Module 03-05 Electrical Fundamentals: DC Sources of Electricity

AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 03 - Electrical Fundamentals
Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05 - DC Sources of Electricity

Level  1  2  3
Module 03-05
Electrical Fundamentals
DC Sources of Electricity
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Level  1  2  3
Table of contents
CONSTRUCTION AND BASIC CHEMICAL ACTION OF: PRIMARY CELLS, SECONDARY CELLS, LEAD ACID CELLS, NICKEL CADMIUM CELLS,
OTHER ALKALINE CELLS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
1. DC VOLTAGE: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Definition of voltage: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2. Voltage types: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1. Direct Current (DC) type voltage: .................................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.2.2. Alternative Current (AC) type voltage: ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.3. Types of DC voltages sources and symbols: ................................................................................................................................................................... 7
2. DC CURRENT: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
3. DC CONSTRUCTION AND BASIC CHEMICAL ACTION OF CELLS: ............................................................................................................................. 11
3.1. Primary cell: not reversible cell: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.1.1. The dry cell (Leclanché cell): ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
3.1.2. Dry cell composition:.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 12
3.1.3. Zinc-mercuric-oxide cell: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 13
3.2. Secondary cell: reversible cell: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13
3.2.1. Lead-acid battery: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
3.2.2. Nickel-cadmium battery: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
3.2.3. Other alkaline cells: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
II. CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL ............................................................................................................................................................. 24
1. CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES: ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.1. Voltage: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.2. Properties of serial connection: ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
2. CELLS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 26
2.1. Voltage: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
2.2. Properties of parallel connection: ................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
3. SERIAL-PARALLEL CONNECTION: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 29
III. INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON A BATTERY ......................................................................................................................................... 30
1. Ideal and real BATTERIES: ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
2. HOW TO LOWER THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A BATTERY: .............................................................................................................................. 31
IV. CONSTRUCTION, MATERIALS AND OPERATION OF THERMOCOUPLES ..................................................................................................................... 33
1. TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES: ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
2. PERFORMANCES OF THERMOCOUPLES:..................................................................................................................................................................... 34
3. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THERMOCOUPLES: ....................................................................................................................................... 35
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V. OPERATION OF PHOTO-CELLS .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
1. GENERAL: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:................................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
3. PHOTODIODES: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 40
4. PHOTOTRANSISTOR: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
5. SOLAR CELLS: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 42
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CONSTRUCTION AND BASIC CHEMICAL ACTION OF: PRIMARY CELLS, SECONDARY CELLS, LEAD ACID CELLS,
NICKEL CADMIUM CELLS, OTHER ALKALINE CELLS
This lesson and the following ones cover the three basic quantities of electricity:
 Voltage (V or E).
 Current (I).
 Resistance (R).
Water system and circuit analogy
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Voltage, current and resistance in an electrical circuit can be understood by referring to a water system:
 Voltage is the electrical force that causes electrons to move from a negative charge to a positive charge. It is like the water tower which causes the
water to flow through the system.
 Current is the flow of electrons in the circuit. It can be likened to the water that flows through the pipes in the water system.
 Resistance is the opposition to the current in the circuit. It can be compared with the valves that are used to control the flow of water in the water
system:
When the resistance is high, very little or no current flows in the circuit. In the same way when the valve is almost closed, very little water flows through the
system.
When the resistance is low, a large current flows in the circuit. When the valve is open, a large amount of water can flow through the system
1. DC VOLTAGE:
1.1. Definition of voltage:
The letter symbol for voltage is E (emf) for the source voltage and V otherwise.
The unit for voltage is the VOLT
The letter symbol for volts is V.
For example, if a voltage is 10 volts, we say: Voltage equals 10 volts or V = 10 V .
1.2. Voltage types:

1.2.1. Direct Current (DC) type voltage:
Direct current is the unidirectional, continuous flow of electric charge. It is produced by such sources as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and
commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type.
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In direct current, the electric charges flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from alternating current (AC). Apart from continuous current, A
term formerly used for direct current was Galvanic current.
DC voltage
Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of a current-switching arrangement called a rectifier, which contains
electronic elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow current to flow only in one direction.
Direct current may be made into alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator set.
1.2.2. Alternative Current (AC) type voltage:

AC is not part of this lesson.
An alternating current (AC) is an electrical current whose magnitude and direction vary cyclically, as opposed to direct current, whose direction
remains constant. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave, as this result in the most efficient transmission of energy. However in
certain applications different waveforms are used, such as triangular or square waves.
An AC generator consists of some magnets and a wire (usually a very long one that's wrapped to form several coils and known as an armature). A
steam engine or some other outside source of motion moves the wire or armature through the magnetic field created by the magnets.
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One or several loops of wire are spinning within a magnetic field. Because it is always moving through the field, a current is sustained.
As the loop is spinning, it is moving across the field first in one direction and then in the other, which means that the flow of electrons keeps
changing.
AC voltage
Because the electrons flow first in one direction and in the other, the generator produces an alternating current.
One advantage that AC has over DC is that it can easily be "stepped up" or "stepped down" with a transformer. In other words, a transformer can
take a low-voltage current and make it a high-voltage current, and vice versa.
This comes in handy in transmitting electricity over long distances. Since AC travels more efficiently at high voltages, transformers are used to step
up the voltage before the electricity is sent out, and then other transformers are used to step down the voltage for use in homes and businesses.
1.3. Types of DC voltages sources and symbols:

Batteries, power supplies and generators are three common DC voltage sources:
 A battery consists of two or more cells connected together. A cell is a chemical source of DC electrical power.
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 A power supply is a device that converts AC voltage to DC voltage.
 A DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generator output is a DC voltage.
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1.3.2. Voltage polarity:
Voltage polarity
A DC voltage source has one negative (-) terminal and one positive (+) terminal.
In the schematic symbol:

 The long line always represents the positive terminal.
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 The short line always represents the negative terminal.
When an electrical device has a negative and a positive terminal, it has polarity. A DC voltage source has one negative (-) terminal and one positive
(+) terminal.
Notice that sometimes, voltage sources are simply represented as shown on figure below.
The voltage is measured by means of a voltmeter.
An ideal voltage source has no internal resistance. Any change in load resistance will not change the voltage supplied.
It never happens that a voltage source be ideal, that is to say, any voltage source is real and has an inner resistance. Real voltage sources can be
understood as being an ideal voltage source (with no inner resistance) associated with a resistance in series.
The smaller this resistance is, the better is the voltage source.
2. DC CURRENT:
Sometimes, instead of using DC voltage sources, people use DC CURRENT SOURCES. These sources are characterized by the constant current that
they produce.
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Current sources are represented as follows:
DC current source
Arrow gives the sense of the current intensity.
An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance. Any change in the load resistance will not change the current supplied. It never happens that a
current source be ideal, that is to say, any current source is real and has not infinite resistance.
Real current sources can be understood as being an ideal current source (with infinite inner resistance) associated with a resistance in parallel. The
greater this resistance is, the better is the current source.
3. DC CONSTRUCTION AND BASIC CHEMICAL ACTION OF CELLS:
3.1. Primary cell: not reversible cell:

A primary cell is a cell in which the chemical action eats away one of the electrodes, usually the negative electrode. When this happens, the electrode
must be replaced or the cell must be discarded. In the galvanic-type cell, the zinc electrode and the liquid electrolyte are usually replaced when this
happens. In the case of the dry cell, it is usually cheaper to buy a new cell.
3.1.1. The dry cell (Leclanché cell):

The most common form of primary cell is the Leclanché cell, invented by the French chemist Georges Leclanché in the 1860s. It is popularly called
a dry cell or flashlight battery. The Leclanché cell in use today is very similar to the original invention.
It makes use of the two reactions, which (in a simplified form) may be described as:
Anode : Zn  Zn2+ + 2e -
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Cathode: Mn4+ +e-  Mn3+
The manganese is supplied as manganese dioxide, and the actual cathode reaction taking place is:
2 MnO2 + 2H+ + 2e-  Mn2 O3 + H2 O
+ +
The H ions are in turn provided by ammonium ions NH4 , through the reaction:
NH+4  NH3 + H+
The electrolyte consists of a mixture of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride made into a paste.
The negative electrode is made of zinc, as is the outside shell of the cell, and the positive
electrode is a carbon rod surrounded by a mixture of carbon and manganese dioxide. The
Leclanché cell produces about 1.5 V.
The dry cell is an example of a primary cell, as once it is discharged it cannot be recharged, and
must be discarded.
3.1.2. Dry cell composition:

The top of the battery is closed with a non-conducting sealing material (A).
The cathode consists of a graphite (carbon) rod (B)(tipped with a metal contact), which serves as
the positive pole of the battery.
The anode is a cylindrical zinc casing (C) (the bottom of the battery is normally exposed and
serves as the negative pole).
The battery is filled with a mixture of manganese dioxide (MnO2) as oxidant, ammonium chloride
+
(NH4Cl) as a source of H ions, and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) (D). These two salts serve as electrolytes.
The above mixture is separated from the zinc walls of the battery by a porous material soaked in a
solution of the two salts. The e.m.f. of the battery is about 1.5 V.
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3.1.3. Zinc-mercuric-oxide cell:
Another widely used primary cell is the zinc-mercuric-oxide cell, more commonly called a mercury battery. It can be made in the shape of a small
flat disk and is used in this form in hearing aids, photoelectric cells, and electric wristwatches.
The negative electrode consists of zinc, the positive electrode is of mercuric oxide, and the electrolyte is a solution of potassium hydroxide.
The mercury battery produces about 1.34 V by element.
3.2. Secondary cell: reversible cell:

A secondary cell is a cell in which the electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by the chemical action that takes place when the cell delivers
current.
These cells may be restored to their original condition by forcing an electric current through them in the direction opposite to that of discharge.
The automobile storage battery is a common example of the secondary cell.
The storage battery, or secondary cell, which can be recharged by reversing the chemical reaction, was invented in 1859 by the French physicist
Gaston Planté.
Planté's cell was a lead-acid battery, the type widely used today.
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3.2.1. Lead-acid battery:

In 1859, the French physicist Gaston Planté (1834 - 1889) invented a device called the lead-acid accumulator, which, with minor design changes,
is still used today as the motor car battery. It is an example of a secondary electrochemical cell, since it can be recharged.
The lead-acid battery, which consists of three or six cells connected in series, is used in automobiles, trucks, aircraft, and other vehicles. Its chief
advantage is that it can deliver a strong current of electricity for starting an engine; however, it runs down quickly.
The electrolyte is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid, the negative electrode consists of lead, and the positive electrode of lead dioxide. In operation,
the negative lead electrode dissociates into free electrons and positive lead ions.
The electrons travel through the external electric circuit, and the positive lead ions combine with the sulfate ions in the electrolyte to form lead
sulfate. When the electrons reenter the cell at the positive lead-dioxide electrode, another chemical reaction occurs.
The lead dioxide combines with the hydrogen ions in the electrolyte and with the returning electrons to form water, releasing lead ions in the
electrolyte to form additional lead sulfate.
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 Lead-acid cell discharging:

The lead in the grid of the negative plate and the lead peroxide in the positive plate change when a connection is made across the
terminals of the battery. The electrolyte enters into this change, not only as a conductor, but as an active participant.
At the anode the sponge lead gives lead sulfate:
Pb + (2H+ , SO24 )  2e-  + 2H+  + Pb SO4
Electrons are created and circulate from the anode to the cathode through the resistance.
At the cathode the lead dioxide gives lead sulfate:
(2H+ , SO2-  -  +
4 ) + Pb O 2 +  2e  +  2H   Pb SO 4 + 2 H2 0
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 Lead-acid cell charging:

When the active elements of both plates become lead sulfate, and the electrolyte is diluted, there is no more chemical energy to
change to electrical energy. The battery is said to be discharged.
The battery can be returned to a condition of charge by reversing the current flow. We use a external direct current generator to
charge the battery.
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At the anode the lead sulfate gives sponge lead sulfate:
2e-  + 2H+  + Pb SO4  Pb + (2H+ , SO24 )

 
A generator or other source of direct current is attached to the battery with its positive terminal to the positive plate. Electrons are
forced into the battery at the negative terminal.
This drives the sulphate radicals from both the positive and negative plates back into the electrolyte where they change the water back
into sulfuric acid.
At the cathode the lead sulfate gives lead dioxide:
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PbSO4 + 2 H2 0  (2H+ , SO2-  -  +

4 ) + Pb O2 +  2e  +  2H 
If a battery is allowed to sit for a period of time in a discharged condition, or if the electrolyte level is low for some time, the lead
sulphate will harden and be difficult to convert back to lead and lead peroxide. A battery in this condition is said to be sulfated.
 Conditions of charge:
The electrolyte changes its density, the relative amounts of acid and water, as the condition of charge changes. It is possible,
therefore, by knowing how much acid is in the electrolyte to know the condition of charge of the battery. An instrument known as a
hydrometer is used to determine this condition.
A small weighted float with a long stem and a numbered scale is held in the enlarged tube of a syringe. Electrolyte is pulled up in this
tube where its density is indicated by the level the float rides in the liquid.
The number opposite the level of electrolyte is its specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the electrolyte to the
density of pure water.
The electrolyte used in lead-acid aircraft batteries is concentrated sulphuric acid (H2S04), having a specific gravity of 1.835, diluted
with pure water to a specific gravity of 1.265 to 1.275 at 80 degrees F.
When the specific gravity of the electrolyte has been reduced by discharging to about 1.150, there is not enough chemical strength to
further change the lead into lead sulphate, and the battery is said to be discharged.
We can use a hydrometer to test Specific Gravity and State of Charge in batteries with removable caps.
Here’s how:
 Remove the battery caps. Check the electrolyte level. Make sure all cells are covered but not overfilled.
 Insert the hydrometer into each cell and draw electrolyte into the glass cylinder with the squeeze ball. Draw just enough acid into
the cylinder to make the float rise.
 Hold the hydrometer vertical as each sample is drawn. Note the exact level at which the fluid level intersects the measurement
scale on the float and record it.
 Repeat the test at each of the remaining cells. Record the reading for each cell. Compare readings to the chart on this page to
determine state of charge.
 If the battery is below 75 percent state of charge, recharge it before load testing.
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 Description of lead-acid battery:

 Grid:
A grid cast of an alloy of lead and antimony forms the framework for the active elements in the lead-acid battery. The antimony
in the lead makes possible finer castings so there will be room for more active material.
 Negative plates:
The grids which serve as the negative plates have their openings filled with a dull gray, spongy mass of porous lead. This lead
has a material, called an expander, mixed into it to keep it from contracting back into its dense form and losing the surface area
needed for battery capacity.
 Positive plates:
The grid of the positive plate is filled with a compound of lead peroxide. This is a highly porous, chocolate brown crystalline
substance.
 Cell elements:
In the cell elements there will always be one more negative plate than positive, so the negative will be able to protect the more
active positive plate, and prevent warpage by exposing both sides equally.
A connector strap is welded onto each plate. The number of plates in an element has no influence on cell voltage, but the area
relates to the ampere-hour capacity of the battery.
 Six-cell element battery:
The battery consists of 6 cells connected in series, each cell having an emf of about 2 V, giving 12 V as the overall emf of the
battery.
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Typical battery and these elements
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The general appearance of the battery is shown below, with part of its casing removed to show the individual cells.
A lead-acid storage cell runs down as the sulfuric acid gradually is converted into water and the electrodes are converted into lead sulfate. When
the cell is being recharged, the chemical reactions described above are reversed until the chemicals have been restored to their original condition.
A lead-acid battery has a useful life of about four years. It produces about 2 V per cell. Recently, lead batteries with useful lives of 50 to 70 years
have been developed for special applications
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3.2.2. Nickel-cadmium battery:
Nickel-cadmium batteries (commonly abbreviated NiCd Battery or NiCd or NiCad) are a type of rechargeable battery first developed in 1961.
They are commonly used in many portable electronic devices.
Nickel-Cadmium battery used in aircrafts

A nickel-cadmium cell contains:
 a nickel oxide-hydroxide at the positive electrode plate (solid state),
 a cadmium at the negative electrode plate,
 a separator and
 an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).
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One of the characteristics of a nickel-cadmium battery is its constant voltage up to almost the point of complete discharge; another is the fact that the
electrolyte does not enter into the chemical changes which cause the charge.
Because of these two facts, there is no simple way to determine the condition of charge of the battery.
The only way to know exactly how much charge it has is to know how many ampere-hours of charge have been put in.
3.2.3. Other alkaline cells:
 Edison cell:
In an edison cell the positive plate consists of nickel and nickel hydrate, and the negative plate is made of iron. The electrolyte is an
alkaline. Typical voltage output is 1.4 volts, and it should be recharged when it reaches 1.0 volts.
The edison cell has the advantage of being a lighter and more rugged secondary cell than a lead-acid storage battery.
 Mercury cell:
Mercury cells come in two types; one is a flat cell that is shaped like a button, while the other is a cylindrical cell that looks like a
regular flashlight battery. Each cell produces about 1.35 volts.
These cells are very rugged and have a relatively long shelf life. The mercury cell has the advantage of maintaining a fairly constant
output under varying load conditions.
For this reason, they are used in products such as electric watches, hearing aids, cameras, and test instruments.
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II. CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Cells and batteries may be connected in series, parallel, or combinations of both.
1. CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES:

1.1. Voltage:
Cells or batteries connected in series have the positive terminal of one cell or battery connected to the negative terminal of another cell or battery.
This has the effect of increasing the overall voltage but the overall capacity remains the same.
Four 2 V cells connected in series = 8 V cell

For example, the 8-V lead-acid automobile battery contains 4 cells connected in series with each cell having a potential difference of about 2 V.
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1.2. Properties of serial connection:

Adding cells in a string increases the voltage but the current remains the same.
Portable equipment with high-voltage needs is powered with battery packs in which two or more cell are connected in series. Figure shows a battery
pack with four 1-volt cells in series. The nominal voltage of the battery string is 4V.
Serial connection of four cells

Figure below illustrates a battery pack in which cell 3 produces only 0.5V instead of the full 1V. With the depressed operating voltage, the end-of-
discharge point will be reached sooner than with a normal pack and the runtime is severely shortened.
Faulty cell 3 lowers the overall voltage to 3.5V, causing the equipment to cut off prematurely
Once the equipment cuts off due to low voltage and the remaining three cells are unable to deliver the stored energy. Cell 3 could also exhibit a high
internal resistance, causing the string to collapse under load.
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A weak cell in a battery string is like a blockage in a garden hose that restricts water flow. Cell 3 could also be shorted, which would lower the terminal
voltage to 3V, or be open and cut off the current. A battery is only as good as the weakest cell in the pack.
2. CELLS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL:

2.1. Voltage:
Another example of cells or batteries connected in series is shown in Figure below. Cells or batteries connected in parallel have their like terminals
connected together.
Three 2 V cells connected in parallel = 2 V cell
The overall voltage remains the same but the capacity is increased. For example, if two-2 V batteries were connected in parallel, the overall voltage
for the batteries would still be 2 V.
However, the connected batteries would have twice the capacity of a single 2-V battery.
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2.2. Properties of parallel connection:

In order to obtain higher ampere-hour (Ah) ratings, two or more cells are connected in parallel. With parallel cells, the voltage stays the same but the
current handling and runtime increases.
The alternative to parallel connection is using a larger cell. This option is not always available because of limited cell selection. In addition, bulky cell
sizes do not lend themselves to build specialty battery shapes. Most chemistries allows parallel connection and lithium-ion is one of the best suited.
Figure below illustrates four cells connected in parallel. The voltage of the pack remains at 1V but the current handling and runtime are increased four
fold.
Parallel connection of four cells
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A high resistance or open cell is less critical in a parallel circuit than the serial configuration but the parallel pack will have reduced load capability and
a shorter runtime. It's like an engine running only on three cylinders.
An electrical short would be more devastating because the faulty cell would drain the energy from the other cells, causing a fire hazard. Next figure
illustrates a parallel configuration with one faulty cell.
Faulty cell 3 does not affect the voltage but provides a low runtime. A shorted cell
could cause excessive heat and create a fire hazard
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3. SERIAL-PARALLEL CONNECTION:
Figure illustrates a parallel/serial connection. This allows good design flexibility and attains the wanted voltage and current ratings by using a standard
cell size.
.
The configuration provides the most suitable voltage and current source
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III. INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON A BATTERY
1. IDEAL AND REAL BATTERIES:

Although we generally consider a cell or battery in a circuit to be a perfect source of voltage (absolutely constant), the current through it dictated solely
by the external resistance of the circuit to which it is attached, this is not entirely true in real life.
Since every cell or battery contains some internal resistance, that resistance must affect the current in any given circuit.
The real battery shown in right figure within the dotted lines has an internal resistance of 0.1 Ω, which affects its ability to supply current to the load
resistance of 1 Ω.
The ideal battery shown in left figure has no internal resistance, and so Ohm's Law calculations for current (I=E/R) give us a perfect value of 10 amps
for current with the 1 ohm load and 10 volt supply. The real battery, with its built-in resistance further impeding the flow of electrons, can only supply
9.09 amps to the same resistance load.
The ideal battery, in a short circuit with 0 Ω resistance, would be able to supply an infinite amount of current. The real battery, on the other hand, can
only supply 100 amps (10 volts / 0.1 Ω) to a short circuit of 0 Ω resistance, due to its internal resistance.
The chemical reaction inside the cell may still be providing exactly 10 volts, but voltage is dropped across that internal resistance as electrons flow
through the battery, which reduces the amount of voltage available at the battery terminals to the load.
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2. HOW TO LOWER THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A BATTERY:

Since we live in an imperfect world, with imperfect batteries, we need to understand the implications of factors such as internal resistance.
Typically, batteries are placed in applications where their internal resistance is negligible compared to that of the circuit load (where their short-circuit
current far exceeds their usual load current), and so the performance is very close to that of an ideal voltage source.
If we need to construct a battery with lower resistance than what one cell can provide (for greater current capacity), we will have to connect the cells
together in parallel.
Essentially, the equivalent cell of the five cells in parallel is an equivalent network of one voltage source and one series resistance. The equivalent
network has the same source voltage but a fraction of the resistance of any individual cell in the original network.
The overall effect of connecting cells in parallel is to decrease the equivalent internal resistance, just as resistors in parallel diminish in total resistance.
The equivalent internal resistance of this battery of 5 cells is 1/5 that of each individual cell, that is, 1/5 of 0.1 ohm (which is 0.02 ohm).
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Equivalent battery with lower internal resistance
The overall voltage stays the same: 10 volts. If this battery of cells were powering a circuit, the current through each cell would be 1/5 of the total
circuit current, due to the equal split of current through equal-resistance parallel branches.
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IV. CONSTRUCTION, MATERIALS AND OPERATION OF THERMOCOUPLES
1. TYPES OF THERMOCOUPLES:
The thermocouple is a device that converts thermal energy into electrical energy.
The Thermocouple is a thermoelectric temperature sensor which consists of two dissimilar metallic wires, e.g., one chromel and one constantan.
These two wires are connected at two different junctions, one for temperature measurement and the other for reference. The temperature difference
between the two junctions is detected by measuring the change in voltage (electromotive force, EMF) across the dissimilar metals at the temperature
measurement junction.
Typical thermocouples
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2. PERFORMANCES OF THERMOCOUPLES:
The performance of a thermocouple material is generally determined by using that material with platinum. The most important factor to be considered
when selecting a pair of materials is the "thermoelectric difference" between the two materials.
A significant difference between the two materials will result in better thermocouple performance. Figure below illustrates the characteristics of the
more commonly used materials when used with platinum. Other materials may be used in addition to those shown in figure.
Thermoelectric power vs platinium
03 - 05 - 34
Level  1  2  3
Some combinations used for specialized applications are Chromel-White Gold, Molybdenum-Tungsten, Tungsten-Iridium, and Iridium/Iridium-
Rhodium.
3. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THERMOCOUPLES:

The leads of the thermocouple are encased in a rigid metal sheath. The measuring junction is normally formed at the bottom of the thermocouple
housing.
Magnesium oxide surrounds the thermocouple wires to prevent vibration that could damage the fine wires and to enhance heat transfer between the
measuring junction and the medium surrounding the thermocouple.
Simple thermocouple circuit junction of the thermocouple produces a voltage which is greater than the voltage across the reference junction. The
difference between the two voltages is proportional to the difference in temperature and can be measured on the voltmeter (in millivolts).
03 - 05 - 35
Level  1  2  3
For ease of operator use, some voltmeters are set up to read out directly in temperature through use of electronic circuit.
Other applications provide only the millivolt readout. In order to convert the millivolt reading to its corresponding temperature, you must refer to tables
which list the specific temperature corresponding to a series of millivolt readings.
03 - 05 - 36
Level  1  2  3
V. OPERATION OF PHOTO-CELLS
1. GENERAL:
A photoconductive cell, or photocell, is an older device. It is a type of resistor.
When light strikes the cell, it allows current to flow more freely. When dark, its resistance increases dramatically. Photocells need some calibration to
be responsive in the exact lighting scenario you have.
They can be used to detect large or small fluctuations in light levels to distinguish between one light bulb and two, direct sunlight and total darkness, or
anything in between. Photocells are used in various types of control and timing circuits as, for example, the automatic street light controllers in most
cities.
Figure below shows two schematic symbols of photocells when subjected to light or darkness.
Photocells
03 - 05 - 37
Level  1  2  3
2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

OPTOELECTRONIC devices either produce light or use light in their operation. The first of these, the light-emitting diode (LED), was developed to
replace the fragile, short-life incandescent light bulbs used to indicate on/off conditions on panels.
A LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE is a diode which, when forward biased, produces visible light. The light may be red, green, or amber, depending upon the
material used to make the diode.
The LED is designated by a standard diode symbol with two arrows pointing away from the cathode. The arrows indicate light leaving the diode. The
circuit symbols for all optoelectronic devices have arrows pointing either toward them, if they use light, or away from them, if they produce light.
The LED operating voltage is small, about 1.6 volts forward bias and generally about 10 milliamperes. The life expectancy of the LED is very long,
over 100,000 hours of operation.
LEDs are used widely as "power on" indicators of current and as displays for pocket calculators, digital voltmeters, frequency counters, etc.
For use in calculators and similar devices, LEDs are typically placed together in seven-segment displays, as shown in next figure.
This display uses seven LED segments, or bars (labeled A through G in the figure), which can be lit in different combinations to form any number from
"0" through "9." The schematic, view A, shows a common-anode display. All anodes in a display are internally connected.
When a negative voltage is applied to the proper cathodes, a number is formed. For example, if negative voltage is applied to all cathodes except that
of LED "E," the number "9" is produced, as shown in view.
If the negative voltage is changed and applied to all cathodes except LED "B," the number "9" changes to "6" as shown in figure.
03 - 05 - 38
Level  1  2  3
Seven-segment displays are also available in common-cathode form, in which all cathodes are at the same potential. When replacing LED displays,
you must ensure the replacement display is the same type as the faulty display. Since both types look alike, you should always check the
manufacturer's number.
03 - 05 - 39
Level  1  2  3
3. PHOTODIODES:
Another special optoelectronic device in common use today is the photodiode. Unlike the LED, which produces light, the photodiode uses light to
accomplish special circuit functions. Basically, the PHOTODIODE is a light-controlled variable resistor.
In total darkness, it has a relatively high resistance and therefore conducts little current. However, when the PN junction is exposed to an external light
source, internal resistance decreases and current flow increases. The photodiode is operated with reverse-bias and conducts current in direct
proportion to the intensity of the light source.
The arrows pointing toward the symbol indicate that light is required for operation of the device. A light source is aimed at the photodiode through a
transparent "window" placed over the semiconductor chip.
Switching the light source on or off changes the conduction level of the photodiode. Varying the light intensity controls the amount of conduction.
Because photodiodes respond quickly to changes in light intensity, they are extremely useful in digital applications such as computer card readers,
paper tape readers, and photographic light meters. They are also used in some types of optical scanning equipment.
4. PHOTOTRANSISTOR:
A second optoelectronic device that conducts current when exposed to light is the PHOTOTRANSISTOR. A phototransistor, however, is much more
sensitive to light and produces more output current for a given light intensity that does a photodiode.
Figure shows one type of phototransistor, which is made by placing a photodiode in the base circuit of an NPN transistor. Light falling on the
photodiode changes the base current of the transistor, causing the collector current to be amplified. Phototransistors may also be of the PNP type,
with the photodiode placed in the base-collector circuit.
03 - 05 - 40
Level  1  2  3
Figure illustrates the schematic symbols for the various types of phototransistors.
Phototransistors may be of the two-terminal type, in which the light intensity on the photodiode alone determines the amount of conduction. They may
also be of the three-terminal type, which have an added base lead that allows an electrical bias to be applied to the base.
The bias allows an optimum transistor conduction level, and thus compensates for ambient (normal room) light intensity.
03 - 05 - 41
Level  1  2  3
5. SOLAR CELLS:
The photovoltaic cell, or solar cell, is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy.
Its schematic symbol is shown in figure. The symbol is similar to that of a battery. The device itself acts much like a battery when exposed to light and
produces about 0.45 volt across its terminals, with current capacity determined by its size.
Solar cell
As with batteries, solar cells may be connected in series or parallel to produce higher voltages and currents. The device is finding widespread
application in communications satellites and solar-powered homes.
03 - 05 - 42
Level  1  2  3
The voltage-intensity as well as the power-voltage characteristics of a solar cell is show in figure below.
When it is necessary to block the voltage between one electronic circuit and another, and transfer the signal at the same time, an amplifier coupling
capacitor is often used as shown in figure. Although this method of coupling does block DC between the circuits, voltage isolation is not complete.
03 - 05 - 43
Level  1  2  3
DC blocking with a coupling capacitor
A newer method, making use of optoelectronic devices to achieve electrical isolation, is the optical couple.
The coupler is composed of an LED and a photodiode contained in a light-conducting medium. As the polarity signs in next figure show, the LED is
forward biased, while the photodiode is reverse biased.
When the input signal causes current through the LED to increase, the light produced by the LED increases. This increased light intensity causes
current flow through the photodiode to increase. In this way, changes in input current produce proportional changes in the output, even though the two
circuits are electrically isolated.
The optical coupler is suitable for frequencies in the low megahertz range.
The photodiode type shown above can handle only small currents; however, other types of couplers, combining phototransistors with the SCR, can be
used where more output is required. Optical couplers are replacing transformers in low-voltage and low-current applications.
03 - 05 - 44
Level  1  2  3
Sensitive digital circuits can use the coupler to control large current and voltages with low-voltage logic levels.
Optical coupler
03 - 05 - 45

Module 03-05 Electrical Fundamentals: DC Sources of Electricity

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AeroGATES: PART 66 courseware 03 - Electrical Fundamentals

Category  A  B1  B2  B3 05 - DC Sources of Electricity

Water system and circuit analogy

1.1. Definition of voltage:

For example, if a voltage is 10 volts, we say: Voltage equals 10 volts or V = 10 V .

1.2. Voltage types:

1.2.2. Alternative Current (AC) type voltage:

1.3. Types of DC voltages sources and symbols:

 A power supply is a device that converts AC voltage to DC voltage.

1.3.2. Voltage polarity:

In the schematic symbol:

The voltage is measured by means of a voltmeter.

3. DC CONSTRUCTION AND BASIC CHEMICAL ACTION OF CELLS:

3.1. Primary cell: not reversible cell:

3.1.1. The dry cell (Leclanché cell):

Cathode: Mn4+ +e-  Mn3+

2 MnO2 + 2H+ + 2e-  Mn2 O3 + H2 O

3.1.2. Dry cell composition:

3.2. Secondary cell: reversible cell:

3.2.1. Lead-acid battery:

 Lead-acid cell discharging:

Pb + (2H+ , SO24 )  2e-  + 2H+  + Pb SO4

 Lead-acid cell charging:

At the anode the lead sulfate gives sponge lead sulfate:

2e-  + 2H+  + Pb SO4  Pb + (2H+ , SO24 )

PbSO4 + 2 H2 0  (2H+ , SO2-  -  +

 Description of lead-acid battery:

Typical battery and these elements

Nickel-Cadmium battery used in aircrafts

3.2.3. Other alkaline cells:

II. CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

1. CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES:

Four 2 V cells connected in series = 8 V cell

1.2. Properties of serial connection:

Serial connection of four cells

2. CELLS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL:

Three 2 V cells connected in parallel = 2 V cell

2.2. Properties of parallel connection:

Parallel connection of four cells

III. INTERNAL RESISTANCE AND ITS EFFECTS ON A BATTERY

1. IDEAL AND REAL BATTERIES:

2. HOW TO LOWER THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A BATTERY:

Equivalent battery with lower internal resistance

IV. CONSTRUCTION, MATERIALS AND OPERATION OF THERMOCOUPLES

Thermoelectric power vs platinium

3. CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THERMOCOUPLES:

2. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

DC blocking with a coupling capacitor

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