(s) Samuel Darby - 10537622 Monday, 19 February 2018

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(s) Samuel Darby - 10537622 Monday, 19 February 2018

What Knowledge and Skills Do Building Surveyors Need to

Accurately Diagnose and Remediate Corroded Cavity Wall Ties In
UK Buildings?

Abstract

It is now estimated that approximately 80% of Britain’s housing stock have been built
using cavity wall construction1. Cavity wall ties are been used since approximately the
1930’s, presenting a huge number of wall ties used and currently in use. Wall ties play
a vital role within the structure, making the two leaves homogenous.

Are wall ties at risk of corrosion in all properties or at particular properties at higher
risk? “Prior to 1978, wall ties were usually manufactured from galvanised mild steel”2.
We now know galvanised steel is prone to corrosion and rust, weakening the structural
bond between the two leaves, presenting a serious issue. As surveyors, we are in the
principle position to diagnose and order remediation works, therefore knowledge of
the issue and the current situation is imperative to competency.

Introduction

Cavity walls became popular during the 1910’s and was a widely used construction
method across the UK by 1920s. It is now estimated that approximately 80% of
Britain’s housing stock were built using cavity wall construction 1. It is essential that the
two walls of the cavity are joined / tied together to prevent differential movement, water
penetration at openings and detachment of outer skin. Brick bonding was initially used
to tie the walls together in order for the walls to act as a homogenous unit. After, a
separate component was designed and manufactured to join the walls together, the
cavity wall tie. Materials such as plastic and galvanised steel were experimented with
and used. “Prior to 1978, wall ties were usually manufactured from galvanised mild
steel” 2. Galvanised steel ties were expected to last the buildings lifetime, it has since
been discovered that ties may corrode after as little as 15 years.

1 Energy Efficiency In Historic Buildings, 2010

2 Ancon Building Products, 2016

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Installation

Cavity wall ties are installed by the bricklayer by default. The need to have a strong
bond between both walls will mean the ties are imbedded in the mortar, laid by the
bricklayer. In the UK, we now have standards or requirements of how often, where the
ties need to be installed and the length of tie needed for different cavity sizes. The
requirements are specified in Approved document A and should always be read in
case of confusion. Most “modern domestic properties are constructed with a cavity of
100mm” 3. However, during the 1930’s a cavity could be as wide as 250mm, typical
tied together using galvanised steel. As there were no regulations relating to wall ties
prior to 1984, locating the installed ties can prove to be troublesome.

From the 1930s to the 1980s, galvanised steel ties were typically used, highlighting
properties which were built in this period as particularly high risk of having corroding /
corroded wall ties. Also, Hollis states that “buildings constructed between 1964 - 1981
will have reduced life expectancy in their wall ties, with failure likely to occur within
forty years of construction”4. Which is approximately now, coincidentally.

A History of the Problem

“Prior to 1978, wall ties were usually manufactured from galvanised mild steel”. What
events made galvanised steel wall ties cease to be manufactured / used? In the mid
1960’s, it was discovered that the failure of a wall was a result of cavity walls tie
corrosion. This event was seen as isolated and therefore no further action was taken.
“It was nearly ten years before similar failures in other buildings were linked together
by the Building Research Establishment” 4. As the problem wasn’t known to
manufacturers of ties it is common to find metal ties without any protective coating or
they may have had “a bitumen or light zinc coating” 5. However, even with protective
coating, corrosion is possible with the presence of moisture and oxygen. After
discovering the problem and the experiencing potential outcomes, the material and
quality standards of the wall tie were changed in 1981. “The British Standard was
amended to triple the zinc coating thickness on a wire tie”13.

3 Julian Nuttall (BSc) (RiCS), 2015

4 Hollis, 1990
5 Cavity Wall Ties Survey and Repair Summary, 2006

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Causes of corrosion

As mentioned above, metal is susceptible to corrosion when moisture and oxygen is

present. Other factors will affect the rate of corrosion such as;

• Location; is the property near the coastline?

• The chosen mortar type; certain mortars are prone to water ingress due to being
particularly porous i.e. lime sand mortars. And chemical reactions to mortars
such as black ash mortar.
• Poor construction / design i.e. no DPC (damp proof course), blocked vents etc.

It is vital to expose any further causes which may have caused the rate of corrosion to
accelerate. If excess moisture is a concern, “a thermal imaging camera can also be
used to indicate signs of moisture” 6 and help prevent future damages to the internal
leaf.

Black ash mortar was popularly used in cavity wall during “the beginning and middle
of the twentieth century” 7, again, highlighting properties from this period as being
particularly at risk of having corroded wall ties. Black ash mortar would spark a
chemical reaction when in contact with galvanised steel, causing it to rust at a faster
rate than usual. As the cavity is hidden, some bricklayers take little care knowing their
work will not be checked. Poor workmanship meant that excess mortar could fallen on
to the ties causing extra rust. When rusting, galvanised steel can expand up to 10x
its normal size, leading to structural and aesthetical damages such as cracking and
bulging.

Knowledge of symptoms

Symptoms will only occur after the wall tie has corroded fully and has yielded /
snapped, breaking the bond between the two leaves. “Therefore the tie can corrode to
the point of failure without ever becoming apparent externally” 8. Meaning knowledge
of symptoms is imperative to correctly diagnosing cavity wall tie corrosion quickly and

6 ProTen Services, n.d.

7 Cemex Mortars, n.d.
8 Berry, 2016

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preventing further structural weakness around the building envelope. Signs of wall tie
corrosion damage are:

• Bulging of the brickwork

• Horizontal and stepped cracking in the brickwork 9

These symptoms do not necessarily mean a building has corroded wall ties. “Visible
damage usually indicates the symptoms of damage rather than the cause”10. For
example, comparisons between damage caused by sulphate attacks and corroded
wall ties can be easily be made. A methodological inspection of the cavity needs to be
undertaken in order to gain the available facts.

In 1996, the BRE (British Research Establishment) produced a checklist of 7 items to

be used as an evaluation tool, it consisted of:

1. Was the building constructed using mortars containing black ash?

2. Is it subject to higher than normal exposure conditions, for example, near the
coast, on exposed hills or in an area subject to heavy industrial pollution?
3. Was it built between 1900 and 1940?
4. Is it a post-war building with vertical twist ties, or one built during a “boom”,
particularly the early 1970s?
5. Is it older than 35 years with vertical-twist ties?
6. Is it older than 20 years with galvanised wire ties?
7. Is it a timber frame building older than 15 years with galvanised ties? 11

It is possible to check the condition / type of wall ties within wall cavity with the use of
an endoscope. As a surveyor, if you are to undertake such actions to uncover the
condition, you must take into consideration, current wall condition (cracking, location
of ties, etc) and that the correct tools are at your disposal. For example, a drill and drill
bit that is sufficient to complete the job. “Correct drilling techniques are essential to
ensure efficacy of the remedial wall tie, and to minimise aesthetic and structural
damage to the property under repair. The use of Rotary Percussion drill bits for drilling
pilot / clearance holes is recommended wherever possible” 12.

9 Rtcgroup, 2018
10 Jackson and Scott, 1999
11 BRE, 1996
12Remedial Wall Tie Testing & Spacing, 2013

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Remediating the symptoms

Failed cavity wall ties can be replaced but it is essential to first detect the wall tie. As
well as this establishing which design of steel ties were installed will help choose the
correct remedial technique. “As a general rule houses built between the 1920s – 1950s
were typically built with fishtail ties, and properties built between 1960 and 1980 had
a mild steel galvanised butterfly or wire ties”9. The fishtail wall tie design is susceptible
to expansion and therefore must be removed during remedial works, the other two
designs can generally be left in-situ.

The Building Research Establishment produced two papers, one on how to correctly
replace existing wall ties and another to help recognise the problem along with
appropriate actions to take. Modern choices are simply between removal and
replacement or isolation.

There are different possibilities involving removal, for example, the tie could be
completely removed, removed from the outer bed joint only or removed from the outer
leaf. There isn’t one correct technique for removal of wall ties but the methods can
offer advantages under different circumstances. As a surveyor, you will not be asked
to choose a remedial method, the method should be decided by a contracted
professional. Ties which are removed should be replaced with the current British
standard and should be spaced / fitted in accordance with Approved Document A.

It is possible to isolate the wall tie. “In this method the existing wall tie is left in place
but structurally isolated from the wall so that any further expansion will not damage
the wall. It is not recommended for walls with thin mortar joints (a normal mortar joint
is 10 mm)” 13.

Any remedial works should be completed by a specialist contractor and should be

registered with the Wall Ties Installers Federation or Property Care Association.

How to detect wall ties

If suspicious of corroding wall tie damage due to damages caused, it is possible the
damages correlate with the locations of the ties. In an attempt to test the theory, a
metal detector is often used by surveyors. If the cracks do correlate with the ties, a

13Kingfisher Building Building Products, n.d.

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pattern is possible to establish so that other ties around the cavity can be roughly
located. However, metal detectors may only confuse matters, Jackson and Scott talk
of “ambiguous results in a number of buildings” which is believed to be caused by “the
presence of ferromagnetic or paramagnetic material within the construction of the
walls”10. This however, is a rare occurrence and such materials are not often found in
most elevations.

If unsuccessful using a metal detector, an alternative method of detection is through

use of infrared thermography. Only applicable to find vertical twist ties because of the
additional cross-sectional area, infrared works on the theory that the metal ties conduct
a different amount of heat from inside the property in comparison to the outside. The
bigger the temperature difference the more likely the chance of locating at wall tie. The
BRE suggest the temperature difference should be between 40ºC - 50ºC. A difference
this great in temperature, isn’t achieved too often throughout the year, restricting
usage immensely. It should be noted, insulation in the cavity will help the tie become
visible more easily.

Conclusion

As always, acting on behalf of a third party or client, as a surveyor, you should always
proceed with due diligence and care but also you should be aware of the history of the
property. Cavity wall tie failure is isolated to properties built prior to 1981 and
knowledge of this is vital prior to inspection.

Although damages may not reveal the full facts, the possible causes should be at the
forefront of any surveyors mind when found. When assessing damages, patience
should be used and no diagnosis should be rushed so the correct conclusions are
found. If damages cannot be found, it should always be a consideration as corrosion
may not have occurred at present, it is a certainty in the future. It is important to not
sound alarmist but stress the potential significance of ignoring corroding wall ties.

We are in the current period that Hollis predicted was towards the end of a wall ties
life expectancy, so now, maybe more so than ever, surveyors need, at very least, an
understanding of corroded wall ties.

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References
Energy Efficiency In Historic Buildings. (2010). [ebook] English Heritage. Available at:
https://www.uttlesford.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=2132&p=0 [Accessed 12 Feb. 2018].

Ancon Building Products. (2016). What is a wall tie?. [online] Available at:
https://www.ancon.co.uk/blog/what-is-a-wall-tie [Accessed 12 Feb. 2018].

Hollis, M. (1990). Cavity wall tie failure. Estates Gazette.

Rtcgroup.co.uk. (2018). Cavity Wall Tie Corrosion – RTC Group – Remedial Treatment Consultants.
[online] Available at: https://www.rtcgroup.co.uk/services/cavity-wall-tie-corrosion/ [Accessed 16 Feb.
2018].

Berry, J. (2016). Wall Ties: The Test of Time. [ebook] Property Care Association. Available at:
http://www.property-care.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Wall-Ties_the-test-of-time_July-
2016_JB_final.pdf [Accessed 16 Feb. 2018].

Cavity Wall Ties Survey and Repar Summary. (2006). [ebook] Killan Structural Ltd. Available at:
http://www.killan.co.uk/Cavity_Wall_Ties_History_&_Information_sheet.pdf [Accessed 16 Feb. 2018].

Remedial Wall Tie Testing & Spacing. (2013). [ebook] Helifix. Available at:
https://www.helifix.co.uk/uploads/pdfs/PIS-Remedial-Wall-Tie-Testing-Spacing-Drilling-Guide.pdf
[Accessed 16 Feb. 2018].

Jackson, R. and Scott, B. (1999). Wall‐tie corrosion or sulphate attack: some aspects of
diagnosis. Structural Survey, 17(1), pp.27-31.

ProTen Services. (n.d.). Wall Tie Installation & Replacement | Cavity Wall Tie Surveys. [online]
Available at: https://protenservices.co.uk/wall-ties/ [Accessed 17 Feb. 2018].

Building Research Establishment (BRE) (1996), “A guide to diagnosis, remedy and prevention”, Good
Repair Guide 4 , HMSO, London.

Cemex Mortars (n.d.). Educational Guide To Introduction To Mortar. [online] Cemex Mortars. Available
at: http://EDUCATIONAL GUIDE TO INTRODUCTION TO MORTAR [Accessed 18 Feb. 2018].

Kingfisher Building Building Products (n.d.). Wall tie Manual. [online] Available at:
https://www.kingfisheruk.com/files/Wall_Tie_Manual.pdf [Accessed 18 Feb. 2018].