CHAPTER-1

1. INTRODUCTION

Excitation system of synchronous generator is the main equipment of operation and

control of generators and power system. The basic function of Digital excitation system
is to provide direct current to the synchronous machine field winding. Also, the
excitation system performs control and protective functions essential to the satisfactory
performance of the power system by controlling the field voltage and thereby the field
current. The main control function of the excitation system is to regulate the generator
terminal voltage which is accomplished by adjusting the field voltage with respect to
the variation of the terminal voltage. The basic requirement of the excitation system is
to supply and automatically adjust the field current of the synchronous generator to
maintain the terminal voltage as the output varies within the continuous capability of
the generator. The terminal voltage can be affected by various disturbance so special
regulating equipment is required to keep the voltage constant, even when affected by
these disturbing factors. Also to maintain system stability in interconnected system
network. In addition the excitation system must be able to respond to transient
disturbances with field forcing consistent with the generator instantaneous and short
term capability. The generator capabilities in this regard are the limited by the several
factors. To ensure the best utilization of the excitation system it should be capable of
meeting the system needs by taking full advantage of the generator’s short term
capabilities without exceeding their limits. From the power system viewpoint the
excitation system should contribute to effective control of voltage and enhancement of
system stability. It so as to enhance transient stability, and of modulating the generator
field so as to enhance small signal stability. Synchronous generator stability is
graphically represented by P-Q diagram. The operating point of generator must be
inside the area determined by: under excitation limit, theoretically stability limit, over
excitation limit. The control of excitation current for maintaining constant voltage at
generator output terminals started with control through a field rheostat, the supply being
obtained from DC Exciter.

1
The modern trend in interconnected operation of power systems for the purpose of
reliability and in increasing unit size of generators for the purposes of economy has
been mainly, responsible for the evolution of new excitation schemes.

Fig.1 Excitation system of Turbo alternator

1.1 Types of the Excitation Systems

Synchronous machine excitation systems can be classified into three major groups
based on the power supply used as source of excitation. These are DC excitation, AC
excitation and static excitation systems.

DC Excitation System:
This excitation system utilizes DC generators as source of excitation power. It also
provides current to the rotor of synchronous machine through slip rings. The exciter can
be driven by a motor or shaft of a generator. It can be either self-excited or separately
excited. When it is separately excited, the exciter field current is supplied by a pilot

2
exciter comprising of a permanent magnet generator. DC excitation systems represent
early systems, spanning the years from the 1920s to the 1960s. They lost favor in the
mid1960s and were superseded by ac excitation systems.

Fig.2 DC Excitation system

AC Excitation System:
These excitation systems utilize alternators as source of generator excitation power.
Usually, the exciter is kept on the same shaft as the turbine generator. The AC output of
the exciter is rectified by either controlled or diode rectifiers to produce the direct
current which is needed for the generator field. The rectifiers can be stationary or
rotating. AC excitation systems can take many forms depending on the rectifier
arrangement, method of exciter output control, and source of excitation for the exciter.
Currently, stationary and rotating AC rectifier systems are widely used in AC excitation
systems. In stationary rectifiers, the DC output is fed to the field winding of the
generator through the slip rings. On the other hand, in rotating rectifiers there is no need
of slip rings and brushes. The DC supply is directly fed to the generator field as the
armature of the exciter and rectifiers rotate with the generator field. Such systems are
known as brush-less systems and were developed to avoid the problems with brushes
when extremely high field currents are applied to large generators.

3
a. Rotating Thyristor Excitation System
The rotor excitation system is shown in the figure below. The rotating portion is being
enclosed by the dashed line. This system consists an AC exciter, stationary field and a
rotating armature. The output of the exciter is rectified by a full wave thyristor bridge
rectifier circuit and is supplied to the main alternator field winding.

Fig.3 Rotating Thyristor Excitation system

The alternator field winding is also supplied through another rectifier circuit. The
exciter voltage can be built up by using it residual flux. The power supply and rectifier
control generate the controlled triggering signal. The alternator voltage signal is
averaged and compare directly with the operator voltage adjustment in the auto mode of
operation. In the manual mode of operation, the excitation current of the alternator is
compared with a separate manual voltage adjustment.

4
b. Brushless Excitation System
This system is shown in the figure below. The rotating portion being enclosed by a
dashed line rectangle. The brushless excitation system consists an alternator, rectifier,
main exciter and a permanent magnet generator alternator. The main and the pilot
exciter are driven by the main shaft. The main exciter has a stationary field and a
rotating armature directly connected, through the silicon rectifiers to the field of the
main alternators.

5
 Fig.4 Brushless Excitation System

Static (ST) Excitation System:

All the components of these systems are either static or stationary. Such systems
directly provide synchronous generator field winding with excitation current by means
of slip rings. Rectifiers in ST systems gain the power from generator through auxiliary
windings or a step-down transformer. In such systems, generator is a source if power
which means that the generator is self-excited. As the generator cannot produce any
voltage without excitation voltage, the generator must have auxiliary power source to
provide field current and energize the generator. Station batteries are usually used as
additional power sources and the process is known as field flashing. From the excitation
power gain point of view the excitation systems can be further divided into independent
and dependent excitation systems. The independent exciter is not connected to the grid.
Thus, its excitation parameters have no direct relationship with grid parameters. The
dependent exciter utilizes either part of generator power or it is connected to the grid.

6
Its excitation parameters are dependent on grip parameters.

Fig.5 Static Excitation system

1.2: BASIC KINDS OF EXCITERS:

Static exciters (shunt and series)
In static excitation system, the excitation power is derived from the generator output
through an excitation transformer. In 210 MW set, the primary voltage of excitation
transformer is 15—75 KV. lt steps down to 575V (SCR) bridge or thyristor bridge.

7
 Figure 6. Block Diagram of Static Excitation system.

Rotating Exciters (Brush and brushless)

In the system DC power source is of rotating type, which in normally coupled to the
main generator rotor.

Rotating With Brush:

i) For a Small Machine
The function of the brush is to collect current from commutator. It is usually made of
carbon or graphite and are in the shape of rectangular block. It requires collector ring,
brushes or commutators. DC supplied to the rotor field by a dc generator called exciter.
This exciter may be supplied current by smaller dc generator called pilot exciter. DC
output of main exciter is given to the field winding of synchronous machines through
brushes and slip rings. But this arrangement is not very sensitive or quick acting when
change of field current is required by synchronous machines.
ii) For Medium Size Machine

AC exciter is used in place of DC exciter. AC exciter is 3 phase ac generator. O/P is

rectified and supplied through brushes and slip rings to the rotor winding of main
synchronous machine.

Brushless Rotating:

8
The excitation requires very large problem of conveying such amount of power through
high speed sliding contacts becomes formidable and at present large synchronous
Generator and motor are using brushless excitation system. Brushless exciter is small
direct coupled ac generator with its field circuit on stator and from circuit on motor the
3 phase output of ac exciter generator is rectified by solid state rectifier. The rectified
output is directly connected to the field winding, thus eliminating the use of brushes
and slip ring. The DC exciter suffered commutation and brush gear problem but also
offered certain advantages. Increased demand for higher excitation currents parallel by
advances in semiconductor technology brought about the introduction of the rectified ac
exciter. These where either static semiconductor diode rectifiers supplying the generator
field winding via slip ring, or brushless system which carry the diode rectifier on shaft .
To maximize the plant availability under black start condition, reliance on
external electrical supplies is kept minimum by using direct driven permanent magnet
pilot exciters. The development of solid state silicon diode with its inherent robustness
and reliability, made possible the design of compact rectifier system that can be rotated
at rated generator speed.

Figure.7 Brushless Exciter with Permanent Magnet Generator (Pilot Exciter)

9
 Fig.8 Brushless Exciter

Advantages of Brushless Excitation systems are:

 No brushes.
 Minimum maintenance.
 No power cabling.
 Minimum control room space.
 Highest reliability.
Disadvantages of Brushless Excitation System are:
 Limited flexibility of operation
 Costly
 Moderate nominal exciter response
 Maintenance of rotating machines

10
 CHAPTER-2
2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Analysis of Synchronous Machine Excitation Systems: Comparative Study

Shewit Tsegaye, Kinde A. Fante, World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology International Journal of Energy and Power Engineering Vol:10,
No:12, 2016.
The comparison and performance evaluation of synchronous machine excitation
models. The two models, DC1A and AC4A, are among the IEEE standardized model
structures for representing the wide variety of synchronous machine excitation systems.
The performance evaluation of these models is done using SIMULINK simulation
software. The simulation results obtained using transient analysis show that the DC1A
excitation system is more reliable and stable than AC4A excitation system. Excitation
system is widely used to provide direct current to the synchronous machine field
winding. It also helps to control the field voltage, field current and reactive power flow
of the system. It enhances the stability during the start-up of the synchronous machines.
Furthermore, in a power system, the protection functions of the excitation system

11
enables to improve the rated capacity limits of the synchronous machines. The main
components of an excitation system are automatic voltage regulator (AVR), exciter,
measuring elements, power system stabilizer (PSS) and protection unit. The excitation
systems can be divided into different categories. In the following section, the detail
discussion of the different categories of the excitation systems is provided.

2.2 Determination of Load Angle for Salient-pole Synchronous Machine, D.

Sumina1, A. Šala, R. Malarić MEASUREMENT SCIENCE REVIEW, Volume 10,
No. 3, 2010
The for load angle determination for salient-pole synchronous generator. The first
method uses optical encoder to detect the rotor position. In some cases the end of the
rotor shaft is not free to be used and mounting of an encoder is impossible. Therefore,
the second method proposes estimation of the load angle based on the measured
electrical values that have been already used in excitation control system of the
synchronous generator. Estimation method uses corresponding voltage-current vector
diagram and parameters of the synchronous generator, transformer and transmission
lines. Both methods were experimentally verified on the digital control system and
synchronous generator connected to power system. The estimation and measured
results were compared. The accuracy of load angle estimation method depends on
voltage and current measurement accuracy as well as generator, transformer and
transmission line parameter accuracy. The estimation method gives satisfactory
accuracy for load angles less than 120º el. Thus, it can be applied in excitation control
system to provide stable work of synchronous generator in under-excitation operating
area.

2.3 Digital Excitation System for Synchronous Generator Manish PrajapatiA, Jigar
Patel B, Dr Hina ChandwaniC and Mr Vinod Patel D, Journal of Electrical Engineering.
Automatic voltage controllers for synchronous generators have traditionally utilized
analog electronics. Modern voltage control systems are beginning to utilize the power,
flexibility, and cost advantages of Digital Signal Processor for control. Digital
excitation systems is a DSP based controlled devices. Digital excitation systems play a
significant role in providing fast and accurate voltage control to the power system. In

12
order to maintain system stability in interconnected system network it is necessary to
have fast acting excitation system for large synchronous machines which means the
field current must be adjusted extremely fast to the changing operational conditions.
This paper deals with the design and simulation of a Digital excitation system for
Synchronous generator excitation systems to improve the steady-state and transient
stabilities. The performance of the proposed system is examined for voltage control
application of synchronous Generator through simulation studies using the Psim
software package.
2.4 Excitation systems: the current state of the art, Power Engineering Society
General Meeting, 2006. IEEE Synchronous machine excitation systems have advanced
significantly in the past few years. Digital technology has made a major impact on these
systems, allowing new and improved features and functionality. This paper reviews the
current state of the art in excitation systems and address the progress made in the
industry on improving these systems

CHAPTER-3

3. EXISTING SYSTEM

3.1 EXCITATION SYSTEM

Excitation current is provided by the excitation system, which, according to , usually

consists of Automatic voltage regulator (AVR), exciter, measuring elements, power
system stabilizer (PSS) and limitation and protection unit. Exciter is the source of
electrical power for the field winding of generator and is realized as a separate DC or
AC generator. Exciter has its field winding in the stator, and armature winding in the
rotor. In case of AC generator, as the rotor rotates, stator DC current induces a three-
phase alternating current into the rotor winding. This AC current is rectified using
diode, thyristor or transistor bridge installed in the rotor. Exciter is controlled by the
AVR, which is very effective during steady-state operation, but, according to, in case of
sudden disturbances it may have negative influence on the damping of power swings,
because then it forces field current changes in the generator. This may be eliminated by
introducing a supplementary control loop, the power system stabilizer (PSS), which

13
produces an additional signal into control loop and in that way compensates voltage
oscillations. The typical range of oscillation frequencies, given is of 0.1 to 3.0 Hz and
insufficient damping of these oscillations may limit the ability to transmit power. PSS
input quantities may be speed deviation, generator active power, frequency deviation,
transient electromotive force and generator current. Usually two of these input
quantities are chosen to get optimal regulation. Measuring elements are used to obtain
excitation system input values. Generator armature voltage is always measured and
measurements of armature current and the excitation current and voltage are optional.
Limitation and protection unit contains larger number of circuits which ensure that
certain physical values (e.g. generator armature voltage, excitation current, etc.) are
limited.

3.2 TYPES OF EXCITATION SYSTEM

Excitation systems for synchronous generators may be classified in the meaning of

construction in two categories: static and rotating excitation systems. Static excitation
systems consist of thyristor or transistor bridge and transformer. Energy needed for
excitation is brought to generator field winding via slip-rings with carbon brushes from
diode, thyristor or transistor bridge and transformer. Figure 2. Excitation system of
synchronous generator Another categorization of excitation systems is made by
excitation energy source. Two major classes of this categorization are: separate
excitation systems and selfexcitation systems. Separate excitation systems may be static
or brushless. These systems are independent of disruptions and faults that occur in
electric power system, and have possibility to force excitation. Brushless systems are
used for excitation of larger generators (power over 600 MVA) and in flammable and
explosive environments. Brushless system consists of AC exciter, rotating diode bridge
and auxiliary AC generator realized with permanent magnet excitation. Attempts to
build brushless system with thyristor bridge were not successful because of problems
with thyristor control reliability. The result of this problem is significant disadvantage

14
of these systems, inability of generator deexcitation. Another disadvantage is slower
response of system, especially in case of low excitation. Self-excitation system
advantages are simplicity and low costs. Thyristor or transistor bridge is supplied from
generator terminals via transformer. The main disadvantage is that excitation supply
voltage, and thereby excitation current, depends directly on generator output voltage.
Brushless self-excitation systems with diode bridge also exist.

Fig.9 Excitation system

3.3 Classification of excitation system models

To examine the operation of synchronous generator and its excitation system and to
determine how synchronous generator affects electric power system stability
mathematical models of generator and excitation system are developed. Changes of
reference values and disturbances that are typical for real systems are also modeled.
Since a large number of excitation systems for synchronous generators exist in practice,
classification of excitation system models was necessary. IEEE issued Recommended
Practice for Excitation System Models for Power Stability Studies, document which
classifies excitation systems introduced in engineering practice so far. There are three
major groups of generator excitation systems, with nineteen different excitation system
models altogether: Direct Current Commutator Exciters (type DC), Alternator Supplied
Rectifier Excitation Systems (type AC) and Static Excitation Systems (type ST).

3.3.1 LINEAR REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

EXCITATION

15
There are three main properties of excitation systems that must be considered in
regulation: speed of system operation, autonomy of excitation system and maximal
drive security. Speed of operation is important to maintain stability of electric power
system in the meaning of reactive power transmitting and receiving, fast deexcitation in
case of internal failure and overvoltage limitation in case of sudden unloading.
Autonomy of excitation systems means that excitation system supply must be ensured
in every condition of a drive. Drive security is function of reliabilities of all
incorporated components. To insure maximal drive security, components are
overdimensioned. All of excitation system models given above include linear
controllers. Linear controllers are made of combination of three basic elements:
proportional (P), integral (I) and derivative (D). Types of linear regulators in common
use are: P, PI and PID controller. Lead-lag is also a type of linear controller which
improves an undesirable frequency respond by introducing pole-zero pair. P controller
is the simplest controller for it has only one parameter. Main disadvantage of this
controller is divergence in stationary state. The increase of gain (i.e. increase of
regulator parameter value) reduces this divergence, but also decreases stability of the
system. PI controller eliminates divergence in stationary state. Disadvantage of this
controller is that integral gain decreases system dynamics and increases phase delay,
which also decreases system stability. PID controller has additional derivative element
which responds to divergence change speed, increases system dynamics and
compensates system deceleration caused by integral element. Parameters of linear
controllers may be adjusted using analytical or experimental methods. Analytical
methods for parameter adjustment require mathematical model of the whole regulation
system. Synchronous generator model is nonlinear system, hence system linearization
is needed. Parameters adjusted this way are valid in the operation point region. If the
synchronous generator operating point is changed, parameters must be readjusted.
Experimental methods do not require knowledge of system mathematical model, but
also give optimal parameters only in the region of operation point in which experiment
was performed.

3.3.2 NONLINEAR REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

EXCITATION

16
Linear controllers yield good regulation properties of synchronous generator operation
in stationary state, i.e. in one operating point. In practice, it is important to maintain
system stability in transition state of synchronous generator or electric power system,
e.g. synchronous generator synchronization, short circuit in electric power system, etc.
To achieve stability during transition state, operation with nonlinear models and
controllers is required. Methods for construction such controllers are newly developed
and are not widely used in practice. Three of these methods will be explained in this
chapter: neural networks, fuzzy control and adaptive control. The operational value
which provides virtually direct information about the generator working point position
in relation to the stability limit is the load angle of the operating synchronous generator
on the electric power system. Transition from one to another steady operating condition
is often accompanied by significant changes in the dynamic load angle [6]. Information
about change of the load angle can be used in implementation of the PSS stabilizer, as
an input signal. Load angle can be measured or estimated. Direct measurement requires
implementation of special measuring elements, and is rarely used solution. More often,
load angle is determined from values that can be measured more easily, e.g. rotor
mechanical angle and electrical angle of the base harmonic of rotating magnetic field,
or electrical values together with parameters of system model.
The most novel method for load angle estimation is use of neural networks. In [6]
double dynamic neural network is used. Estimation results show high accuracy in the
process of load angle estimation. The network learned in such a way can be
implemented into the digitized excitation as software extension. It is also concluded
that another dynamic neural networks can be applied in the realization of additional
excitation system regulator functions whereat additional measurements are not
necessary. Another type of nonlinear regulation is Fuzzy controller. Fuzzy controller
uses fuzzy sets, linguistic variables, possibility distributions and fuzzy rules, thus has a
very simple structure. An example of simple fuzzy logic excitation control of a
synchronous generator is explained in [4]. Introduced controller type is used for voltage
control and generator stabilization. The main advantage is that there is no need of
knowing electric power system mathematical model, which is highly nonlinear. The
fuzzy controller has two control loops: voltage control loop and damping control loop,
and in that way unifies AVR and PSS. Simulation and experiment indicated that,

17
compared to linear PI voltage controller and conventional PSS, fuzzy controller shows
improved static as well as dynamic operating conditions. Adaptive control is special
form of regulation in which system parameter information are acquired in operation
cycle, i.e. on-line. Adaptive regulator compensates influence of disturbance (input value
in system, parameter or structural change). It consists of two closed loops: negative
feedback and adaptive feedback. Negative feedback ensures process stability with
classic linear regulator (e.g. PI regulator). Adaptive feedback is nonlinear mechanism
that consists of algorithm for compensation of parameter changes in regulated system.
There are three types of adaptive control: Gain Scheduling, Model Reference Adaptive
Control and Self Tuning Control. This is effective regulation method for systems with
slow but significant parameter changes.

CHAPTER-4

4. PROPOSED SYSTEM

4.1. DIGITAL EXCITATION SYSTEM

In order to maintain system stability in interconnected system network it is necessary to
have fast acting excitation system for large synchronous machines which means the
field current must be adjusted extremely fast to the changing operational conditions.
Besides maintaining the field current and steady state stability the excitation system is
required to extend the stability limits. The Digital excitation system is DSP based
control devices. In this system, the AC power is tapped off from the generator terminal
stepped down and rectified and then fed to the generator field thereby controlling the
generator voltage output. A high control speed is achieved by using an internal free
control and power electronic system. Any deviation in the generator terminal voltage is
sensed by an error detector and causes the voltage regulator to advance or retard the
firing angle of the Thyristor thereby controlling the field excitation of the generator.
This excitation system not only regulate terminal voltage but also employ various

18
auxiliary control, limiting and protection functions. Limiting function generally have no
role under normal operating condition. It is only when the synchronous machine is
pushed beyond its operating capability that these limiters are brought in to play. In
addition the Digital excitation performs control and protective function essential to the
satisfactory performance of the power system by controlling the field voltage and field
current.

Figure 10. Static Excitation Equipment

4.2. DIGITAL VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Automatic voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically

maintain a constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or
passive or active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to
regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. With the exception of passive shunt
regulators, all modern electronic voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual
output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any difference is amplified and
used to control the regulation element in such a way as to reduce the voltage error. This
forms a negative feedback control loop; increasing the open-loop gain tends to increase
regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidance of oscillation or ringing during step
changes). There will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of the response
to changes.

Many researchers are worked in the design and optimized of the AVR. The objective is
to maintain the terminal voltage as a constant at the operating points. The main

19
requirements for designing the AVR are fast response, small overshoot and zero steady-
state error to the deviation of the reference voltage.

Digital voltage regulator regulates the generator voltage by controlling the firing angle
of thyristor. It is designed for synchronous generator utilizing anti windup PI controller,
to keep the terminal voltage of the generator to the rated value. In DVR a reference
Voltage “Vref” is compare with a sensed terminal voltage Vt. If it determines that the
generator voltage is incorrect, it produces an error signal, this error signal passes to the
firing circuit. There, it overrides the control signal and causes the firing angle of
thyristor rectifier to restore generator voltage to a desired level.

Fig.11 Generation system and AVR

4.3. LIMITER CONTROLLER

When a generator is running in parallel with the power network, it is essential to

maintain it in synchronism without exceeding the rating of the machine and also
20
without the protection system tripping. Only automatic Regulator cannot ensure this. It
is necessary to influence the voltage regulator by suitable means to limit the over
excitation, under excitation and stator current limiter. This not only improves the

security of the parallel operation but makes operation of the system easier. However
limiters do not replace the protection system but only prevent the protection system
from tripping unnecessarily under extreme transient conditions. The static excitation
system is equipped with three limiters which act in conjunction with the AVR. These
limiters are as under;

Over excitation limiter

Under excitation limiter

Stator current limiter

The excitation limiter tested as a summing point type device acting upon the set-pint of
the automatic voltage regulator to provide restrictive control of the machine.

4.4. OVER EXCITATION LIMITER

The maximum excitation limiter senses the field current of the generator and similarly
acts upon the set-point of the voltage regulator to restrict control of the machine where
operation is undesirable. The capability of the generator in the overexcited region is
limited by the capability of cooling the field winding and the overall MVA output
(stator current) of the machine. The overexcited region of the machine is referred to as
lagging power factor, where VAR are being supplied from the machine. Over excitation
Limiter or Maximum Excitation Limiter senses the field current output of static exciter
and limits the field current to prevent field overheating. Two OEL current levels are
defined for off line operation. They are high and low as shown in the Fig. 2. The
generator can operate continuously at the low OEL current level and for a programmed
time at the high OEL current level. Over excitation limiter avoids thermal overloading

21
of the rotor winding and is provided to protect the generator rotor against excessively
long duration over loads.

FIELDCURRENT
High current
Level
High
Low current
Current Continuous
Level
Time

TIME IN SECONDS

Fig.12 Off Line OEL Reference

The purpose of over excitation limiter is to protect the generator from overheating due
to the prolonged field current. The generator field winding is designed to operate
continuously at a value corresponding to rated load condition. The over excitation

limiting function typically detects the high field current condition and after a time
delay, acts through the regulator to ramp down the excitation to a present value.
(typically 100 % to 110 % of rated field current). If this is unsuccessful, it trips the
breaker and a unit trip. Two types of time delay are used: (a) fixed time and (b) inverse
time. The fixed time limiter operates when the field current exceeds the pickup value
for a fixed set time, irrespective of the degree of over excitation. The inverse time
limiter operates with the time delay matching the field thermal capability. The OEL
controller is normally implemented as either “Take over” or a “summing” type
controller. The summing type controller is considered here. The OEL make up the inner
loop of the voltage regulator and use a PI controller. The actual exciter field current in
Amperes is used for the OEL models and the OEL output is added to the summing point
of the voltage regulator. When it is above the limit, the OEL limiter output becomes less
than the AVR output and the OEL takes over to control at a proper excitation level.
When the OEL is active, the AVR loop stops integration and compares its output with
the OEL output to get out of the OEL loop.

22
4.5. UNDER EXCITATION LIMITERS
Under excitation limiters are included in most modern voltage regulators
applied on large synchronous generators. An under excitation limiter (UEL) acts to
boost excitation whenever it senses a condition in which generator excitation level is
determined to be too low. The UEL typically senses either a combination of voltage and
current of the synchronous machine or a combination of real and reactive power. The
limits are determined by machine operating point crossing a reference level or
characteristic. When the reference level or characteristic is crossed, the UEL output
signal acts to become a part of the control of the excitation system. The UEL output is
applied in the voltage regulator either to a summing junction to add the normal voltage
control or to a high value (HV) gate to override the normal action of the voltage
regulator. Depending upon the implementation of the UEL function to control
excitation, the action of the UEL could take the voltage regulator out of service and/or
cause interactions which may not normally occur during normal operation when the
UEL characteristic is not reached.

Two UEL models have been developed:1) Circular characteristic 2) multiple-segment

straight-line characteristic. In this paper multiple-segment straight-line characteristic of
UEL model is used. For this model, the UEL limit has multi-segment Characteristic
when plotted in terms of machine reactive power output (Qt) vs. real power output (Pt).
The UEL limit can be unaffected by terminal voltage Vt. In the UEL real power Pt is
sent to the UEL Look-up Table to determine the corresponding normalized value of the
reactive power Qref at the UEL limit characteristic, which is compared with the
machine reactive power Qt. Fig. 3. shows a UEL limit characteristic for a UEL in which
the limit is comprised of multiple straight-line segments, showing the maximum of six
segments. The UEL characteristic can be comprised of any number of straight-line
segments from 1 to 6. The data requirements to the P and Q values used to specify the
UEL limit are those values which would be applicable with VT = 1.0 pu. For any value
of Pt, the corresponding value of Qref can readily be determined from look up
table[10]. This Qref is compare with the Qact and produce error signal. According to
the error signal UEL produce the output signal Vuel. This Vuel is Added with the

23
Summing junction point of AVR.

vars P out (+)

vars P6, Q6
in (-)

UEL NOT P5, Q5

LIMITING

P4, Q4
P3, Q3 UEL
P1, Q1 P2, Q2 LIMITING

Fig.13 UEL Multi-Segment Normalized Limiting Characteristic

4.6. STATOR CURRENT LIMITER

Stator current limiter avoids thermal over loading of the stator windings. Stator current
limiter is provided to protect the generator against long duration of large stator currents.

REFERENCE STATOR
CURRENT

HIGH
CUT DOWN
FOR RESET

LOW

SCT 1 SCT 2

Fig.14 Stator Current Limiter Reference

The SCL current reference is generated based on a two-step waveform with a high
current level and a low current level as shown in Fig. 4. For excessive inductive current

24
it acts over the AVR after a certain time lag and decreases the excitation current to limit
the inductive current to the limit value. But for excessive capacitive current it acts on
the AVR without time delay to increase the Excitation and thereby reduce the capacitive
loading. This is necessary as there is a risk for the machine failing out of step during
under excited mode of operation.

4.7 CONTROL AND PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS

A modern excitation control system is much more than a simple voltage regulator.
It includes a number of control, limiting and protective functions which assist in
fulfilling the performance requirements. The nature of these functions and the manner
in which they interface with each other any given system may include only some or all
of these functions depending on the specific application and the type of exciter control
functions regulate specific quantities at the desired level. Limiting functions prevent
certain quantities from exceeding set limits. If any of the limiters fail, then protective
functions remove appropriate components or the unit from service.

25
 Figure 15: Excitation system control and protective circuits

AC Regulator:
Its basic function is to maintain generator stator voltage. In addition, other auxiliaries
act through the ac regulator.
DC Regulator:
It holds constant generator field voltage (manual control). It is used for testing and
startup, and when ac regulator is faulty
Excitation System Stabilizing Circuits:
Excitation systems with significant time delays have poor inherent dynamic
performance unless very low steady-state regulator gain is used, the control action is
unstable when generator is on open-circuit. Series or feedback compensation is used to

26
improve the dynamic response. The most commonly used form of compensation is a
derivative feedback.

Figure 16: Derivative feedback excitation control system stabilization

Power System Stabilizer (PSS):

It uses auxiliary stabilizing signals (such as shaft speed, frequency, power) to modulate
the generator field voltage so as to damp system oscillations

Load Compensator:
It is used to regulate a voltage at a point either within or external to the generator
achieved by building additional circuitry into the AVR loop with RC and XC positive,

the compensator regulates a voltage at a point within the generator and used to ensure
proper sharing VARs between generators bussed together at their terminals.
It is commonly used with hydro units and cross-compound thermal units with RC and
XC negative, the compensator regulates voltage at a point beyond the generator
terminals and to compensate for voltage drop across step-up transformer when
generators are connected through individual transformers.

27
 Fig.17 Load compensator

4.8 COOLING SYSTEMS OF EXCITERS

COOLING OF EXCITER:
The exciter is air cooled. The cooling air is circulated in a close circuit and re-cooled
in two cooler sections arranged alongside the exciter. The complete exciter is house in
an enclosure through which the cooling air circulates. The rectifier wheels, house in
their own enclosure, draw the cool air in at both ends and expel the warmed air to the
compartment beneath the base plate. The main exciter enclosure receives cool air
from the fan after it passes over the pilot exciter. The air enters the main exciter from
both ends and is passed into ducts below the rotor body and discharged through radial
slots in the rotor core to the lower compartment. The warm air is then returned to the
main enclosure via the cooler sections.

Hydrogen cooling:
Hydrogen cooled synchronous condensers operating at speed up to 900 r.p.m. have
been furnished with direct connected main exciter located in hydrogen filled
compartment which can be isolated from the main condenser compartment when
maintenance is to be done on the exciter. It has been found that hydrogen cooling of
exciter not only reduces the temperature rise of exciter but also decreases the wear of
the commutator and brushes. Hydrogen cooling has been proposed for the exciters of

28
turbo generator.
Emergency Cooling of Exciter:
Emergency cooling is provided to permit continued operation in the event of cooler
failure. In such an emergency, flaps in the hot and cold air compartments are
automatically operated by actuators admitting cold air from outside the exciter
enclosure and discharging the hot air through openings in base frame.

4.9 EXCITER DRYING:

A dryer (dehumidifier) and an anti-condensation heating system are provided to avoid
the formation of moisture condensate inside the exciter with the turbine-generator at
rest or on turning gear. The dryer dehumidifies the air within the exciter enclosure. The
dryer wheel is made of a non-flammable material. On its inlet side, the wheel is
provided with a system of tubular ducts, the surfaces of which are impregnated with a
highly a highly hygroscopic material. The tubular ducts are dimensioned so that a
laminar flow with low pressure loss is obtained even at high air velocity. The moisture
absorbed by the dryer wheel is removed in a regeneration section by a stream of hot air
directed through the wheel in the opposite direction of the inlet air and then discharged
to the atmosphere. A shutoff valve in the dry air outlet line prevents that contaminated
air from the powerhouse will be drawn during load operation of the exciter.

4.10 STROBOSCOPE FOR FUSE MONITORING:

The fuses on the rectifier wheels may be checked during operation with the
stroboscope. The stroboscope is located adjustment to the rectifier wheel in the exciter
enclosure so that the fuses may be observed from outside the exciter enclosure while
controlling the stroboscope. The observation period for one full revolution of the
rectifier wheel (360˚) is approximately 25 sec. at approximately 450˚, the stroboscope
resets to the initial position of the wheel and repeats the scan. The continuous can be
interrupted at any time to hold a stationary image.

4.11 METERING AND SUPERVISORY EQUIPMENT FOR EXCITERS

SUPERVISION OF EXCITER:
The most essential measuring and supervisory devices at the exciter are:
 Temperature monitoring system

29
  Fuse monitoring system
 Ground fault detection system
 Excitation current measuring device
Temperature monitoring system:
The exciter is provided with devices for monitoring the temperature of the cold air after
the exciter cooler and the hot air leaving the rectifier wheels and main exciter.
Fuse monitoring system: The indicator flags of the fuses on the rectifier wheels may
be checked during operation with the built in stroboscope.
Ground fault detection system:
Two slip rings are installed on the shaft between the main exciter and the bearing. One
is connected to the star point of the three phases winding of the main exciter and the
other to the Frame. These slip rings permit ground fault detection. The field ground
fault detection system detects high resistance and low resistance ground faults in the
exciter field circuit. It is very important for safe operation of a generator, because a
double fault causes magnetic unbalance with very high currents flowing through the
faulted part, resulting in its destruction within a very short time. If the field ground fault
detection system detects a ground faults, an alarm is activated at Resistance < 80kΏ
(1st stage).if the insulation resistance between the exciter field circuit and ground
either suddenly or slowly drops to Resistance < 5kΏ the generator electrical protection
is tripped (2nd stage).The generator is thus automatically disconnected from the system
and deexcited.
Excitation current measuring device:
The excitation current is measured indirectly through a coil arranged between two poles
of the main exciter. The voltage induced in this coil is proportional to the main
excitation current thus enabling a determination of the excitation current.
Advantages of a Digital Excitation System
Features of the new "Digital" Static Excitation and Voltage Regulator interface that we
enjoy working with include the Data Logging (Oscillography), Sequence Events
Recording, Trending and Real-Time Dynamic System Analyzers. These can be set up
and accessed easily by a laptop and greatly aid in system testing and in the
troubleshooting and analyzing of System problems, such as caused by System
disturbances. We can now record the performance of the System both before and after
any System disturbance.

30
 Generator Voltage Softstart that will prevent voltage overshoot during machine
startup.
 Automatic Nulling to prevent bumps in Voltage and VARs when transferring
between Automatic Voltage Regulator and the Manual Voltage Regulator
control.
 Automatic Voltage Matching between the Generator and the Bus Voltage to
prevent VAR exchange / bumps when paralleling.
 VAR / Power Factor Controller, to be utilized if VAR control or PF Control can
be utilized within this Generating System, selectable by the Operator whenever
it is needed.
 Summing-Point Type or Takeover Type Offline & Online Maximum Excitation
Limiting to prevent rotor damage due to excessively long overexcitation
periods.
 Under Excitation Limiting to prevent too little excitation to be applied into the
Field based upon the kWs being exported.
 Stator Current Limiting to prevent sustained overheating of the Stator Windings.
 Generator Protection including Loss of Field, Under/Overvoltage, Field Over
current, Field Overvoltage, Field Over temperature, and Loss of PT Voltage
Sensing, Volts Per Hertz.
 Under frequency or selectable Volts/Hertz Ratio Limiting to prevent the
machine from being over flux at low operating frequency.
 Modbus Communication Port available to interface to existing Plant DCS
Systems for both control and monitoring of the new "Digital" Control System.
As an option, the Modbus TMCommunication Port could be connected directly
to a Remote Display Panel, such as the {E2ROIP Remote Operator Interface
Panel} for remote control and monitoring of the new "Digital" Control System
and all of the associated devices.

31
 CONCLUSION

In this paper Digital excitation system using thyristor rectifier converter is discussed. In
order to improve the generator stability under unbalanced conditions, this generator
excitation system is proposed. This excitation system gives better stability than a
conventional excitation system. The performance of the proposed excitation system has
been verified through computer simulation. The over excitation, under excitation and

32
stator current limiter allows operating for a period of time within the machine or
equipment limits until corrective measures can be taken, even when failure. For these
reasons, limiters used on generation provide both performance and economic benefits
to the user, to insure reliable power generation.

REFERENCES

1. Jerkovic, Vedrana; Miklosevic, Kresimir; Spoljaric Zeljko, “Excitation System

Models of Synchronous Generator” Faculy of Electrical Engineering Osijek,
Croatia

33
2. Chan-Ki Kim, Hong-Woo Rhew and Yoon Ho Kim, “Stability performance of
new static excitation system with boost-buck converter” Korea Electric Power
Research Institute (KEPRI) 103-12 Munji-Dong, Yusung-Gu, Daejon, KOREA.

3. IEEE Std 421.1-2007, An American National Standard IEEE Standard

Definitions for Excitation Systems for Synchronous Machines. Approved 8
March 2007

4. K R Padiyar “power system dynamics stability and control” Second Edition BS

Publications - pp 123 - 135

5. Myinzu Htay and Kyaw San Win , “Design And Construction Of

Automatic Voltage Regulator For Diesel Engine Type Stand-Alone
Synchronous Generator” World Academy of Science, Engineering and
Technology 42 2008

6. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York,
1993, pp. 333-369.

7. IEEE Std 421.4-2004IEEE Guide for the preparation excitation system

specification , Approved 24 June 2004

8. A. Murdoch, and G.E. Boukarim, M.J. D „Antonio and RA. Lawson “Generator
Over Excitation Capability And Excitation System Limiters” Panel Session
Summary for the JEEE/PES 2001 WPM, CoIumbus, OH

9. A. Godhwani, K. Kim, M.J. Basler, “An Under and Over Excitation Limiter
Implementation in a Digital Excitation System for Synchronous Generators” 0-
7803-4403-0/98/-1998 IEEE
10. Joseph D. Hurley, “Under excitation Limiter Models for Power System Stability
Studies” 0-7803-9156-X/05-2005-IEEE

34
11. M. Rabiul Alam, Rajib Baran Roy, S.M. Jahangir Alam , Dewan Juel Rahman
“Single Phase Automatic Voltage Regulator Design for Synchronous Generator”
International Journal of Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol 11
year 2011.

12. Gaing, Z. L., “A Particle Swarm Optimization Approach for Optimum Design
of PID Controller in AVR System,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion,
Volume 19, pp. 384-394 year 2004.

13. Ching-Chang Wong, Shih-An Li ,Hou-Yi Wang “Optimal PID Controller

Design for AVR System” Tamkang Journal of Science and Engineering, Volume
12, pp. 259-270 year 2009.

14. S.Panda,B.K. Sahu ,P.K. Mohanty “Design And Performance Analysis Of PID
Controller for An Automatic Voltage Regulator System Using Simplified
Particle Swarm Optimization” Volume 349, Issue 8, Page 2609–2625 October
2012.

15. Hany M. Hasanien “Design Optimization of PID Controller in Automatic

Voltage Regulator System Using Taguchi Combined Genetic Algorithm
Method” IEEE Transaction Volume 07 Year 2012.

16. Mohammad Sadegh Rahimian, Kaamran Raahemifar “Optimal PID Controller

Design For AVR System Using Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm”
Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE), 2011 24th Canadian
Conference Pages 337 – 340 year 8-11 May 2011.

17. Yinggan Tang, Liheng Zhao, Zhenzhen Han, Xiangwei Bi, Xinping Guan
“Optimal gray PID controller design for automatic voltage regulator system via
imperialist competitive algorithm” International Journal of Machine Learning
and Cybernetics Volume 7, Issue 2, pp 229–240 year April 2016.

35
18. J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart, “Particle Swarm Optimization” in Proceding IEEE
International Conference Neural Networks, vol. IV, Perth, Australia, , pp. 1942–
1948 year 1995

19. Y. Shi and R. Eberhart, “A Modified Particle Swarm Optimizer,” in Proceding

IEEE International Conference pp. 69–73 May 1998.

20. Y. Shi and R. C. Eberhart, “Empirical Study of Particle Swarm Optimization,”

in Proceding IEEE International Conference Washington, DC pp. 1945–1950,
July 1999.

21. R. C. Eberhart and Y. Shi, “Comparison between Genetic Algorithms and

Particle Swarm Optimization” in Proceding IEEE International Conference, pp.
611–616 May 1998.

22. A. H. M. S. Ula and A. R. Hasan, "Design and Implementation Of A Personal

Computer Based Automatic Voltage Regulator for a Synchronous Generator",
IEEE Transaction Energy Converters, vol. 7, pp. 125-131, 1992

23. K. J. Astrom and T. Hagglund, "The Future of PID Control", Control

Engineering Practice, vol. 9, pp. 1163-1175, 2001

24. Y. Li , K. H. Ang and G. C. Y. Chong, "PID Control System Analysis And

Design, Problems, Remedies, And Futuredirections", IEEE Control System
Management., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 32-41, 2006

25. S.-R. Qi , D.-F. Wang , P. Han and Y.-H. Li, "Grey Prediction Based RBF
Neural Networkself-Tuning PID Control For Turning Process",in Proceding
IEEE International Conference pp. 802-805, 2004

26. A. Rubaai , M. J. Castro-Sitiriche and A. R. Ofoli, "Design And Implementation

of Parallel Fuzzy PID Controller Forhigh-Performance Brushless Motor Drives:

36
 An Integrated Environment for Rapid Control Prototyping", IEEE Transaction
Industrial Applications, vol. 44, no. 4, 1090-1098, 2008

27. A. Rubaai and P. Young, "EKF-based PI-/PD-like fuzzy-neural-network-

controller for brushlessdrives", IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 47, no. 6, 2391-
2401, 2011

28. B. Lennartson and B. Kristiansson, "Evaluation and tuning of robustPID

controllers", IET Control Theory Appl., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 294-302, 2009

29. X.H. Li , H. B. Yu , M. Z. Yuan and J. Wang, "Design of robust

optimalproportional-integral-derivative controller based on new interval
polynomial stability criterion and Lyapunov theorem inthe multiple parameters\'
perturbations circumstance", IET Control TheoryAppl., vol. 4, no. 11, pp. 2427-
2440, 2010

30. R. A. Krohling and J. P. Rey, "Design of optimal disturbance rejection PID

controllers using geneticalgorithms", IEEE Trans. Evol. Comput., vol. 5, pp. 78-
82, 2001

31. D. Devaraj and B. Selvabala, "Real-coded genetic algorithm and fuzzy logic
approach for real-timetuning of proportional-integral-derivative controller in
automatic voltage regulator system", IET Generation Transmission Distribution,
vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 641-649, 2009

32. J. Zhang , J. Zhuang , H. Du and S. Wang, "Self-organizing genetic algorithm

basedtuning of PID controllers", Inform. Sci., vol. 179, no. 7, 1007-1018, 2009
33. Z.-L. Gaing, "A particle swarm optimization approach for optimum design of
PID controller in AVRsystem", IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol. 19, no. 2, pp.
384-391, 2004

37
34. V. Mukherjee and S. P. Ghoshal, "Intelligent particle swarm optimizedfuzzy PID
controller for AVR system", Electr. Power Syst. Res., vol. 77, no. 12, pp. 1689-
1698, 2007

35. J. S. Chiou and M.-T. Liu, "Numerical simulation for fuzzy-PIDcontrollers and
helping EP reproduction with PSO hybrid algorithm", Simulation
ModelingPractice Theory, vol. 17, no. 10, pp. 1555-1565, 2009

36. A. M. Omekanda, "Robust torque and torque-per-inertiaoptimization of a

switched reluctance motor using the Taguchi methods", IEEE Trans. Ind.Appl.,
vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 473-478, 2006

37. C.-C. Hwang , L.-Y. Lyu , C.-T. Liu and P.-L. Li, "Optimal design of an SPM
motor using geneticalgorithms and Taguchi method", IEEE Trans. Magn., vol.
44, pp. 4325-4328, 2008

38