. A certain number of technical
terms became touchstones of poetic diction. The revealed literature
of Maoshan came to have the greatest effect on secular writings. As works of great
literary refinement, the Lives of the Perfected directly inspired a very famous tale,
the Intimate Life of Emperor Wu of Han (Han Wudi neizhuan; late 6th century),
which in highly polished terms describes the visit to the emperor of a goddess, the
Queen Mother of the West. This work, in turn, made a decisive contribution to the
development of Tang romantic fiction. Literary accounts of fantastic marvels also
drew heavily on the wonders of Maoshan hagiography and topography. The
Maoshan influence on Tang poetry was no less important. Precise references to the
literature of the sect abound in the poems of the time, while many of the greatest
poets, such as Li Bai, were formally initiated into the Maoshan organization. As
awareness of these influences increases, scholars are faced with the intriguing
question of the possible religious origins of whole genres of Chinese literature (see
also Chinese Literature).
Influence on the visual arts
A number of early Chinese books of spiritual interest claim to have been
inspired by pictures seen on the walls of local temples. A similar tradition attaches
to the Lives of the Immortals, which is said to derive from a pictorial work
called Portraits of the Immortals. As has been noted, the Immortals were depicted
on Han mirrors. Other illustrative materials were in close relation to the earliest
esoteric Daoist literature. Graphic guides existed from early times to aid in the
identification of sacred minerals and plants, particularly mushrooms. A later
specimen of such a work is to be found in the Daoist Canon. This practical aspect
of Daoist influence resulted in the exceptionally high technical level of botanical
and mineralogical drawing that China soon attained. In calligraphy, too, Daoists
soon set the highest standard. One of the greatest of all calligraphers, Wang
Xizhi (c. 303–361), was an adherent of the Way of the Celestial Master, and one of
his most renowned works was a transcription of the Book of the Yellow Court. The
efficacy of talismans, in particular, depended on the precision of the strokes from
which they were created. Figure painting was another field in which Daoists
excelled. China’s celebrated painter Gu Kaizhi, a practicing Daoist, left an essay
containing directions for painting a scene in the life of the first Celestial
Master, Zhang Daoling. Many works on Daoist themes, famous in their time but
now lost, have been attributed to other great early masters. Of these, some may
have been painted for use in ritual, and religious paintings of the Daoist pantheon
are still produced today. The Daoist scriptures, with their instructions for
visualization of the spiritual hierarchy, including details of apparel
and accoutrements, are ready-made painter’s manuals. Finally, the language of
speculative Daoism was pressed into service as the basic vocabulary of
Chinese aesthetics. Consequently, many secular artists attempted to express their
own conceptions of the “natural spontaneity” of Zhuangzi and Laozi’s “spirit of the
valley.” Here Daoism found still wider imaginative extension, and the efforts of
these painters are embodied in those magnificent landscapes that have come to be
thought of as most characteristically Chinese.