Contents

1.1 What is Telecommunications?

1.2 Significance of Telecommunications
1.3 Historical Perspective
1.4 Standardization
1.5 Standards Organizations
 1.1. What is telecommunication?
Telecommunications has been defined as a technology concerned with
communicating from a distance.

Our main focus is Electrical, Bidirectional

1.1. Cont…
Telecommunications is the transmission of signals over a
distance for the purpose of communication.
The purpose of communication system is to transmit
information from one point to another (i.e. Data, Audio or
Video ).
Modern Operations are
Telephone.
Radio and Television.
The Internet.
Local Area Networks.
 1.2. Significance of Telecommunications
Telecommunications networks make up the most
complicated equipment in the world.
Telephone network – more than 2 billion fixed and cellular
telephones with universal access.
Telecommunications services have an essential impact on
the development of a community.
Telephone density and economical development are related.
1.2. Cont…
The operations of a modern community are highly
dependent on telecommunications.
LAN (company)
E-mail, telephones, facsimile and mobile telephones
(governmental organizations, private organizations)
Telecommunications plays an essential role on many areas
of everyday living.
Banking, automatic teller machines, booking of tickets,
booking of hotel rooms, material purchasing , government
operations, such as taxation etc.
1.3. Historical Development of
Telecommunications

7
Telegraphy
Samuel Morse (1844) and William Thomson (1855)
from the two Greek words: Tele means “far” and
Graphien meaning “Writing”.
So telegraphy is the long distance transmission of
messages via some signaling technology. It requires messages
to be converted to a code, which is known to both sender and
receiver.

8
Morse Telegraph
Samuel Finely Breese Morse (1791 – 1872)
Painter , Inventor

9
Sequences of operations
• When a finger presses the key, electricity flows from the
battery through the wires and causes an impulse to flash to
the electromagnet at the receiving end.
• The impulse causes a burst of magnetism that causes two
pieces of iron to be attracted to each other and make a
click.
• If the operator depresses and releases the key quickly, a
short click is produced, a “dot”.
• If the operator holds down the key for a count of about
three , a longer click is produced, a “dash”.

10
Cont..
• Each letter of the alphabet is assigned its own
configuration of dots and dashes. The coded message
travels almost instantaneously miles away to the receiver
(also called a sounder).
• Trained to understand Morse code by ear, the operator
decodes the message and writes it down.
• After the first demonstration of the telegraph proved the
viability of the system, people began stringing telegraph
lines between cities and towns.
• The invention of two additional devices, the switchboard
and the relay, allowed the network to spread across the
nation and around the world.
Cont…
International Morse code is composed of five elements:
short mark, dot or “dit” ( . ) – one unit long
longer mark, dash or “dah”(−) - three units long
intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes
within a character) - one unit long
short gap (between letters) - three units long
medium gap (between words) - seven units long

12
13
Standardization
Communication networks are designed to serve a wide
variety of users who are using equipment from many
different vendors.
standards are necessary to achieve interoperability,
compatibility, and required performance in a cost-
effective manner
Open standards are needed to enable the
interconnection of systems, equipment, and networks
from different manufacturers, vendors, and operators.

14
1.4. Standards Organizations
National Standardization Authorities
National standardization authorities approve official national
standards
Examples: Ethiopian Telecommunication Agency, the
British Standards Institute (BSI; United Kingdom), Deutsche
Industrie-Normen (DIN; Germany), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI; United States), and the Finnish
Standards Institute (SFS; Finland).
Global Organizations
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is a
specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for
telecommunications.

15
Please, bring the individual assignment for
MONDAY!!
Contents
2.1. Basic Telecommunications Network
2.2. Operation of a Conventional Telephone
2.3. Switching Systems
2.4. Signaling
2.5. Local-Access network,
Trunk Network,
International Network, and
Telecommunications Network.
2.6. Telephone Numbering
2.7. Network Management
2.8. Traffic Engineering
2.1. Basic Telecommunications Network
The purpose of telecommunications system is to
provide the means to pass information from one
terminal (subscriber) to other terminal.
It is divided into four possible elements – end systems
or elements, transmission systems, switching systems
and signaling.
Cont…
End instruments : To transmit and receive sound, data,
pictures, and other information – telephone, fax, telex,
computer, …
Transmission systems: To provide circuits having the
capability of accepting electrical signals at one point and
delivering at destination point with good quality.
Switching : As the number of telephones grew, operators
soon noticed that it was necessary to switch signals from
one wire to another.
Then only a few cable connections were needed between
exchanges because the number of simultaneously ongoing
calls is much smaller than the number of telephones.
Cont…
Signaling: It is the mechanism that allows network
entities to establish, maintain, and terminate sessions
in a network.
It is carried out with the help of specific signals or
messages that indicate to the other end what is
requested of it by this connection.
2.2. Operation of a Conventional Telephone
The telephone is a familiar end instrument in
telecommunication system.
The telephone is basically a transducer. The
transmitter telephone converts sound energy into
electrical energy.
The receiver telephone converts electrical energy into
sound waves.
The Telephone
The Handset
Transmitter/ Microphone :
It consists of a box containing a powder of small carbon
granules.
Carbon microphones have poor frequency response and
bad signal-to-noise ratios and they are only suitable for
telephones and such communication applications.
One side of the enclosure is flexible and is mechanically
attached to a diaphragm on which sound wave impinges.
The diaphragm causes the carbon granules to compress or
allow them to expand.
Consequently, the resistance of the carbon granules
decreases or increases in the box.
Cont…
The carbon granules conduct electricity and the
resistance offered by them is dependent upon the
density with which they are packed.
If a voltage is applied to microphone, the current in
the circuit varies according to the vibrations of the
diaphragm.
The varying electrical signal is similar to the varying
sound signal.
Microphone functions like amplitude modulator.
Microphone as amplitude modulator
When the sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, the
instantaneous resistance is given by,
ri = rq – rmsin(wt)
where, ri = instantaneous resistance.
rq = quiescent resistance of the microphone when
there is no speech signal.
rm = maximum variation in resistance offered by the
carbon granules, rm< rq .
w=2πf, f = frequency (Hz).
The negative sign indicates the decrease in resistance when
the carbon granules are compressed and vice versa.
Cont…
At ideal condition, the instantaneous current in the
microphone is given by:

Where Iq = quiescent current in the microphone

Using Binomial theorem and ignoring higher order terms,

The equation resembles the amplitude modulation equation.

Receiver/ Earphone
The varying signal from the handset A (calling
subscriber) is coupled by wires to a receiver of the handset
B (called subscriber) .
The receiver is an electromagnet with an accompanying
magnetic diaphragm.
The electromagnetic usually have two coils of about 100
turns with nominal resistance of 400 ohms.
The diaphragm is made of cobalt iron and it is slightly
conical shaped near the ear for uniform pressure
distribution and hence the sound.
Hybrids
Within the telephone network, switching and
transmission are almost always four-wire circuits with the
two signals being separated.
Hybrids perform the necessary conversion.
If any 2-wire full duplex ( communication in both
directions) analogue line requires amplification, this can
only be done after separating the send and transmit pairs.
In telecommunication, a four-wire circuit is a two-way
circuit using two paths so arranged that the respective
signals are transmitted in one direction only by one path
and in the other direction by the other path.
Cont…
In today’s digital systems, each speech direction must be
processed and transported independently.
Hybrids allow two people to speak and listen
simultaneously over a single pair of wires, with little or no
interaction.
The two audio directions are combined on a single two-
wire pair.
The search for better telephone hybrids and echo
cancellers was an important motive for the development
of DSP algorithms and hardware.
Dialing
Pulse dialing : A rotary dial
telephone is used for implementing
the pulse dialing.

Tone dialing/ Keypad :

Touch-tone dialing
Dual Tone Multifrequency (DTMF)
Pulse Dialing
When a digit is to be dialed, the dialing plate with finger
holes is rotated clockwise to the end and released.
The switch is breaking the line current periodically and
the number of these periods indicates the dialed digits.
Direct-current pulse train is produced by interrupting a
steady signal according to a fixed or formatted code for
each digit and at a standard pulse repetition rate.
Tone Dialing
For dialing, each push button generates a tone with two
frequencies.

A commercial receiver uses two dedicated switched

capacitor filters for each of the high and low frequency
tones, and then digital counting techniques to determine
the frequency.
2.3. Switching and Signaling
To build the requested connection from one subscriber
to another, the network has switching equipment that
selects the required connection.
These switching systems are called exchanges.
The subscriber identifies the required connection with
signaling information (dialing) that is transmitted
over the subscriber line.
In the network, signaling is needed to transmit the
control information of a specific call and circuits from
one exchange to another.
Cont…
The main task of the telephone exchange is to build up a
physical connection between subscriber A, the one who
initiates the call, and subscriber B according to signaling
information dialed by subscriber A.
The speech channel is connected from the time when the
circuit was established to the time when the call is cleared.
There are three types of switching namely a circuit switching,
message switching and packet switching.
In telecommunication switching, the circuit switching and
message switching are used.
The switching technique used in computer communication
network or data transfer is packet switching.
Basics of Switching System
Functions of Switching System
Identity: The local switching centre must react to a calling
signal from calling subscriber and must be able to receive
information to identify the required destination terminal
(seize).
Addressing: The switching system must be able to identify the
called subscriber from the input information (train of pulses or
multiple frequency). The address may be in same local centre
or some other exchange.
Finding and path setup: Once the calling subscriber
destination is identified and the called subscriber is available,
an accept signal is passed to the switching system and calling
subscriber. Based on the availability, suitable path will be
selected.
Cont…
Busy testing: If the number dialed by the calling subscriber is
wrong or the called subscriber is busy or the terminal may be free
but no response, a switching system has to pass a corresponding
voice message or busy tone after waiting for some time.
Supervision: Once the path is setup between calling and called
subscriber, it should be supervised in order to detect answer and
clear down conditions and recording billing information.
Clear down: When the established call is completed, the path setup
should be disconnected. By clear signal, the switching system must
disconnect the path setup between calling and called subscriber.
Billing: A switching system should have a mechanism to meter to
count the number of units made during the conversation. This
information and if any should be sent to the calling subscriber.
2.4. Signaling
The three signaling circuits are the main telephone, the switch
hook, which is operated when the telephone is first lifted, the
keypad for sending numbers, and the alerter.
Local Signaling: Signaling is a major function of a telephone
network. It is required for setting up calls between any of the
millions of telephones connected throughout the world.
Local signaling is the first stage in this complex process.
Subscriber Loop: Most telephones are connected to the
Switching Centre by a single pair of wires, known as the
subscriber loop.
These are usually in multi-pair cables, each providing from 6 to
2700 wire pairs.
For this reason it is necessary to provide for transmission of
speech and signaling in both directions along one pair.
Set up and Release of a Call
Each telephone has a switch that indicates an on- or off-
hook condition.
When the hook is raised, the switch is closed and an
approximately 50 mA of current starts flowing.
This is detected by a relay giving information to the control
unit in the exchange.
It activates signaling circuits, which then receive dialed
digits from subscriber A (who initiates a call).
The control unit in the telephone exchange controls the
switching matrix that connects the speech circuit through
to the called subscriber B.
Connection is made according to the numbers dialed by
subscriber A.
Cont…
When the call is being routed to subscriber B, the
telephone exchange supplies to the subscriber loop a
ringing voltage and the bell of subscriber B’s telephone
starts ringing.
The ringing voltage is often about 70V ac 25-Hz
frequency, which is high enough to activate the bell on
any telephone.
The ringing voltage is switched off immediately when
an off-hook condition is detected on the loop of
subscriber B, and then an end-to-end speech circuit is
connected and the conversation may start.
2.5.1. Local-Access Network
The local-access network provides the connection between the
customer ’s telephone and the local exchange.
Most subscriber connections use twisted pairs of copper
wires.
An optical connection is used when a high transmission
capacity or very good transmission quality is required.
A microwave radio relay is often a more economical
solution than optical fiber when there is a need to increase
data capacity beyond the capacity of an existing cable network.
One technology for implementation of ordinary subscriber
loops for fixed telephone service is wireless local loop
(WLL).
Cont…
Concentrator: A device that connects a number of links with
only one destination.
Local Exchange: Local or subscriber loops connect
subscribers to local exchanges, which are the lowest-level
exchanges in the switching hierarchy.
The main tasks of digital local exchange:
Detect off-hook condition, analyze the dialed number, and
determine if a route is available.
Connect the subscriber to a trunk exchange for longer distance
calls.
Connect the subscriber to another in the same local area.
Determine if the called subscriber is free and connect ringing
signal to it.
Provide meeting and collect charging data for its own subscribers.
Convert analog speech into a digital signal.
2.5.2. Trunk Network
Local exchanges are connected to trunk exchanges, which
are linked to provide a network of connections from any
customer to any other subscriber in the country.
High-capacity transmission paths, usually optical line
systems, interconnect trunk exchanges.
Transport/ transmission network has alternative routes.
Trunk exchanges are usually located in major cities.
International Network
Each country has at least one international switching
center to which trunk exchanges are connected.
Via this highest switching hierarchy level, any subscriber
is able to access any of the other more than 2 billion
subscribers around the world.
High-capacity optical systems interconnect international
exchanges or switching centers of national networks.
Submarine cables (coaxial cable or optical cable systems),
microwave radio systems, and satellites connect
continental networks to make up the worldwide
telecommunications network.
2.5.3. Telecommunications Networks
Public Networks: Are owned and managed by
telecommunications network operators.
Any customer can be connected if he has the correct
equipment and an agreement with the network operator.
Telephone Network
PSTN
Voice communication (fixed telephone service)
Mobile or cellular telephone systems.
Telex Network
Paging Networks
Internet
Radio and Television Networks
Cont…
Private or Dedicated Networks: Are built and designed
to serve the needs of particular organizations.
Voice Communication Networks
E.g.: voice networks used by police and other emergency
services, taxi organizations and railway companies.
Private or professional mobile radio (PMR).
Data Communication Networks: Are dedicated
networks especially designed for the transmission of data
between the offices of an organization.
Banks, hotel chains, and travel agencies, for example, have
their own separate data networks to update and
distribute credit and reservation information.
2.6. Telephone Numbering
An international telephone connection from any
telephone to any other telephone is made possible by
unique identification of each subscriber socket in the
world.
International prefix, country code, area code and
subscriber number.
Operator Numbers: A subscriber will need to dial
additional digits to select a service provider (network
operator).
2.7. Network Management
The importance of network management has grown
together with the size and complexity of the
telecommunications network.
Efficient network management is a key tool in helping a
network operator improve services and make them more
competitive
Corporate networks are private networks containing
LANs interconnected by circuits provided by a public
telecommunications network operator.
Therefore the corporation which provides the network
manages its network.
2.8. Traffic Engineering
Traffic engineering is a key issue for telecommunications
network operators trying to keep customers (subscribers)
happy while minimizing network investments.
The capacity of the network (e.g., number of channels
between exchanges, exchange sizes, number of radio
channels in a cellular network) should be increased.
Therefore, the utilization of the network is continuously
measured and traffic demand in the future is estimated.
Then, based on these estimates, the capacity of the
network can be increased before severe problems occur.
Traffic Statistics
Calling rate (λ) : The average number of requests for
connection that are made per unit time.

Where, n is the average number of calls to and from a terminal

during a period T seconds.
Holding time (h) : The average duration of occupancy
of a traffic path by a call.
The probability of a call lasting at least t seconds is
given by P(t) = exp(-t/h)
Cont…
Distribution of destinations : Number of calls received
at an exchange may be destined to its own exchange or
remote exchange or a foreign exchange.
The destination distribution is described as the probability
of a call request being for particular destination.
Average occupancy (A) :
A=(nh)/T Erlangs.
Also referred as traffic flow or traffic intensity or carried
traffic.
User behavior : The statistical properties of the switching
system are a function of the behavior of users who
encounter call blocking.
Traffic Pattern/ Load
Telephone traffic varies season to season, month to
month, day to day and hour to hour. There are also
different telephony traffic models to predict the load.
Busy hour : Continuous 60 minutes duration for which
the traffic volume or the number of call attempts is
greatest.
Peak busy hour : It is the busy hour each day varies from
day to day, over a number of days.
Time consistent busy hour: The 1 hour period starting
at the same time each day for which the average traffic
volume or the number of call attempts is greatest over the
days under consideration.
Cont…
Call Completion Rate (CCR): It is the ratio of the
number of successful calls to the number of attempts.
A CCR value of 0.75 is considered excellent and 0.70 is
usually expected.
Busy hour call attempts : It is the number of call
attempts in a busy hour.
Busy hour calling rate : It is the average number of calls
originated by a subscriber during the busy hour.
Day-to-day hour traffic ratio : It is the ratio of busy
hour calling rate to the average calling rate for that day.
It is normally 6 or 7 for rural areas and over 20 for city
exchanges.
Probability of Blocking
The problem in traffic engineering is determining the capacity
if the average offered traffic (including the traffic that is
blocked) intensity is known (or estimated).
Clearly, the capacity should (at least usually) be higher than
offered traffic.
How much higher should the capacity be for the
subscribers to feel that the grade of service is acceptable ?
The starting point is how often subscribers are allowed to be
blocked and receive a busy tone.
Probability of blockage for an acceptable GoS is usually set to
be in the range of 0.2% to 5% which means that every 500th to
20th call is blocked during a busy hour.
Cont…
Probability of occurrence of x events when the average
number of events is A, is given by:
Poisson Distribution
where, e = 2.71828
x ! = 1*2*3 … x
Average number of occupied channels is A erlangs, P(x)
gives the probability that x number of channels is
occupied at a time when a subscriber makes a call.
Blocking occurs if all n channels are occupied or there may
even be a need for a larger number of channels.
This probability is given by:
Cont…
On the other hand, one number of channels is always
in use, giving the probability for

Therefore, P(x>n) can be given as:

Blocking probability :
Please do the example at the end of the note!!