Principles of Wireless

Communications
Lecture 2

Dr. Roz Wyatt-Millington

 Overview of Lecture
• Frequency:
– General bands
– Allocation to systems
• Signal Propagation:
– Ranges
– Multipath
• Multiple Access Techniques:
– Basic schemes
– Hybrid schemes
• Modulation:
– Analogue
– Digital
• Connectivity
– Circuit-switching
– Packet switching
– Network delays
 Frequency

Where do mobile communication systems

fit in general EM spectrum?
Allocation of specific bands in Europe.
 Frequency Bands
Europe
SW FM TV TV 2G 3G Satellites etc

10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz 10 GHz

Established
Cordless Microwave

DECT
GSM/GPRS

Transition

SMR

Private to Public One-Way to Two-Way Wireless Fixed

LAN, PBX Satellite
Emerging
Fixed Internet & Mobile Consumer Broadband
UMTS Satellite
Wireless Mobile
Computing
Rapid Deployment Intelligent Network Global Coverage
 Frequency Bands
Usage
Frequency Example Usage
Range
300Hz – 3000Hz Submarine communications, analog telephony

300kHz to 3MHz AM Radio

3 to 30MHz Amateur Radio, international broadcasting (BBC, VoA)

30 to 300MHz VHF television, FM Radio

300 to 3000MHz UHF television, mobile telephony, wireless local area

networks, WPAN, mobile satellite communications
3 to 30GHz Satellite communications, radar, wireless local loop,
WLAN
30 to 300GHz Experimental; WLL

300GHz to 400THz Infrared LAN, consumer electronics

 Frequency Bands:
Mobile Comms in Europe
Frequency Range System

453 – 457 MHz NMT and GSM400

463 – 467 MHz
890 – 915 MHz & 935 – 970 MHz GSM900
1710 – 1785 MHz & 1805 – 1880 MHz GSM1800 (DCS)
1920 – 1980 MHz & 2110 – 2190 MHz UMTS (FDD)
1900 – 1920 MHz, 2020 – 2025 MHz UMTS (TDD)
885 – 887 MHz, 930 – 932 MHz CT1+ (cordless telephony)
864 – 868 MHz CT2
1880 – 1900 MHz DECT (digital cordless telephony)

2400 – 2483 MHz IEEE 802.11b/g and Bluetooth

5150 – 5350 MHz, 5470 – 5725 MHz IEEE 802.11a and HiperLAN2
 Signal Propagation

How are the signals transmitted from

one point to another?
 Signal propagation
Ranges
• Transmission range
– communication possible
– low error rate
• Detection range
– detection of the signal
possible sender
– no communication
possible transmission
• Interference range distance
– signal may not be detection

detected interference
– signal adds to the
background noise
 Signal propagation
Received Power
• Propagation in free space always like light
(straight line)
• Received power proportional to 1/d²
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
• Received power additionally influenced by:
– fading (frequency dependent)
– shadowing
– reflection at large obstacles
– refraction depending on the density of a medium
– scattering at small obstacles
– diffraction at edges
 Signal propagation
Received Power - Interference

shadowing refraction
reflection

scattering
diffraction
 Signal propagation
Multipath
• Signal can take many different paths between sender
and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

multipath
LOS pulses pulses

signal at sender
signal at receiver

• Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time

– interference with “neighbor” symbols, Inter Symbol Interference
(ISI)
• The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase shifted
– distorted signal depending on the phases of the different parts
 Signal propagation
Effects of mobility
• Channel characteristics change over time and location
– signal paths change
– different delay variations of different signal parts
– different phases of signal parts
• Quick changes in the power received (short term fading)
power long term
• Additional changes in fading
– distance to sender
– obstacles further away
• Slow changes in the
average power received
(long term fading) t
short term fading
 Multiple Access

How do users share available

(limited) resources?
 Multiple Access
Overview
• Allows many users to share network
resources (capacity).
• Three basic dimensions:
– Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
• Resources split into frequency channels
– Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Resources shared according to time slots
– Code division multiple access (CDMA)
• Resources shared by spread spectrum techniques
 Multiple Access
FDMA
• Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency
bands.
• A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the
whole time.

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
f

t
 Multiple Access
FDMA
• Advantages:
– No dynamic coordination necessary.
– Works also for analog signals.
• Disadvantages:
– Waste of bandwidth if the traffic is distributed
unevenly.
– Inflexible.
– Guard spaces.
 Multiple Access
TDMA
• A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of
time.
– Divides time domain into a series of time slots – a user is assigned
a slot.
– Number of slots make up TDMA frame.

k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
f

t
 Multiple Access
TDMA
• Advantages:
– Only one carrier in the medium at any time.
– Throughput high even for many users.
• Disadvantages:
– Precise synchronization necessary.
– Power and bandwidth need to be increased,
compared to continuous access (i.e. FDMA
access).
 Multiple Access
CDMA
• Each channel has a unique k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

code:
– Applied to each user’s c
transmission to distinguish
between users.
• Use Pseudo random codes
(PN-sequence).
– Only known at transmitter and
f
receiver.
• All channels use the same
spectrum at the same time
• Implemented using spread
t
spectrum technology
 Multiple Access
CDMA
• Advantages:
– bandwidth efficient
– no coordination and synchronization
necessary
– good protection against interference and
tapping
• Disadvantages:
– lower user data rates
– more complex signal regeneration
 Comparison
TDMA/FDMA/CDMA
Approach TDMA
Idea segment sending time into
disjoint time-slots,
demand driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals all terminals are active for
short periods of time on
the same frequency
Signal synchronization in the
separation time domain
Advantages established, fully digital,
flexible
Disadvantages guard space needed
(multipath propagation),
synchronization difficult
Comment standard in fixed
networks, together with
FDMA/SDMA used in
many mobile networks
FDMA CDMA
segment the frequency band spread the spectrum using
into disjoint sub-bands orthogonal codes
every terminal has its own all terminals can be active at
frequency, uninterrupted the same place at the same
moment, uninterrupted
filtering in the frequency code plus special receivers
domain
simple, established, robust flexible, less frequency
planning needed, soft
handover
inflexible, frequencies are a complex receivers, needs
scarce resource more complicated power
control for senders
typically combined with still faces some problems,
TDMA (frequency hopping higher complexity, lowered
patterns) and SDMA expectations; will be integrated
(frequency reuse) with TDMA/FDMA
 Hybrid Access Schemes

• Schemes that combine two of more

techniques.
– Commonly FDMA with either CDMA or TDMA.
• Example
– FDM/TDMA in GSM.
• Spectrum is divided into RF channels.
• Each frame within a channel contains 8 timeslots.
 Hybrid access scheme
FDM/TDMA
• Combination of both methods.
• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a
certain amount of time.
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6

c
f

t
 Hybrid access scheme
FDM/TDMA
• Advantages:
– better protection against tapping
– protection against frequency selective
interference
– higher data rates compared to code multiplex
• But: precise coordination required
 Modulation

How is baseband signal converted to

signal at appropriate frequency?
 Modulation

• Digital modulation
– digital data is translated into an analog signal
(baseband)
– ASK, FSK, PSK
– differences in spectral efficiency, power
efficiency, robustness
• Analog modulation
– shifts center frequency of baseband signal up
to the radio carrier
 Modulation

• Motivation
– smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
– Frequency Division Multiplexing
– medium characteristics
• Basic schemes
– Amplitude Modulation (AM)
– Frequency Modulation (FM)
– Phase Modulation (PM)
 Modulation and demodulation
analog
baseband
digital
signal
data digital analog
101101001 modulation modulation radio transmitter

radio
carrier

analog
baseband
digital
signal
analog synchronization data
demodulation decision 101101001 radio receiver

radio
carrier
 Digital modulation
Basics
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): 1 0 1

– very simple
– low bandwidth requirements t
– very susceptible to interference
1 0 1
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
– needs larger bandwidth t

1 0 1

• Phase Shift Keying (PSK):

– more complex t

– robust against interference

 Digital modulation
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
• Bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the
distance between the carrier frequencies special
pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts.
– MSK (minimum shift keying)
• Bit separated into even and odd bits, the
duration of each bit is doubled.
• Depending on the bit values (even, odd) the
higher or lower frequency, original or inverted is
chosen.
 Digital modulation
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
• The frequency of one carrier is twice
the frequency of the other.
– Equivalent to offset QPSK.
• Even higher bandwidth efficiency using
a gaussian low-pass filter
– GMSK (gaussian MSK), used in GSM
 Digital modulation
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
• BPSK (Binary Phase
Shift Keying): Q
– bit value 0: sine wave
– bit value 1: inverted
sine wave I
– very simple PSK 1 0
– low spectral efficiency
– robust, used e.g. in
satellite systems
 Digital modulation
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
• QPSK (Quadrature Phase
10 Q 11
Shift Keying):
– 2 bits coded as one symbol
– symbol determines shift of sine I
wave
– needs less bandwidth
compared to BPSK 00 01
– more complex A

• Often also transmission of

t
relative, not absolute phase
shift: DQPSK - Differential
11 10 00 01
QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
 Digital modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):
– combines amplitude and phase modulation
• It is possible to code n bits using one
symbol.
• 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK.
• Bit error rate increases with n, but less
errors compared to comparable PSK
schemes.
 Digital modulation
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
– Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase φ, but different
amplitudes.
– Symbols 0000 and 1000 have different phase, but same
amplitude a.
• Used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
Q
0010
0001

0011
0000
φ

a I

1000
 Digital modulation
Hierarchical Modulation
• DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a single DVB-T
stream
• High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority (LP) stream
• Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers using QPSK, 16
QAM, 64QAM
• Example: 64QAM Q
– good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
– poor reception, mobile reception:
10
resolve only QPSK portion
I
– 6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
– HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
00
LP uses remaining 4 bit
000010 010101
 Connectivity

How are end users in a network

connected to each other?
 Connectivity
Why is it important?
• Dictionary definition:
1. The quality or condition of being connected or connective.
2. The ability to make and maintain a connection between two or
more points in a telecommunications system.
• Underlying principle of all networks:
– Fixed telephony
– Television
– Mobile telephony
– The Internet
– etc.
• See http://www.satn.org/about/separateconnectivity.htm
for a discussion about connectivity.
 Connectivity
How is it provided?
• In communications two types of network
are used to provide connectivity:
– Connection-orientated networks
• Circuit-switched networks
– Connectionless networks
• Packet-switched networks
• What are the basics of these network
types?
 Connectivity
Circuit-Switched Networks
• A virtual circuit is set-up for each connection
– Simulates having an actual physical wire between two points.
• Considered by many to be old-fashioned and becoming
obsolete:
– First designed in 1878.
– Packet-switched networks seen as more efficient.
– Proven technology.
• Public telephone service often still CS
– Discussion about why CS networks should not be replaced in
US: http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20040624.html
 Connectivity
Circuit-Switched Networks
 Connectivity
Circuit-Switched Networks
• Operation:
– User requests path through network to destination –
dials number.
– Message propagated through network
• At each switching point, information stored and resources
reserved.
– Only once path established is data sent – guarantees
data will reach destination.
– All data travels same path – arrives in order sent.
– On termination of call resources released.
 Connectivity
Circuit-Switched Networks
 Connectivity
Circuit-Switched Networks
• Advantage:
– Easy to ensure delays are constrained as
resource reservation ensures no congestion
except during call set-up.
• Disadvantages:
– Significant time delay before data can be sent
• Can take-up to 10s to connect international or
mobile call.
– Inefficient use of resources – full circuit-worth
reserved irrespective of whether used or not.
 Connectivity
Circuit-Switched Networks
• Circuit-switched networks used by:
– Standard telephony.
– 1G & 2G mobile systems – AMPS, GSM etc.
– Satellite telephony.
• Mainly for delay intolerant traffic
– Important for data to be delivered with a
guaranteed quality-of-service.
– Proven method of delivering telephone calls.
 Connectivity
Packet-Switched Networks
• Data transferred in discrete chunks – packets –
based on destination.
– Multiple connections per channel.
• Users share resources.
– Packets for same destination may follow different
routes.
– Basis of routing in the Internet.
• Any user connected to PS network can in theory
send packets to any other user connected to PS
network.
 Connectivity
Packet-Switched Networks
 Connectivity
Packet-Switched Networks
• Operation:
– Each data packet contains destination
address.
– When packet arrives at router it identifies
nearest router to destination and transmits
packet to it.
– Packets routed independently of other
packets that make up transmission:
• Packets do not necessarily follow same path.
 Connectivity
Packet-Switched Networks
 Connectivity
Packet-Switched Networks
• Advantages:
– If router fails packets can be routed via
another path easily.
– No need to reserve resources – more efficient
use of bandwidth.
– Suited for transmission of small messages –
very common on the Internet for messages
such as data acknowledgements
• Measurements suggest half the packets on
Internet are less than 100 Bytes long.
 Connectivity
Packet-Switched Networks
• Disadvantages:
– Packets not guaranteed to travel same route – so
may arrive out of order.
– No guarantee that packets will nor experience long
delays due to congestion.
– Cannot ensure a bounded delay through network
• Fine for computer communications and downloads.
• Bad for user-interactive services such as voice transmission
– long delays make it difficult to hold conversation.
• Protocols in end hosts can deal with out of order
packets, and packets containing errors, but not
delay issue.
 Network Core:
Circuit Switching (1)

• End-to-End resources
reserved for “call”
– link bandwidth, switch
capacity
– dedicated resources:
no sharing
– circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
– call setup required

52
 Network Core:
Circuit Switching (2)

• Usually network resources (e.g., bandwidth) is

divided into “pieces”
• These pieces are allocated to calls
• Resource piece idle if not used by owning call
(no sharing)
• Dividing link bandwidth into “pieces”
– frequency division
– time division

53
Circuit Switching: FDM and TDM

Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

TDM
time

frequency

time
54
 Network Core:
Packet Switching
• Each end-to-end data stream divided into packets
• User A, B packets share network resources
• Each packet uses full link bandwidth
• Resources used as needed: resource contention:
– aggregate resource demand can exceed amount
available
– congestion: packets queue, wait for link use
– store and forward: packets move one hop at a time
• Node receives complete packet before forwarding

55
 Packet Switching:
Statistical Multiplexing

10 Mb/s
A C
Ethernet statistical multiplexing

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern  statistical multiplexing.
56
 Packet switching versus circuit
switching
• 1 Mb/s link • Packet switching
• each user: allows more users to
– 100 kb/s when “active” use network!
– active 10% of time
• circuit-switching:
– 10 users
N users
• packet switching: 1 Mbps link
– with 35 users,
probability > 11 active
less than .0004

57
 Packet switching versus circuit
switching
• Great for bursty data
– resource sharing
– simpler, no call setup
• Excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
– protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
• Question: How to provide circuit-like
behavior?
– bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps
• Is packet switching a winner?
58
 Four sources of packet delay

• 1. nodal processing: • 2. queuing

– check bit errors – time waiting at output
– determine output link link for transmission
– depends on
congestion level of
router
transmission
A
propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing
59
 Four sources of packet delay

• 3. Transmission delay: • 4. Propagation delay:

– R=link bandwidth (bps) – d = length of physical
– L=packet length (bits) link
– time to send bits into link – s = propagation speed in
= L/R medium (~2x108 m/sec)
– propagation delay = d/s
transmission
A
propagation

B
nodal Note: s and R are very
processing queueing different quantities!

60
 Nodal delay

dnodal dproc dqueue dtrans dprop

• dproc = processing delay

– typically a few μsecs or less
• dqueue = queuing delay
– depends on congestion
• dtrans = transmission delay
– = L/R, significant for low-speed links
• dprop = propagation delay
– a few μsecs to hundreds of msecs
61
 Queueing delay

• R=link bandwidth
(bps)
• L=packet length (bits)
• a=average packet
arrival rate
traffic intensity = La/R
• La/R ~ 0: average queuing delay small
• La/R -> 1: delays become large
• La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be serviced, average delay
infinite!

62
 Numerical example

• How long does it take to send a file of

640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
– The link is 1.536 Mbps
– The link uses TDM with 24 slots
– 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit
• Work it out!

63
 Summary

What has this lecture covered?

What will next lecture look at?
 Summary

• Revised basic principles of wireless

communications:
– Frequency bands in Europe.
– Multiple access/multiplexing schemes – FDMA,
TDMA and CDMA.
– Modulation:
• Analogue
• Digital – types of digital modulation: ASK, FSK, PSK and
advanced techniques
– Signal propagation – including factors that effect
received signal power.
– Connectivity
 Summary

• Next lecture:
– UMTS & Migration to 3G