Running Head: TODAY’S TECHNOLOGY’S INFLUENCE ON LEARNING 1

Relooking at the Clark- Kozma Debate:

Today’s Technology’s Influence on Learning

Kim Schreier

University of West Georgia

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The role of technology in education is a common thread in schools across the country as

teachers are pressured to create lessons using computers, virtual reality systems, and student

devices. School boards are spending large amounts of money to fill schools with computers and

technology in an effort to increase learner effectiveness. It is during this generation that

technology surrounds everyday life, including education. While the effectiveness of technology

on learning has been a debate for decades, Kozma’s (1994) states “traditional models of

instructional design do not address the complex interrelationships among media, method, and

situation.” (p.17) This statement is being perceived as true by many school communities as the

push for technology inclusion continues.

The Original Clark versus Kozma Debate

According to Clark (1983), media is just “mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do

not influence student achievement.” (p.445) He (1994) argues media is a medium and not a

method, and that “learning is caused by the instructional method embedded in the media

presentation.” (p.26) Clark(1994) argues that “if there are no single media attribute that serves a

unique cognitive effect for some learning task, then the attributes must by proxies for some other

variables that are instrumental in learning gains.” (p.22) Clark challenges researches to conduct

studies that use control groups to prove that technology, the medium, effects learning.

Kozma (1994) examines the functionalities of media to correlate a relationship between

media and learning. Kozma (1994) states “a medium’s capabilities enable methods and the

methods that are used take advantage of these capabilities.” (p.16) According to Kozma

(1994), these capabilities include animation, modeling complex designs, and the use of video to

help create mental models. “Traditional models of instructional design do not address the
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complex interrelationships among media, method, and situation.” (Kozma, 1994, p.17) It is

when we use the capabilities of media that we can increase learning.

Current Research

While Clark’s importance of method is a valid priority, technology offers ease to many

proven methods that Kozma discussed and that have been developed since 1994. Since the

original Clark versus Kozma debate, technology has evolved to include interactivity. Fouts

(2000) states “in the past decade the use of the computer and related technologies has expanded

from use primarily as an instructional delivery medium to technology as a transformational tool

and integral part of the learning environment.” (p.9) Interactivity tools include the internet,

student response systems, and virtual reality. According to Kolderie and McDonald (2009), “the

key contribution of IT is that it can allow the student’s interests, needs, strengths, and

weaknesses to drive the learning process, with the instructor facilitating rather than dictating.”

(p.7) This teaching method of personalization instead of “mass customization” (Kolderie &

McDonald, 2009) is made easier by the use of technology. Without technology, differentiating

to individual students and letting the students drive their own education becomes almost

impossible. The evolution of technology since Clark’s original claims has supported Kozma’s

view that technology allows for unique teaching tools.

Another facet of technology in education that has changed since the original debate is the

student population. This generation uses computers, online resources, and the internet in every

part of their life and doesn’t know of life without their technology (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005).

This generation has a level of comfortability with technology and visual animations in contrast to

lengthy textbooks. According to Oblinger & Oblinger (2005), this generation has an ability to
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weave together text, visuals and audio stronger than previous generations, but may have lower

text literacy. Besides a level of familiarity and strength, Fouts (2000) found that many people

advocate that it is important for our students to have technology skills to be successful in the 21st

Century. He states, “This literacy is best achieved in classrooms where the technology is an

integral part of the environment and where it is used as daily tool for learning and solving real-

world problems.” (p.22)

Sweller & Mayer’s Contributions

Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory states that an individual has a limited capacity of

working memory and that too much cognitive load inhibits learning (Ayers, 2015). Mayer’s

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning is based on the principle that there are two channels,

visual and auditory, for processing information (Ayers, 2015). Deeper learning occurs when

both words and pictures are used, but this also increases the cognitive load. Just as Kozma in

1994 pointed out, technology has the capabilities to link animations with pictures and narration

to create this deeper learning. The use of both auditory and visual channels helps to not

overwhelm the working memory. A study by Park in 2015 found that “when a personalized

human voice narration was presented by a pedagogical agent along with images, students

reported the lowest cognitive load whereas students reported the highest cognitive load when no

images or narrations were presented.” Park’s research also showed the interest level was higher

when students were exposed to narration along with animation versus just pictures. When

developing lessons using technology, teachers need to be aware of students’ cognitive load.
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Conclusion

Clark’s importance of method for learning effectiveness stays important in current

education system with and without the use of technology. Roblyer & Knezek(2003) points out

that the achievement is not based on how much teachers use computers, but how they use them.

It is important for teachers to use scaffolding, feedback, and other proven strategies with any

instructional medium. Ayers (2015) states, “both cognitive load theory and the cognitive theory

of multimedia learning argue that poorly constructed materials that increase working memory

load will lead to ineffective learning” (p.632). While it is true that certain methods prove to help

learner effectiveness, with the current interactivity of technology, technology has the potential to

use methods that cannot be used otherwise. In alignment with Clark’s views, there is a clear

need for further research and studies that link the learning gains by utilizing technology

effectively in the classroom, but with the capabilities, motivation, and current student

familiarities, technology is widely perceived as a beneficial teaching tool.

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References

Ayers, P. (2015). State-of-the-Art Research into Multimedia Learning: A Commentary on

Mayer’s Handbook of Multimedia Learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29 (4),

631-636.

Clark, R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational

Research, 53(4). 445-459.

Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology, Research and

Development, 42(2), 21 - 29.

Fouts, J. T. (2000). Research on computers and education: Past, present, and future (Bill and

Melinda Gates Foundation). Seattle, WA: Seattle Pacific University.

Kolderie, T & McDonald, T. (2009) How Information Technology Can Enable 21st Century

Schools, The Information Technology & Innovation Foundation. July, 1-15.

Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational

Technology, Research and Development, 42(2), 7 - 19.

Oblinger, D.G., & Oblinger, J.L. (Eds.). (2005). Educating the net generation.

Roblyer, M.D. & Knezek, G.A. (2003). New Millennium Research for educational technology:

A call for a national research agenda. Journal of Research on Technology in Education,

36(1).
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