Coaching Model Defined

COLLEGIAL
COACHING
?
TOOLKIT
West Virginia Department of Education
WEST VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
2
West Virginia Board of Education

2006-2007
Lowell E. Johnson, President

Delores W. Cook, Vice President
Priscilla M. Haden, Secretary
Robert W. Dunlevy, Member

Barbara N. Fish, Member
Sheila M. Hamilton, Member
Burma Hatfield, Member
Jenny N. Phillips, Member
Ronald B. Spencer, Member
Brian E. Noland, Ex Officio

Chancellor
West Virginia Higher Education Policy Commission
James L. Skidmore, Ex Officio

Chancellor
West Virginia Higher Education Policy Commission
Steven L. Paine, Ex Officio

3
State Superintendent of Schools
4
Table of Contents
Topic Page(s)
The Coaching Model Defined
The Coaching Model...............................................................................................1

Lessons from Research..........................................................................................2
The School Administrator..................................................................................5-10
Instructional Coaches http://www.aasa.org/publications/saarticledetail.cfm?
ItemNumber=5874&snItemNumber=950&tnItemNumber=951
Instructional Coaching Research
University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning........................................11
Professional Development Outcomes..................................................................12
Coaching Continuum Based on the Gradual Release of Responsibility..............13
Language for Coaching ........................................................................................14
Protocols for Setting Norms .................................................................................15
Protocols for Study Groups ..................................................................................16
Protocols for Questioning Techniques .................................................................17
Levels of Coaching Activities
Level I
National Staff Development Council Self Assessment and Planning Tool .....18-25
What is a Study Group? .................................................................................26-27
How Do I Conduct a Study Group? ................................................................28-30
Roles of Participants in Study Groups .................................................................31
Learner-Based Coaching .....................................................................................32
Assessment Instruments ................................................................................33-34
Level II
How Effective is Your Team? ...............................................................................35

Profile Assessment ..............................................................................................36
Role and Responsibilities Guidelines ..................................................................37
Team Meeting Planning .......................................................................................38
Team Mission Making ..........................................................................................39
Team Roles and Responsibilities .........................................................................40
Great Teams Engage in the Following Activities ............................................41-42
Quality Classroom Assessment ......................................................................43-45
Looking at Data to Determine if Student Learning Has Increased ......................46
5
Level III
Teacher Modeling ...........................................................................................47-48

Teacher Modeling Strategies ..........................................................................49-61
Teacher Feedback Form ......................................................................................62
Recognition ..........................................................................................................63
Ways to Recognize Student Work .......................................................................64
Questioning ..........................................................................................................65
Elaborating, Hypothetical and Clarification Questions ........................................66
The Socratic Questioning Technique ..............................................................67-69
Modeling, Coaching and Scaffolding ..............................................................70-72
Using Scaffolded Instruction to Optimize Learning ........................................73-76
Coaching Plan
Collaboration: Essential Understandings ............................................................77

Collegial Collaboration: Practices that Promote School Success .................78-79
Co-Teaching .........................................................................................................80
Benefits of Co-Teaching For Teachers .................................................................81
Benefits of Co-Teaching for Students ..................................................................82
Do’s and Don’ts of Co-Teaching ..........................................................................83
Co-Teaching Approaches: An Overview ............................................................84
Co-Teaching Lesson Plan Considerations ...........................................................85
Looking at Outcome Data of Co-Teaching ...........................................................86
References ...........................................................................................................87
Tool Kit Development Committee
This tool kit was developed through the collaborative efforts of the following
individuals:
June Angle Vicki Nesler

Lori Ashcraft Cynthia Nesselroade
Lynne Bostic Pat Porter
Rebecca Derenge Nancy Richmond
Dee Grimm Drexel Sammons
Barbara Jones Debbie Smith
Anna Lewis Jan Stanley
Jane Lynch Sherri Woods
Kim Mathews Paula Wykle
6
The Coaching Model Defined
Recent studies on coaching (Neufeld & Roper, 2003; Poglinco, et al., 2003;
Richard, 2003) note that coaches may be specialized full or part-time
professional development facilitators, or they may be teachers making a career
transition from the classroom to coaching. Coaches frequently work one-on-one
with a teacher directly in the classroom and meet with the teacher before or after
a lesson. Student work is used as a springboard to discuss teaching strategies or
as help to plan next steps for instruction. Susan Poglinco et al. defines coaching
as "a form of inquiry-based learning characterized by collaboration between
individual, or groups of, teachers and more accomplished peers".
The professional development begins with subject specific training, focusing on

theory and instructional practice. Using a repertoire of effective instructional
practices, coaches collaborate with classroom teachers to identify practice(s) that
effectively address teachers’ and students’ needs. Through this process,
coaches work collaboratively with teachers setting professional goals for
developing, extending and improving research-based skills, strategies and
practices. Powerful instructional strategies make a profound difference for all
students when they are implemented by a skilled, caring and well-supported
teacher.
Coaches use a wide variety of professional development procedures to foster

extensive, high-quality implementation of interventions. These procedures
include (a) conducting individual or small group meetings to identify how best to
collaborate with a teacher/teachers in addressing their most pressing concerns,
(b) guiding teachers through instructional manuals, checklists and other
materials, (c) collaboratively planning with teachers to identify when and how to
implement intervention, (d) preparing materials for teachers prior to instruction,
(e) modeling instructional practices in teachers’ classrooms, (f) observing
teachers using interventions and (g) providing feedback (Knight, 2004).
11
Lessons from Research
Instructional coaching is grounded in current research and clinical knowledge on

leadership and schools as “professional communities of practice”. Recent
research on professional development suggests that it is most effective when it
includes components that are based in the school and embedded in the job and
when it increases teachers’ theoretical understandings of their work (Miller 1995).
Supports for improved teaching and learning are also more effective when they
are tailored to needs identified by teachers and when their approach to learning
is collaborative and inquiry-based (Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin 1995).
Coaching provides such supports through an array of activities designed to build

collective leadership and continuously improve teacher instructional capacity and
student learning. These activities, ideally, coalesce in ways that create internal
accountability due to the embedded nature of the work and people engaged in it
(Barr, Simmons, and Zarrow 2003; WestEd 2000). A well-designed and
supported coaching program combines core elements of effective professional
development with the essential goals of professional learning communities in
ways that advance both school and systemic improvement.
The principles of instructional coaching are grounded in research on effective

professional development and professional learning communities. Coaching
appears to be a promising approach because it strives to blend what is known
about effective professional development with school-based and school-specific
needs, regarding both content and school climate.
Evidence of increased student learning as a direct result of coaching is not yet

well documented (Poglinco et al. 2003). Yet, as coaching is increasingly used
and its impact measured, researchers expect a direct correlation to be
established between coaching and student achievement. A growing body of
research suggests that coaching is a promising element of effective professional
development in some of the following ways.
The following paragraphs describe the positive effects of coaching:
 Effective coaching encourages collaborative, reflective practice.

Coaching shifts professional learning from direct instruction outside the context of
practice (such as workshops and conferences) to more varied opportunities to
improve discipline-specific practice. Most studies indicate that coaching leads to
improvements in instructional capacity. For instance, teachers apply their
learning more deeply, frequently and consistently than teachers working alone;
teachers improve their capacity to reflect; and teachers apply their learning not
only to their work with students, but also to their work with each other (Neufeld
and Roper 2003; Roglinco et al. 2003).
22
 Effective embedded professional learning promotes positive cultural

change. The impact of coaching often goes beyond improving content
instruction. The conditions, behaviors and practices required by an effective
coaching program can affect the culture of a school or system, thus embedding
instructional change within broader efforts to improve school-based culture and
conditions (Neufeld and Roper 2003).
 A focus on content encourages the use of data analysis to inform

practice. Effective coaching programs respond to particular needs suggested by
data, allowing improvement efforts to target issues such as closing achievement
gaps, supporting teachers across career stages, and advocating for equity (e.g.,
through differentiated instruction). A coaching program guided by data helps
both to create coherence within a school and to bridge different levels of the
system (Barr, Simmons, and Zarrow 2003). This is accomplished by focusing on
strategic areas of need that are suggested by evidence, rather than by individual
and sometimes conflicting opinions. Coaches are selected from those
professionals who have the content expertise and organizational development
capacity to lead their “cadres” toward more effective practice in these areas of
need within various levels of the educational system.
 Coaching promotes the implementation of learning and reciprocal

accountability. Coaching is an embedded, visible support, usually funded by
the district that attempts to respond to student and teacher needs in ongoing,
consistent, dedicated ways. The likelihood of using new learning and sharing
responsibility rises when colleagues, guided by a coach, work together and hold
each other accountable for improved teaching and learning (Barr, Simmons, and
Zarrow 2003; Coggins, Stoddard, and Cutler 2003; WestEd 2000). Because
instructional coaching takes place in a natural setting, the classroom,
observation, learning and experimentation occur in real situations (Neufeld and
Roper 2003).
 Coaching supports collective, interconnected leadership across a

school system. An essential feature of coaching is that it uses the relationships
between coaches, principals and teachers to create the conversation that leads
to behavioral, pedagogical and content knowledge change. Effective coaching
distributes leadership, supporting the goals of effective principals though the
coaches by keeping the focus on teaching and learning. This focus promotes the
development of leadership skills, professional learning and support for teachers
that target ways to improve student outcomes (Lyons and Pinnell 2001).
Research findings indicate that effective coaching structures promote a

collaborative culture where large numbers of school personnel accept ownership
and responsibility for leading improvement efforts in teaching and learning.
Coaching attends to the “social infrastructure” issues of schools and systems
(Payne 1998) that often impede the deep and lasting change that school reform
requires. These issues include school climate, teacher isolation, insufficient
33
support and limited instructional and leadership capacity. The attempt to address
these critical elements of school quality by incorporating new understandings of
effective professional development is a primary reason that coaching holds
significant promise toward improving teaching and learning in schools (Neufeld
and Roper 2003).

Source: Neufeld, B., & Roper, D. “Coaching: A Strategy for Developing Instructional Capacity,
Promises, and Practicalities”
44
April 2006
Features
Instructional Coaching
Eight factors for realizing better classroom teaching through support, feedback
and intensive, individualized professional learning
By Jim Knight
T he number of school districts using instructional coaches is growing at a

staggering rate. Coaching is becoming popular, in part, because many
educational leaders recognize the old form of professional development, built
around traditional in-service sessions for teachers, simply doesn’t affect student
achievement.
By offering support, feedback, and intensive, individualized professional learning,

coaching promises to be a better way to improve instruction in schools. Indeed,
preliminary research suggests that effective coaching programs make a difference.
For the past decade, researchers at the Kansas University Center for Research on
Learning have been implementing, refining and evaluating instructional coaching
programs. In the past year alone, our staff has provided professional development and
consultation to programs in 14 states across the country. We’ve learned a few lessons
while developing, studying and observing effective coaching programs. We believe
superintendents and other educational leaders who consider these success factors will be
better able to use valuable resources to realize the promise of instructional coaching.
No Quick Fix
Facing intense pressure to improve student achievement, it is tempting to try anything
that promises a quick solution. However, the trouble with quick fixes is they often make
things worse in the long run.
One common fix is what we refer to as the “attempt, attack, abandon cycle.” During this
vicious pattern, a new practice or program is introduced into a school and teachers make
a half-hearted attempt to implement it. Then, before it has been implemented effectively
and for a sufficient length of time, various individuals in the school or district begin to
attack the practice or program and, not surprisingly, many of the teachers implementing
it begin to lose their will to stick with the program. Eventually, even though it never had a
chance to be implemented properly, leaders in the district reject the program as
unsuccessful and abandon it, only to propose another approach that is soon pulled into
55
the same vicious cycle. In this manner, schools stay on an unmerry-go-round of attempt,
attack, abandon, without ever seeing any meaningful, sustained change in instruction
taking place.
Instructional coaching represents one way to end this vicious cycle by providing sufficient
support for real change to occur. Coaching is a non-evaluative, learning relationship
between a professional developer and a teacher, both of whom share the expressed goal
of learning together, thereby improving instruction and student achievement.
Coaching requires a trusting relationship and sufficient time to provide the individualized
professional learning that is most relevant to a teacher’s needs. Coaches often employ
collaborative conversations (sometimes referred to as conferences), model lessons,
observations, and mutual problem solving to assist teachers in implementing and
mastering new teaching practices.
Coaching can take many forms. We have found eight factors that can increase the
likelihood that coaching will be a real fix for a school:
 Sufficient time to work with teachers. To move a school forward, coaches must spend
the bulk of their time working with teachers on instruction. This seems obvious, but the
most frequent concern raised by the more than 300 instructional coaches we worked with
in 2005 was that they are asked to complete so many non-instructional tasks they had
little time left to work with teachers. Because coaches’ job descriptions are often vague or
nonexistent and because their schedules are more flexible than the schedules of others,
they often are asked to do many clerical or non-instructional tasks. Paying coaches to
copy and bind standards documents or shop for math lab furniture or serve as a
substitute teacher is a poor way to spend money and perhaps an even poorer way to
improve teaching practices in schools.
Some instructional coaches and principals in the 16,500-student Cecil County, Md., Public
Schools have found a way to ensure their instructional coaches use their time
productively. In Cecil County, where there is an instructional coach in each of the 17
elementary schools, the coaches and administrators draw up a pie chart that depicts
exactly how much time they agree the coaches should spend on various tasks. Then, each
week the coaches report to their principals how the time was spent. If necessary, this
allows the coach and principal to adjust the time allocations so they can focus their efforts
on improving instruction.
 Proven research-based interventions. If instructional coaches are going to make a

difference in the way teachers teach, they need to have scientifically proven practices to
share. Hiring coaches but not ensuring they have proven practices is a bit like trying to
paint a beautiful painting without any art supplies. Instructional coaches need to have a
repertoire of tools to help them assist teachers in addressing their most pressing
concerns.
Instructional coaches working with the Center for Research on Learning use interventions
that address what we refer to as the “Big Four” areas of behavior, content knowledge,
instruction and formative assessment. The coaches develop a deep understanding of
scientifically proven practices they can share with teachers to help them improve in any
or all of the four areas.
If an instructional coach and teacher agree to address content knowledge, the coach
collaborates with teachers to develop critical questions, course and unit content maps and
66
concept diagrams using scientifically proven “content enhancement routines” developed

by Keith Lenz, Jan Bulgren and other researchers at the Kansas University Center for
Research on Learning.
Similarly, if an instructional coach and teacher need to work on classroom management

tactics, the coach can use the classroom expectations planning sheets from Randy
Sprick’s “CHAMPs: A proactive and positive approach to Classroom Management” as a tool
for collaboratively developing a classroom management plan with the teacher. Among the
tools in CHAMPs is a framework coaches can use to identify and explain what they expect
from students in five important areas of behavior, encapsulated in the CHAMPs acronym.
The areas of behavior are: (a) Conversation — What kind of conversation is acceptable?
(b) Help —How should students ask for help? (c) Activity — What should the student be
doing? (d) Movement — What kind of movement, if any, is permitted? and (e)
Participation — What does appropriate participation look like?
 Professional development for instructional coaches. Coaches need to understand the

interventions they are sharing, and they need to understand how to productively employ
the coaching process. Without their own professional development, instructional coaches
run the risk of being ineffective, wasting time and money or even misinforming teachers.
Therefore, coaches need to participate in their own professional development to ensure
they know how to coach and what to share when they coach classroom teachers.
Professional development for coaches should address at least two subjects.
First, coaches should engage in various professional learning activities designed to

improve their coaching practices. Specifically, instructional coaches affiliated with our
center learn how to employ powerful, proven practices to (a) enroll teachers in coaching;
(b) identify appropriate interventions for teachers to learn; (c) model and gather data in
the classroom; and (d) engage in dialogue about classroom and other data. Additionally,
the center’s instructional coaches improve their professional skills in areas such as
communication, relationship building, change management and leadership.
Second, professional development for coaches should deepen their knowledge about the
teaching practices they are sharing with teachers. Obviously, if coaches have a superficial
knowledge of the information they share with teachers, they will not know what to
emphasize when they discuss, model or observe during professional learning with
teachers. Indeed, coaches who do not deeply understand what they are sharing with
teachers could misinform teachers and actually make things worse, not better, for
students.
The Passport to Success statewide coaching program sponsored by the Maryland State
Department of Education Division of Special Education emphasizes professional learning
for coaches. Prior to starting their new role, the coaches receive two weeks of intensive
professional development focusing on the theory, practice, teaching strategies and
routines they will share with the teachers. Then, the Passport coaches participate in a
week-long summer institute where they deepen their knowledge of the teaching practices
they will share with teachers.
During the school year, the instructional coaches meet monthly with other coaches in a
coaching professional learning community, and they also participate in formal professional
learning sessions twice a semester. Additionally, Passport coaches read research articles
and complete many learning tasks that enable them ultimately to become certified
professional developers for the content enhancement routines and learning strategies
77
they share with teachers.
 Protecting the coaching relationship. Many, perhaps most, teachers see their
profession as an integral part of their self-identity. Consequently, if coaches and others
are careless with their comments or suggestions about teachers’ practices in the
classroom, they run the risk of offending teachers, damaging relationships, or at the very
least not being heard. Because teaching is such a personal activity, coaches need to win
teachers’ trust. Trust is an essential component of an open coaching relationship.
Coaches who learn our center’s approach to instructional coaching define their
relationship with teachers as a partnership. This partnership approach is based on the
assumptions that (a) coaches and teachers are equal partners, (b) teachers should have a
choice about what and how they learn, (c) teachers should reflect and apply learning to
their real-life practice as they are learning, (d) professional development should enable
authentic dialogue and (e) coaches should respect and enable the voices of teachers.
Sue Woodruff, a leader of professional developers from Grand Rapids, Mich., considers
the partnership principles to be a central part of her professional practice. “The principles
really help me think through what should happen when I work with teachers,” she says.
“On those occasions when I don’t feel I’ve been successful, I go back to the principles and
I usually discover that I failed because I violated one of the principles.”
To make it easier for coaches to work as partners with teachers, educational leaders must
protect the coaching relationship. If leaders ask coaches to hold the dual role of
administrator and coach, they put their coaches in a difficult situation. Administrators, by
definition, are not peers. Usually people are more guarded when they talk with their
bosses than when they talk with their peers. Coaches will find it easier to have open
conversations about teaching practices if their collaborating teachers do not view them as
bosses and, therefore, do not have to worry about how their comments might affect the
way they will be evaluated.
 Ensuring principals and coaches work together. The instructional coach can be and
should be the right-hand person of the principal when it comes to instructional leadership
in schools, but the principal must remain the instructional leader. No matter how much a
coach knows, and no matter how effective a coach is, the principal’s voice is ultimately
the one most important to teachers. For that reason, coaches must understand fully what
their principals’ vision is for school improvement, and principals need to understand fully
the interventions that their coaches have to offer teachers.
One way to ensure principals get the most out of their instructional coaches is to provide
them with sufficient training. Principals who do not understand the importance of
protecting the coaching relationship may act in ways that make it difficult for a coach to
be successful. Also, a principal who is unaware of the tools that an instructional coach can
offer will be unable to suggest them to teachers who might benefit from learning them.
District administrators in Pflugerville, Texas, a district with three high schools, four middle
and 15 elementary schools, address this issue by providing coaching professional
development for administrators. In Pflugerville, middle and elementary principals, along
with the directors of special education, language arts, mathematics and technology,
attended sessions with their lead teachers and coaches to ensure that both administrators
and coaches developed a shared understanding of each coach’s goals, responsibilities and
methods.
88
Another way to ensure principals are on the same page as their coaches has been
adopted by principals working with instructional coaches from the center’s Pathways to
Success GEARUP project in Topeka, Kan. In Topeka, coaches and principals from six
middle schools and three high schools meet one-on-one each week for approximately 45
minutes.
The meetings usually follow the same format. First, the coach asks the principal to discuss
her or his most pressing concerns; the issues discussed are usually a blend of long- and
short-term issues that most interest the principal. Second, the coach and principal solve
problems together. Third, the coach reports on what she or he has done since the
previous week’s meeting. Fourth, the coach and principal discuss teaching practices they
would like to share with each other. In this way, the coach and principal fully understand
all the tools they have at their command to help students.
 Hiring the right instructional coaches. All the factors described here will not yield
success if the wrong people are hired as coaches. Indeed, the most critical factor related
to the success or failure of a coaching program may be the skills and attributes of the
instructional coach.
First, instructional coaches must be excellent teachers, particularly because they will likely
provide model lessons in other teachers’ classrooms. They also need to be flexible since
their job requires them to change their plans almost daily to meet the changing needs of
teachers.
In addition, coaches should be highly skilled at building relationships. In our experience,

whether a teacher adopts a new teaching practice has as much to do with the
instructional coach’s communication skills as with whatever intervention the coach has to
share. Simply put, if teachers like a coach, they usually will try out what the coach
suggests. If they don’t like the coach, they’ll even resist helpful teaching practices.
Jim Collins’ study of great organizations in Good to Great offers additional insight into the
desirable attributes of an effective coach. Great leaders, Collins writes, “are ambitious
first and foremost for the cause, the movement, the mission, the work — not themselves
— and they have the will to do whatever it takes to … make good on that ambition.”
The attributes Collins identifies in great leaders are also found in the best instructional
coaches. They need to be ambitious for change in their schools and willing to do, as
Collins emphasizes, “whatever it takes” to improve teaching practices. If a coach is too
passive about change, chances are that little will happen in the school. At the same time,
if a coach is too self-centered or aggressive, there is a good chance the coach will push
teachers away.
Effective coaches embody what Collins describes as a “compelling combination of personal

humility and professional will.” They are affirmative, humble and deeply respectful of
classroom teachers, but they are unwilling to rest unless they achieve significant
improvements in teaching and learning in their schools.
Evaluating Coaches
Evaluation is a major mechanism for continuous improvement of any coaching program.
Evaluating instructional coaches can offer unique challenges because no one in a district,
including the principal, may ever have been a coach before and there may be no
guidelines for evaluating coaches.
99
One way to address this challenge is to involve coaches in the process of creating
guidelines, standards and tools to be used for their evaluation. Instructional coaches and
the leaders of the Pathways to Success project in Topeka, Kan., have done just this.
Specifically, project leaders and coaches have collaborated to spell out in detail the
knowledge coaches need to have about the various scientifically proven teaching practices
they are sharing with teachers. Additionally, project leaders and instructional coaches
together have described the skills necessary to build relationships and effectively execute
the components of the coaching process.
Involving coaches in the process of writing their evaluation guidelines accomplishes at

least three goals. First, it enables school districts to develop a rubric for evaluating
coaches that is especially designed for coaches. Second, it increases coaches’ buy-in to
the guidelines and process of being evaluated since they created them. Third, the
dialogue coaches have while creating the guidelines is an excellent form of professional
development.
Coaching Fixes
School district leaders can increase the likelihood that their instructional coaching
program will succeed if they ensure their coaches have sufficient time to work on
instruction with teachers and their coaches know how to coach and what to share with
teachers. Additionally, leaders can make it easier for coaches to succeed by protecting the
coaching relationship and by preparing coaches and principals to work together
effectively. Finally, the effectiveness and continual improvement of any coaching program
hinges on hiring the right people and evaluating them professionally.
Instructional coaching holds much potential for improving the way teachers teach and the
way students learn, but that potential will only be realized if leaders plan their coaching
program with care. Coaching is not a quick fix, but it can be a real fix — a powerful way
to help teachers and students be more successful. When planned carefully and when the
success factors are addressed, instructional coaching can begin to deliver on the promise
of making a real difference in schools.
Jim Knight is a research associate and the director of Instructional Coaching Institutes at
the Kansas University Center for Research on Learning, 1122 West Campus Road, Suite
508, Lawrence, KS 66045. E-mail: jknight@ku.edu
Back to Top
View The School Administrator Archived Issues
1010
Instructional Coaching Research Conducted by

University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning
To date, the University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning, has focused
on these three questions:
1. Does coaching lead to successful implementation of instructional
methods?
2. Is fidelity to a program crucial to improving student achievement?
3. What do teachers think about instructional coaching?
Does coaching lead to successful implementation of instructional

methods?
The University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning, indicates that
coaching does indeed lead to successful adoption and effective use of proven
instructional methods, with one crucial caveat: the right conditions, in the form of
administrative support and qualified coaches, must be in place. In schools in
which either of these elements is missing, implementation success rates are low.
 Administrative support. The actions and expressed values of principals

and district decision-makers can determine the effectiveness of an
instructional coaching program. These two levels of administrative support
are critical to the success instructional coaches can achieve within a
school.
 Qualified coaches. Instructional coaches must have a deep

understanding of the interventions shared with teachers. Beyond that
knowledge, experience has uncovered a less tangible array of personal
qualities that allow an instructional collaborator to succeed. Coaches are
master teachers who are comfortable in any classroom. They love children
and love working with children in schools. They possess energy and a
positive outlook, making them the kind of people others enjoy being
around. Above all, coaches are able to communicate a deep, honest belief
in teachers, even as they suggest ways for teachers to improve.
Is fidelity to a program crucial to improving student achievement?

Is it really important for teachers to teach in the manner described in an
instructor's manual? Does fidelity matter? Researchers at the University of
Kansas feel this is an important question to answer if fidelity is a central goal of
coaching. Researchers set out to determine how well students were achieving in
"hi-fi" classrooms--those in which teachers' practices closely followed those
outlined in instructional manuals--and "low-fi" classrooms--those in which
teachers left out significant components of practices outlined in instructional
manuals. Yes, the research does support that fidelity to a program does matter. 

Coaching in the Context of Professional Learning Communities

Source: University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning

Source: Showers, Joyce & Bennett, 1987
1111
Instructional coaching is most effective when it occurs within a successful

professional learning community. At the heart of this community is a belief in the
need for continuous improvement, where a constant and collective search for
improving classroom instruction is conducted. The process of professional
learning includes:
 Research, presentation and explanation of the theory behind the practice

 Demonstration and modeling of instructional strategies
 Opportunities for initial guided practice
 Prompt feedback from guided practice
 Sustained coaching for institutionalization of instructional practice
The chart below depicts the outcomes of different elements of professional

development: theory, demonstration, practice and coaching. Based on research,
an estimated 95% of teachers who receive ongoing support and guidance
through coaching are more likely to learn and implement new practices in the
classroom. Researchers also estimate that teachers generally need to utilize a
new instructional strategy approximately 25 times before it is transferred into their
daily teaching routine.
Professional Development Outcomes
Professional Knowledge Level Skill Level Transfer to

Development (Estimated percentage of (Estimated percentage of
Practice
Elements (Estimated percentage of
participants understanding participants demonstrating
participants regularly
contents) proficiency in the
implementing instructional
instructional practices)
practices in the classroom)
Theory 10% 5% 0%
(e.g., presenter explains
content - what it is, why it is
important, and how to teach
it)
Demonstration 30% 30% 0%
(e.g., presenter models
instructional practices)
Practice 60% 60% 5%
(e.g., participants
implement instructional
practices during the
session)
Coaching 95% 95% 95%
(e.g., participants receive
ongoing support and
guidance when the return
to the classroom)
Coaching Continuum For Coach/Teacher Engagement

Based
A. Build On The
Common Gradualand
Knowledge Release Of Responsibility
Experience
 Assist with teachers to align instruction to the WV Content
Standards and Objectives
 Encourage visits to other teachers’ classrooms
1212
 Organize study groups, workshops and book studies
 Examine student work and assist teachers in adjusting
instructional strategies

B. Commit to a Learning Relationship
 Model and demonstrate lessons while the teacher observes
 Use research to support instructional decisions
 Assist with assessing students
 Establish collaborative relationships with teachers
C. Coach/Teacher Build a Co-Teaching Relationship

 Use results of both formal/informal assessment to co-plan
lessons and adjust instructional strategies
 Assist in the development of plans the coach and teacher will
follow
 Continue collaborative relationships with all teachers
D. Teacher Transitions to Guided Practice with Coaching Support

 Conduct a pre-visit conference
 Co-teach or model lessons
 Visit classrooms and provide feedback for teachers from
observing students
 Conduct lesson studies with teachers and assist teachers in
analyzing student work
E. Teacher Refines Implementation with Coaching Feedback

 Observe teacher practicing research based instructional
practices
 Conduct a post-visit conference
 Participate in reflective lesson review and planning
 Use data to continue to make instructional decisions
 Sustain and continue collaboration with teachers

Source: Larner, Margorie, “Pathways: Charting a Course for Professional Learning”
1313
Helpful Language to Use in Coaching Conversation
1. It’s wonderful to step into this classroom and see (point out specifics).
2. I noticed that more attention is paid to the front of the room.
3. The children were (engaged, working, etc.) except for . . . Why do you
think that was happening?
4. After the students viewed the video, what were you hoping would happen
next?
5. When I was watching, I was excited about your questioning technique.
6. What has happened lately that you felt really excited and pleased about?
7. The students were really learning actively when they divided the
assignment…Does that fit with your sense of what was going on?
8. Students were really learning actively when . . . Does that fit with your
sense of what was going on?
9. How did you know that students were understanding?
10. Can you help me understand what was happening when the two students
were allowed to go to the gym?
11. Try (a specific action or technique) and let me know how it works.
12. Try this (book, idea) and give me some feedback on how it went.
13. What are your priorities for these children?
14. What do you want these children to be able to do in (time period)?
15. Did students perform as you expected today?
16. Tell me about (child, event, book).
17. I was impressed with the children’s (independence, enjoyment, oral
discussion, reading, writing, etc.). What helped them learn that?
18. It appears that you are really enjoying these children. How is this group
different?
19. I was listening to the respectful way children talk to one another. What
did you do to help achieve this?
20. You seemed concerned about (event, child, time, etc.). Can you talk
about it?
21. I thought (child) was (attitude, behavior, etc.). Is that right? Can you tell
me more?
22. How can I help you in your teaching? (I have a suggestion. Tell me what
you think).
23. Students were roaming around the room. Is that typical?
24. You selected the same students for every activity. Can you talk about
your decision?
25. Was this a typical (morning, reading, group, lesson, etc.)?
 
Source: Lyon, C. & Pinnell, G.S., “System for Change in Literacy Education”
1414
Protocols for Setting Norms
Purpose of Norms
The purpose of establishing norms is to curtail some unproductive behaviors (i.e.,
“Don’t monopolize the airtime.”) Norms also allow participants permission to be
bolder than what one might otherwise be (i.e., “Take some risks here.”)
Additionally, norms remind individuals that people learn in different ways (i.e.,
“Give everyone time to think.”) Norms are useful when newcomers arrive after
the work of the group is already underway (which happens frequently in
professional learning groups). When newcomers arrive, norms provide an
update of the group expectations. Norms are also useful when in addressing
“tricky” conversations that are frequent in real-life groups.
Steps -
1. Brainstorming. The facilitator encourages the group to brainstorm all
possible norms, and lists the offerings on chart paper. The process of
setting norms begins with a few moments of silence as participants
consider what is essential for cooperative group functions. The facilitator
also participates in the brainstorming, adding whatever seems lacking for
the emerging lists – for example, “We want to create a place that is safe
enough in order for us to endure discomfort,” or “We want to be allowed to
take a risk.”
2. Discussion. The facilitator says, “So far this is just a brainstormed list--
we have not yet agreed to it. Is there something which needs discussion,
which you want to question?”
3. Synthesis. In a transparent way--that is, voicing his or her deliberations
aloud--the facilitator synthesizes and fine-tunes: “I think that what I’m
hearing is that we want to be assured that good judgment will prevail.
There can be situations where a phone must be left on, and we don’t want
to prevent that when needed. On the other hand, we don’t want a number
of phones ringing. So maybe the norm should be that we will only leave
phones on when our judgment tells us we must. This is good. I was going
to just say, ‘No phones,’ but this is much better.”
4. Consensus. Noting that consensus means that all group members can
live with and support the norms, the facilitator moves the group to affirm
the list.


Source: Sweeney, Diane, “The Power of Protocols”
1515
Protocols for Study Groups
The study group is many times the first experience that teachers have in this type
of professional development. Thus, it is essential to begin by defining how the
group chooses to function as a learning community.
Basic rules for study groups consist of the following. The learning community
will:
 Establish a safe and secure environment/culture;

 Address the self-interests of group members;
 Develop a clear set of norms;
 Engage in shared leadership;
 Encourage mutual respect;
 Provide productive and fun time together;
 Identify a flexible shared vision;
 Provide opportunities for members the chance to really know each other;
 Celebrate various learning opportunities;
 Respect differences and opinions of all group members.
Norms to follow in the learning community:

 Listen to each other without interrupting;
 Maintain a nonjudgmental attitude;
 Accept responsibility for your own learning;
 Honor the other learners in the group;
 Consider all questions to be safe questions;
 Participate willingly and actively;
 Prepare before attending the study group.


1616
Protocols for Questioning Techniques
When using protocols, is it very important to consider questioning techniques.

Questions are distinguished as two types: clarifying questions and probing
questions. Characteristics of the two types of questions are described below.
Clarifying questions:
 Designed to assist responders in obtaining a complete picture of the
question by providing factual information.
 Include these sample questions:
o What did you do before this particular lesson?
o What was your goal for the lesson?
o How many students do you have?
o What is the students’ educational background?
Probing questions:
 Projected to assist the group to think more deeply about the dilemma;
 Requires practice;
 Several purposes are identified for probing questions:
o Help uncover a belief rather than a solution;
o Create depth in conversation;
o Reinforce that a culture is being created to learn together;
o Move the presenter into new territory;
o Assist the group to move beyond the original insight; and
o Lead to an “aha”.
Construction of probing questions involves the following actions:

 Preparing questions before answering them;
 Verifying that no “right” answer is identified. If so, delete judgment from
the question or don’t ask it;
 Referring to the presenter’s original question; and
 Checking to see that you are staying within the presenter’s agenda.

1717
National Staff Development Council Self-Assessment and Planning Tool
Groups may use this self-assessment to determine the current state of

implementation of the context, process, and content of effective staff
development in their schools. The assessment may be used to reveal strengths
as well as areas for improvement.
Because of the value in obtaining multiple perspectives, the self-assessment is

most useful if completed by a group rather than individually.
Directions for using the NSDC Standards Self-Assessment
1. Individual work.
Time: One hour.
(Note: In preparation for this, the facilitator should make individual copies
of the Self-Assessment for group members.)
Distribute copies of the Self-Assessment. Ask each group member to

complete the Self-Assessment alone. Time: 30 minutes.
Have participants compare their individual scores and discuss similarities

and differences. Time: 30 minutes.
2. Group work.
Time: One hour.
(Note: In preparation for this, the facilitator should make two poster-size
copies of the scoring guide.)
After individuals have had time for small group discussions, assemble the
whole group.
Post one copy of the scoring guide on the wall of your meeting room.
When group members have completed their individual scoring, ask them
to transfer their scores to the scoring guide. Group members could do this
by making hatch marks, posting colored dots, making X’s in the
appropriate places of using any other method the facilitator devises.
The facilitator should count the number of group members who gave each
score to the various questions. For example, in question #1, how many
group members gave your school a score of 5? How many group
members gave your school a score of 3?
Transfer those numbers to the second copy of the scoring guide. Post this
copy of the scoring guide on the wall.

1818
Since there are two questions for each standard, the facilitator may want
to combine the scores for those two questions. Do not attempt to average
the scores. Instead, ask the group to look for patterns in the numbers.
The facilitator may want to rank the standards in ascending or descending

order to give group members a graphic display of which standards they
need to address first.
At the conclusion of the group discussion about the scores, the group
should prepare an action plan based on it findings. 

Source: National Staff Development Council
1919
Self-Assessment: School Staff Development

Strongly Disagre Somewha Agre Strongl
Disagre e t e y
e Agree Agree
Context
1. Staff development is
ongoing and job- 1 2 3 4 5
embedded.
2. Staff development
activities result in changes
1 2 3 4 5
in classroom practice for
most teachers on the staff.
3. The budget allocation
supports ongoing 1 2 3 4 5
professional development.
4. There is widespread
support for professional
development among
administration, teachers,
1 2 3 4 5
parents, school board
members, and other
influential members of the
community.
5. Staff development is
viewed as an essential
component for achieving
the purpose of the 1 2 3 4 5
organization and is valued
as an integral part of the
strategic plan.
6. Central administration
supports the work
necessary to accomplish
1 2 3 4 5
school improvement goals
and provides an adequate
budget.
7. Strategies for facilitating
planning and learning 1 2 3 4 5
during the school day exist.
8. A minimum of 20 percent
of the work week is devoted 1 2 3 4 5
to joint learning and work.
9. The school staff is 1 2 3 4 5
organized into study groups
to learn about the change
process and/or about
2020
particular innovations.
10. Teachers are observed
randomly to determine their
use of an innovation and 1 2 3 4 5
the innovation’s effect of
students.

Disagre e t e y
e Agree Agree
Process
11. The school’s
improvement plan
addresses important
aspects of organizational
1 2 3 4 5
effectiveness such as
decision making,
communication, and team
functioning.
12. Information about
systems thinking and the
change process are used in 1 2 3 4 5
making school
improvement decisions.
13. The principles of adult
learning permeate staff 1 2 3 4 5
development.
14. The learning climate of
staff development activities
1 2 3 4 5
is collaborative, informal,
and respectful.
15. The three phases of
the change process are
initiation, implementation, 1 2 3 4 5
and institutionalization in
the planning of programs.
16. Staff and
administration are aware of
the “implementation dip” 1 2 3 4 5
(things often get worse
before they get better.)
decisions are based on
1 2 3 4 5
data regarding valued
student outcomes.
2121
18. Recognition of a need

1 2 3 4 5
to seek improvement exists.
19. Staff reading, study,
and discussion of
educational innovations
1 2 3 4 5
precede decisions
concerning staff
development.
20. Research-based
content serves as the core 1 2 3 4 5
of staff learning.
21. Improvement plans
include a carefully-designed
framework for the 1 2 3 4 5
integration of innovations
being implemented.
22. An instructional
framework that describes
how selected innovations 1 2 3 4 5
collectively address school
priorities exits.
23. Program evaluation
assesses participants’
reactions to the program 1 2 3 4 5
and measures participants’
learning.
24. Program evaluation
assesses participants’ use
of new knowledge and skills 1 2 3 4 5
and the impact on student
learning.
includes activities other 1 2 3 4 5
than “training workshops.”
26. All staff development
training activities include
theory, demonstration, 1 2 3 4 5
practice with feedback, and
coaching.
27. Desired changes in on-
the-job behavior are
1 2 3 4 5
supported and result in
improved student learning.
28. Staff members
regularly analyze and self- 1 2 3 4 5
correct performance.
2222
29. Site-based
management councils
focus primarily on 1 2 3 4 5
instruction and student
learning.
30. Consensus decision
making is used to increase 1 2 3 4 5
staff ownership.
31. School teams/groups
are models of effective
interpersonal and group 1 2 3 4 5
skills.
32. Training and

development in
collaborative skills occurs 1 2 3 4 5
regularly, especially, for
new teams or committees.

Disagree e t e y
Agree Agree
Content
33. Teachers and admini-
strators are knowledgeable
1 2 3 4 5
regarding the needs of
children and adolescents.
34. Decisions about
instruction and new
programs are based on
1 2 3 4 5
how well they reflect
developmentally
appropriate practice.
35. Teachers’ classroom
management strategies
1 2 3 4 5
increase academic learning
time.
36. Teachers are familiar
with and use research- 1 2 3 4 5
based findings.
2323
37. The school’s staff

possesses the knowledge,
attitudes, and skills needed
to ensure a quality education 1 2 3 4 5
for all students regardless of
culture, race, gender, or
ethnicity.
38. School data confirm that
all students have equal
access to and participation in 1 2 3 4 5
the school’s programs and
activities.
39. Students can discuss
the connection between the
1 2 3 4 5
various content areas and
their real-life concerns.
40. Teachers offer skills and
knowledge to all students in
an integrated manner based 1 2 3 4 5
on essential themes and
questions.
41. Teachers use a variety of
approaches to teaching,
know underlying instruction- 1 2 3 4 5
al theories, and understand
relevant research.
42. There is research to
suggest that the content of a
school’s staff development 1 2 3 4 5
programs will increase
student learning.
43. Through the use of a
variety of instructional
strategies, administrators
1 2 3 4 5
and teachers demonstrate a
belief that all students can
learn.
44. Teachers use strategies
that demonstrate high 1 2 3 4 5
expectations for all students.
45. There is regular
communication between the
school staff and
1 2 3 4 5
parents/families about an
individual student’s academic
progress.
2424
46. Parent/staff
communication focuses on
the school’s goals, classes
and curriculum with special
1 2 3 4 5
attention to in-school and
community opportunities to
enhance student
achievement.
47. Student performance
assessments include
interviews, observations, 1 2 3 4 5
portfolios, projects, and
demonstrations.
48. Student performance
assessments focus on what
students can actually do with 1 2 3 4 5
the knowledge and skills they
have acquired.
Scoring Guide
Compare individual, group, and schoolwide scores from the self-assessment for
each question.
Context
Score
5
4
3
2
1
Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Standard Continuous Leadership/ Organiza- Time for Staff
Improve- Advocacy tional Learning Develop-
ment Alignment ment as an
And Innovation
Support
2525
What Is a Study Group?
A study group is a collaborative group of 6-12 individuals who meet on a regular

basis to expand content knowledge, update expertise and learn current best
practices. This is done by exchanging ideas and knowledge about texts and
other resources for the benefit of student learning.
Richard Allington in What Really Matters for Struggling Readers says that during
the exchange of ideas and discussion, the primary focus should be on
responding to some questions:
 What was the author suggesting?

 Does the text seem to offer useful ideas for our school/classrooms?
 What do you need more information about or still have questions about?
 What strategies or ideas have you tried to implement in your classroom?
 What have you learned from the reading and use of these new ideas?
Study groups can serve many purposes, but they all center on the study of
professional material to improve instruction to better meet the needs of their
students. Depending on the needs of the group at any time, study groups can
cycle through three levels: Knowledge Level, Application Level, and Evaluation
Level.
Level I: Knowledge Level – In this level, participants:
 Build a knowledge base and develop skills.

 Review professional literature and research texts on a topic and
participate in discussion.
 Investigate new instructional practices.
 View videos to learn about new strategies.
Level II: Application Level – In this level, participants:
 Implement and apply new knowledge to instructional practice.

 Examine student data and student work to develop instructional
plans.
 Investigate school and district improvement ideas or mandates.
 Write curriculum and lesson plans.
Level III: Evaluation Level – In this level, participants:
 Evaluate own instruction.

 Invite a peer coach to observe a lesson and provide feedback.
 Videotape lessons done by members of the group for the purpose
of providing constructive feedback.
 Do peer coaching, observation, and modeling.
2626
Why Study Groups?
Teachers, who are able to meet on a regular basis to discuss pedagogy, take
care of personal learning which plays a larger role in their own professional
development. During the lifespan of an effective study group, friendships are
developed and an ongoing collegial support is formed, making it possible for
teachers to think in terms of shared problems, rather than my problem or your
problem and provide shared solutions.
Study groups create an ongoing, meaningful and job-embedded professional

development by providing support and follow-up for new learning. This allows
participants to continually upgrade their expertise and become lifelong learners
within a community of learners, ultimately changing the culture of the school.
As indicated in Designing Teacher Study Groups: A Guide For Success, the

authors state that study groups also meet all the characteristics of high quality
professional development through the following activities:
 Providing an opportunity to analyze a variety of student achievement

data (informal observations, examples of student work and projects,
feedback from students, and test results) when considering the
progression of individual and collective learning.
 Utilizing a logical long-term method of planning, related to the
county/school strategic plan, and taking school goals and
students’/teachers’ individual needs into consideration.
 Reserving time for professional learning to occur in a meaningful way.
 Promoting and validating teachers as leaders and experts in their field.
 Building upon and enhancing teachers’ knowledge and instructional
abilities.
 Encouraging lifelong inquiry and reflection.
 Providing for group and individual study.
 Using open lines of communication, information-sharing, and
community-wide collaboration to create broad-based support of
professional development.
The authors further state that study groups are a perfect way for teachers to
become superior educators. As professionals, teachers should continuously
strive to increase their knowledge and expertise to more effectively meet the
needs of students and enhance student success. An effective study group
provides an opportunity for teachers to meet, greet, share ideas, and research
educational texts and materials.
2727
How Do I Conduct a Study Group?
Book studies are an effective form of professional development. There are five
steps, from forming a book study group to implementing the discussion and
follow-up strategies:
STEP 1: Seek volunteers who are interested in new learning. This can be done
with a survey offering an open invitation to participants with similar skills and
interests. Limit the number to 6-12 participants for optimum discussion. Smaller
groups may not provide sufficient interaction or variety; larger groups make it
difficult to allow all members to actively participate.
STEP 2: Identify a need or topic of interest and select a focus for the group.
Select a thought-provoking book, article, and/or video series based on the needs
of the group. Clearly determine one or two learning objectives before
proceeding. What does the group want to learn?
STEP 3: Reach consensus on a schedule for meeting times, dates, and place
and distribute a copy to all participants. Study groups can be scheduled in the
morning before school, during lunch, after school, or during the school day if
substitutes or coverage is available. Decide on the following:
 How often do we meet? (weekly, bi-weekly, monthly)

 How long will each session be? (60 minutes, 90 minutes)
 Where do we meet? (Have enough tables, chairs, work area for the
group.)
 Which chapters will be read for each meeting date?
STEP 4: Set norms or expected behaviors and establish a predictable routine for
the session. Some groups find it beneficial to select a facilitator or discussion
leader who may come prepared with discussion questions and will summarize
the discussion. Study groups can be broken into three components (Becoming a
Literacy Leader, Jennifer Allen):
 Whole group discussion (15-20 minutes) – Begin each session with

teachers taking a few minutes to jot down their thinking since last session.
This helps keep the discussion focused and allows participants to process
their thinking. It also allows the less vocal members to have points to
discuss. Some possible reflections:
o What are you thinking as a result of our last session?

o What have you tried since our last session?
o What is working well in your classroom?
o Share one exciting thing happening in your classroom.
o What are some obstacles/roadblocks you have come across?
o What do you still need to help you try this strategy?
2828
Tie discussion to application to the classroom--sharing of what was tried

and how it worked. Members can rotate keeping the group log for each
session.
 Reading a book excerpt, article or viewing of a video (20-30 minutes) -

Take time to read a thought-provoking part of the book that is being used
for the study or an article that pertains to the objectives. There are also
many excellent videos that can be useful tools to model effective
instruction. Teachers enjoy and learn from viewing real classroom
experiences.
 Whole group discussion/reflection (20 minutes) – This is the time to

discuss the book excerpt, article or video and how to put the ideas into
practice. How has your thinking changed? What will you take with you
and try in your classroom? What do you need at this time to be able to
implement this new strategy, concept, or idea? What is your next step?
STEP 5: Evaluate the book and plan for future book studies. At the conclusion
of the book study, take time to reflect and consider:
 Did the book stimulate thought and discussion?

 How has this study impacted thinking?
 Did the group meet the learning objectives?
 How might the experience be improved?
Then, plan for the next book study determining the same topic or investigating
another topic.
In Learning Along the Way, Diane Sweeney provides practical steps for planning
a study group. Study groups are most effective when the teams according to
Sweeney:
 are voluntary;
 involve participants in the decision-making process regarding the
content, facilitation, and focus;
 reflect regularly on whether the time spent has been productive;
 include rituals and celebrations, (begin with humor, bring snacks);
 determine norms and procedures as a group;
 spend little time discussing unpopular district or school policies;
 consider the study group a time for sharing and discovery;
 avoid assuming that certain participants are experts; and
 include a diverse set of staff members, such as teachers, the principal,
the librarian, special education teachers, and other members of the
school community.
2929
Final Thought: Study groups provide teachers the opportunity to work with one
another in a collaborative environment moving teachers from the isolation they
have been so accustomed to in the past to a supportive community of learners.
Jennifer Allen in her book, Becoming a Literacy Leader states,
“Study groups are what I am most passionate about as a literacy

specialist. I believe in teachers and their ability to direct, reflect, and
facilitate their own learning. I have seen firsthand how study
groups drive new instructional practices in the classroom. In my
experience, study groups are the most effective form of
professional development for teachers. They require the smallest
financial investment, yet yield the greatest return.”
3030
Roles of Participants In Study Group
Roles Tasks Tips

Facilitator - Guides the discussion - Be assertive about the time
- Ensures that the protocol is - Ensure no one monopolizes
followed - Invite quiet participants to join
- Keeps track of time the conversation, but don’t force
- Redirects conversation that comments
gets off track - Be protective of the presenter
- Attends to the focus Remember that when teachers
question posed by the make their work public, they are
presenter highly vulnerable
- Encourage provocative comments.
Everyone should leave the conversation
with a new or altered insight
- Encourage warm comments, but
don’t let all the comments stay
on the warm side
- Seek divergent points of view
Ask if anyone sees the situation
another way
Presenter(s) - Presents student work - Select work that raises a question
- Decides on the appropriate for you
protocol - Take a risk; avoid “masterpieces”
- Frames a question - Meet with the facilitator
- Listens and takes notes of beforehand to frame your question
comments - Even when the group is on the
- At the appropriated time, wrong track when discussing
responds to the comments your work, listen for new insights or
for the reasons for misunderstanding.
Sometimes what sends the group
in a wrong direction is what
also misdirects students
Process Observer - Notes the dynamics of the - Identify who has the floor space and
group who doesn’t
- Provides a picture of how - Note who emerges as the leader
the group works together - Record the kind of comments made
- Attend to what can be observed
rather than what can be inferred
Responders - Discuss the work - Be respectful of the presenter(s)
- Provide feedback Remember how vulnerable they are
- Follow the protocol when they make their work public
Contribute to substantive conversation.
Keep in mind that we grow for
understanding our strengths and from
having a new understanding provoked
- Respect the time
- Invite quiet participants to join the
conversation
- Encourage divergent points of view
3131
LEARNER-BASED COACHING
Colleagues Learning Strengths of the Learning Stage A Specific

Names Focus? (What Colleague Based on the Coaching Move
have you and (What does s/he Gradual (What will move
your colleague already know?) Release of the learner
decided to Responsibility forward?)
focus on?) Continuum
Assessment Instruments

Source: Sweeney, Diane, Learning Along the Way.
3232
The following 24 reviewed measures were found to have “sufficient evidence” for
use as screening, diagnosis, progress monitoring, and/or outcome instruments to
assess one or more essential reading components at levels K-3.
 Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – 3 rd Edition (CELF-3)

 Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP)
 CBM Oral Reading Fluency
 Degrees of Reading Power (DRP)
 Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills – 5 th Edition (DIBELS)
 Early Reading Diagnostic Assessment (ERDA)
 Gray Oral Reading Test – IV (GORT-IV)
 Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS)
 Letter Sound Fluency
 Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test, LAC Test
 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test – III (PPVT-3)
 Phonological Awareness Test
 Slosson Oral Reading Test – Revised (SORT-R)
 Stanford Achievement Test – 9th Edition (SAT-9)
 Terra Nova – CAT (2nd edition Terra Nova; 6th edition CAT)
 Test of Language Development – Primary: 3 (TOLD-P:3)
 Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPA)
 Test of Word Knowledge (TOWK)
 Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)
 Texas Primary Reading Inventory (TPRI)
 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test – II (WIAT-II)
 Woodcock Reading Mastery Test – Revised (WRMT-R)
 Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement
 Yopp-Singer Test Of Phoneme
The following reviewed measures were found not to have “sufficient evidence” for
use as screening, diagnosis, progress monitoring, or outcome instruments to
assess essential reading components at levels K-3.
 Auditory Analysis Test
 An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement
 Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI)
 Roswell-Chall Auditory Blending
 Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities
Additional Student Assessments

 Baseline assessment
 Leveled reading passage
 Reading log
3333
 Textbook tests
 Teacher made tests
 Running record
 Benchmark tests
 IRI – Informal Reading Inventory
 Star Reading and Mathematics
 SRI – Scholastic Reading Inventory

Source: Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement(2002).Overview of
the Reading Assessment Report and Analysis. Retrieved June 1, 2006, from
http://idea.uoregon.edu/assessment/sept_02_workshops/workshops/html
3434
How Effective Is Your Team?
Goals:
What is your team’s long-term goal?
What are your team’s short-term goals?
Roles and Responsibilities:
What is your role and responsibility?
Why do you have the role and responsibility that you have?
Communication:
Do you say what you think during team meetings? Why or why not?
Do you listen more than you talk during team meetings?
Do you speak positively towards other team members during meetings?
Do you have all the information you need to work on your team?
Procedures and Efficiency:
Do your meetings have an agenda?
Do your meetings always use a facilitator?
Do your meetings start and end on time?
Do you avoid meeting to discuss unimportant information?
Leadership:
Do you avoid blaming?
Do your leaders lead by example?
Do your leaders know how to acquire resources?
Do your leaders delegate responsibilities?

Source: The University of Kansas, Center for Research on Learning
3535
Profile Assessment

Place a 4 in the blank which describes you the most. Place a 3 in the
blank which describes you next to the most. Place a 2 in the blank that
describes you next to the least. Place a 1 in the blank which describes you
the least.
A. _____ Likes Authority A. _____ Enjoys Challenges

B. _____ Likes Instructions B. _____ Predictable
C. _____ Initiator C. _____ Spontaneous
D. _____ Indecisive D. _____ Enjoys Routine
A. _____ Takes Charge A. _____ Persistent

B. _____ Reserved B. _____ Consistent
C. _____ Mixes Easily C. _____ Visionary
D. _____ Adaptable D. _____ Gives In
A. _____ Action Oriented A. _____ Independent

B. _____ Deliberate B. _____ Sensitive
C. _____ Creative-New Ideas C. _____ Group Oriented
D. _____ Non-Demanding D. _____ Warm & Relational
A. _____ Adventurous A. _____ Controlling

B. _____ Analytical B. _____ Controlled
C. _____ Takes Risks C. _____ Popularity
D. _____ Even-Keeled D. _____ Tolerant
A. _____ Determined A. _____ Productive

B. _____ Practical B. _____ Perfectionist
C. _____ Energetic C. _____ Infectious Laughter
D. _____ Avoids Confrontations D. _____ Patient
_____ Total Score for Category A __________
_____ Total Score for Category B __________
_____ Total Score for Category C __________
_____ Total Score for Category D __________
(Your total for all four categories listed above should equal 100. If your total does not equal 100,
you have not completed the survey correctly or added correctly.)

Source: Scearce, Carol, 100 Ways to Build Teams.
3636
Role and Responsibilities Guidelines
 If a team is to be successful, everyone must be aware of the importance of

roles.
 Everyone on a team must have a role.
 All roles are of equal importance.
 Everyone is accountable.
 When a team has a problem it is often because it hasn’t clearly defined

the roles.
 A role is a person’s place on the team, the part he or she expects to play
and that others expect him or her to play.
 Defining roles and responsibilities is one of the most challenging problems

a team faces.
 Once teams learn about roles and responsibilities and realize the
importance of them it is fairly easy to correct problems.
 You seldom have to coerce, goad, or force team members to work in a

team when you have clearly defined roles.
 Well done is better than well said.
 Once the team defines and accepts its roles, it experiences a dramatic
increase in its cohesiveness.
 Team members must not only be responsible for their individual roles but
also must support the roles of others.
 Feedback on performance is necessary to be successful in a role.
 When a team works together to define roles it helps to inspire each team’s
commitment.
Suggestion:
Make sure each person has a role and that he or she is given feedback on their
performance.

Source: High-Performing Teams, Michigan Schools in the Middle
3737
Team Meeting Planning
Before the meeting:

 Plan the agenda
 Share concerns to be discussed
 Prepare each person’s responsibilities
 Have ideas – do your homework
At the beginning of the meeting:

 Have an ice breaker or trust building activity
 Review agenda
 Add or delete items
 Start on time
During the meeting:

 Involve everyone
 Discuss issues
 Take turns talking
 Make decisions
 Brainstorm
 Stay on task
At the end of the meeting:

 Evaluate
 Plan next meeting
 Summarize
 Delegate responsibilities
Topics to discuss:
 Classroom management
 Grading
 Homework
 Discipline
 Conference format
 Team identity
 Team moto/theme/name
 Team colors/logo/mascot
 Goal
 Team identity

Source: SREB documents and 100 Ways to Build Teams by Carol Scearce
3838
Team Mission Making
 It is the leader’s job to get people to thinking along the same lines.
 The leader’s role in planning is to share his or her vision and then
empower as many people as possible whose contributions will ensure
successful planning.
 The leader needs to create a shared image of what the team can become.
 Teams need a vision of greatness that can propel  them to unprecedented

levels of performance.
 To succeed in a big way, a team needs to think as one.
 A mission has to be a team thing; everyone has to buy into it.
 Every team must have a mission. Without a mission the team will cease
to exist.
 Values are basic to all matters of choice and decision.
 Team members characteristically exhibit a high degree of individualistic

behavior due to the many different beliefs, values, and assumptions they
make about the purpose of what they are doing.
 The different values and beliefs of team members often lead them to be at
odds with one another.
Suggestions:
The team mission statement should:

 be stated in writing, be clearly understood, be visible to the teams, and
guide the team’s actions
 provide focus and structure for continuity of the educational environment
for teachers and students
 identify what function the team performs
 define who performs each function
 define how the team achieves this attitude

Source: 100 Ways to Build Teams by Carol Scearce
3939
Team Roles and Responsibilities
Not all of these roles are necessary, depending on the team’s needs and
personnel. The positions of Leader and Secretary are considered to be vital.
Team Leader = team facilitator

The qualities a team leader should possess are good organizational skills,
trustworthiness, self-motivation, and a positive attitude. The leader sets the tone
for the meetings.
Secretary = team recorder

This person should also be highly organized, because he or she is responsible
for recording and maintaining any documentation that the team may need.
Timekeeper = team taskmaster

This person must be diligent because a certain amount of time should be allowed
for each subject and the timekeeper is responsible for making sure that the team
honors the allotted time.
Communicator = team informer

This person relays information to non-team members about team activities. It is
particularly important that the communicator keeps the related arts/encore teams
and the principal informed.
Resource Person = team supply manager

This person takes responsibility for making sure that all materials the team may
need for the team meeting are gathered and brought to the meeting. These may
include: team calendar, curriculum map, parent conference forms, discipline
forms, and any other forms relevant to the team.
Public Relations Person = team publicist & greeter

This is the person who shares all the positive things that the team is doing with
the entire school (and the public). This individual also serves as the “meet and
greet” person for parents and substitutes who are in your building.
Comforter = team well-being person

This person provides feedback on how the team is functioning and plans the
celebrations of success.

Source: http://reinvent.k12.wv.us
4040
Great Teams Engage in the Following Activities
 Coordinate homework
 Coordinate tests and quizzes
 Conduct joint parent conferences
 Conduct joint student conferences
 Use support personnel such as the media specialist and administrators on
a regular basis
 Coordinate with their counselor
 Conduct full team meetings on a regular basis
 Give frequent student awards and rewards on a regular basis
 Have written team policies for their students
 Have common discipline procedures
 Have team bulletin boards
 Monitor student academic and personal progress on a regular basis
 Provide orientation opportunities for students and parents
 Have common rules for providing homework to students who have been
absent
 Have common paper headings
 Conduct team help sessions for students
 Have and maintain a strong team identity
 Maintain a team notebook complete with agenda, minutes, telephone
contacts, conferences, etc.
4141
 Have and use a flex block of time
 Have common grading policies
 Have common policies regarding extra credit
 Reschedule their own students
 Coordinate and share with exploratory teachers
 Conduct interdisciplinary units
 Common classroom rules
 Share successes and failures

Source: 100 Ways to Build Teams by Carol Scearce.
4242
Quality Classroom Assessment
A ten-year critical review of classroom assessment research (Black and Wiliam,

1998) shows that the way to improve student learning is to deeply engage
students in the classroom assessment process and increase the specific and
descriptive feedback they receive while they are learning. More testing and more
drill and practice for test taking will not improve student learning.
Students need a clear learning destination so that they can better make
decisions that support their learning. Quality and success also become clearer
for students when teachers engage them in setting the criteria by which
something can be judged--the standards. When students help set the standards,
they have the opportunity to participate in quality self-assessment.
Quality self-assessment gives the student a chance to figure out what she knows
and what needs to be learned next. As students self-assess in relation to the
standards they helped set, they then have the chance to take stock of where they
are in relation to where they need to be going. Often teachers despair over
students who do not take self-assessment seriously, but, like other classroom
strategies, self-assessment has to be practiced to be learned well.
When a teacher gives a student oral feedback which very specifically addresses
what is working and what might improve the work, or when a peer uses the
language of successful criteria to give feedback, the student has a model of
quality self-assessment. In addition, feedback for learning does not place a letter
grade or a percentage on the work. Instead, the learner receives specific
information concerning what needs to be adjusted so the student can do better.
This way, students have an opportunity to practice and learn prior to their efforts
being judged.
The teacher should also consider these resources for providing feedback for the
learner:
 Art teachers might post works of great art and have students analyze them
and build criteria.
 Students can build criteria about what makes a great piece of writing by
listening to the teacher read powerful language.
 Teachers can videotape a physical education class and analyze what
worked and what didn’t with student athletes.
 Using the kinds of samples found in Marie Clay’s What Did I Write?,
teachers can display samples of student writing developed over time and
then ask young students to analyze their writing and think about what to
do differently with future efforts.
4343
When students are deeply involved in the assessment process,

teachers can then collect a range of evidence. This evidence is
produced over time and from a variety of sources. Through the
collection, teachers look for patterns and trends. There are three
sources of evidence.
Teachers will collect products. These include, but are not limited to, tests,
assignments, student writings, projects, demonstrations, photographs, and
videos and audiotapes.
Teachers also observe the process of learning. Notes can be taken in regard to
hands-on/minds-on learning activities, learning journals and performances across
subject areas.
Talking with students about their learning is a third source of evidence. This will
include conferences, written peer assessments, self-assessments and interview
notes.
It is important that teachers make sure to collect evidence in relation to standards

agreed upon at the outset. However, this may be rather complex.
Not all students produce exactly the same kind of evidence to show they have
met criteria. Learning needs and styles as well as multiple intelligences will
result in different types of evidence. Also, students vary in their background
experience, knowledge and skill set and may require different kinds of input and
different levels of support when learning.
But, when students are involved in collecting their own evidence as well as
reflecting and organizing it, that evidence often goes way beyond what the
teacher alone can produce. Students can provide comprehensive collections of
learning evidence, such as work folders, portfolios, or web sites to show the
extent to which they have succeeded in reaching their learning destination.
To complete the assessment cycle, communicating using evidence of learning

causes the student to step back and assess what he is doing, much like a
performance review in the workplace. As students become involved in
conferences, their learning is acknowledged and supported.
When students present evidence of their learning, they give everyone the chance
to better understand the learning and to take action to provide necessary
support. Involving parents and other audiences can support learning by the
following:
 When students articulate what they have learned as well as what they still
need to learn, achievement improves.
4444
 Through the process of selecting what evidence, to whom to show it, and
what kind of feedback is requested, students have the opportunity to
construct their understanding and help others make meaning of their
learning.
 When students show evidence of learning to an audience, the students
receive feedback as well as recognition from themselves and others. This
can help guide and support their learning.
 When parents are involved in talking about learning, student achievement
increases. (Gregory, Cameron, and Davies, 2001)
With a growing emphasis on assessment of learning, classroom teachers must

do even more assessment for learning. This will ensure that students know and
can do what they need to at the level of quality expected (pp. 1-3).

Source: Davies, Anne. (2004). Transforming learning and teaching through quality classroom
assessment: what does the research say? National Council of Teachers of English, 10(1).
Retrieved June 6, 2006, from
http://www.ncte.org/library/files/Free/Journals/st/ST0101October04.pdf
4545
Looking at Data to See if Student Learning Has Increased
 Three times a year, teachers collect one assignment and five student
responses to be shared during a faculty meeting.
 Teachers are organized into interdisciplinary, vertical teams.
 Each teacher presents an assignment to be discussed by team members.
 The discussion deals with determining if the work demonstrates the level
of cognition expected and identifying evidence to support the
determination. The discussion takes no more than 10 minutes.
 Near the end of the meeting, teams complete an anonymous summary
sheet that identifies the levels of thinking required in all five assignments
and the number of students who demonstrated the appropriate level of
thinking.
This ongoing data assists staff in planning plan for ongoing year-long
professional development on higher-order thinking skills and will provide the
school with evidence of progress.

Source: Killion, Joellen, “Data can show if all the efforts pay off in student learning.”
4646
Teacher Modeling
What is it?
 Teacher both describes and models the skill/concept.

 Teacher clearly describes features of the concept or steps in performing
the skill.
 Teacher breaks the concept/skill into learnable parts.
 Teacher describes/models using multi-sensory techniques.
 Teacher engages students in learning through demonstrating enthusiasm,
through maintaining a lively pace, through periodically questioning
students, and through checking for student understanding.
There are eight essential components of explicit instruction
 Concept/skill is broken down into critical features/elements.

 Teacher clearly describes concept/skill.
 Teacher clearly models concept/skill.
 Multi-sensory instruction (visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic) is provided.
 Teacher thinks aloud as she/he models.
 Teacher models examples and non-examples.
 Cueing is provided for students.
 High levels of teacher-student interaction occur.
How do I implement the strategy?
 Ensure that your students have the prerequisite skills to perform the skill.
 Break down the skill into logical and learnable parts (Ask yourself, "What
do I do and what do I think as I perform the skill?").
 Provide a meaningful context for the skill (e.g. word or story problem
suited to the age & interests of your students).
 Provide visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement), and tactile means for
illustrating important aspects of the concept/skill (e.g. visually display word
problem and equation, orally cue students by varying vocal intonations,
point, circle, highlight computation signs or important information in story
problems).
 "Think aloud" as you perform each step of the skill (i.e. say aloud what you
are thinking as you problem-solve).
 Link each step of the problem solving process (e.g. restate what you did in
the previous step, what you are going to do in the next step, and why the
next step is important to the previous step).
 Periodically check student understanding with questions, remodeling steps
when there is confusion.
 Maintain a lively pace while being conscious of student information
processing difficulties (e.g. need additional time to process questions).
4747
 Model a concept/skill at least three times before beginning to scaffold your

instruction.
How Does Modeling Positively Impact Students Who Have Learning

Problems?
 Teacher models learning to make the concept/skill clear and learnable.

 High levels of teacher support and direction enable student to make
meaningful, cognitive connections.
 Modeling provides students who have attention problems, processing
problems, memory retrieval problems, and metacognitive difficulties an
accessible "learning map".
 Links between subskills are directly made, making confusion and
misunderstanding less likely.
 Multi-sensory cueing provides students multiple modes to process and
thereby learn information.
4848
Teacher Modeling Strategies

(Intel Innovation in Education)
The time it takes to model a concept or skill is dependent on the size of the task
students are being required to do. Modeling some skills may take just a few
minutes while other, more complex skills, may take extended teaching time. It is
important that the teacher know ahead of time what she wants students to know
as a result of the modeling, so when students are set out to work on their own
they know expectations and requirements. Specifying the desired behaviors
before modeling them also makes assessment more constructive and accurate.
Teacher Modeling in Action
Think Alouds
Doing think alouds is a way for teachers to make their thinking “visible” to
students. The teacher models the skill or strategy by verbalizing their thinking at
each step. Posing questions and ideas along the way to get students to think
about their ideas is another piece of think alouds. Think alouds are an effective
way to model thinking skills for students so they can “see” what goes on in the
teacher’s mind as they are listening to a story, learning a new skill, or developing
understanding of a new concept.
Think Aloud Example: Teacher: As I read this story about immigrants coming
over to America I can’t believe what they had to go through on the ships. I would
be so scared to leave my family and home. I think you have to be really brave to
do that. I would also be excited about coming to a New World and seeing a new
place. I predict that the little boy in this story will make it to America and meet his
uncle. I think he will like it once he gets there. When I write in my journal today, I
am going to write about the rats and how we have to eat stale bread and water
while on the ship. Yeah. I’m also going to write about how I miss my family so
much and how it’s been hard to sleep with the ship rocking back and forth. I
wonder if I will make it to America? I know some ships never do. (The teacher
could actually write this while thinking aloud on a piece of chart paper for
students to follow along.)
Teacher directions to the students: After modeling has occurred, have students
ask questions and give their ideas. Give clear directions for the reading and
journal writing, check for understanding by having one or two students restate the
directions in their own words, and then set students out to work independently.
Instructional Strategies for Engaged Learning

Instructional strategies that engage students and involve them in the learning
process are at the heart of what great teachers do. Research shows that certain
strategies help students achieve success and learn at higher levels.
4949
Prior Knowledge
For a student, new content can be overwhelming. There are new vocabulary
words, ideas, and concepts that others seem to understand easily or have
experienced before. Teachers can help their students make the transition from
the unfamiliar by tapping students’ prior knowledge. Research shows that we can
jump-start learning by accessing pre-existing attitudes, experiences, and
knowledge and bridge the gap between what is being taught and what is already
known.
Teachers can also use prior knowledge to make instruction more meaningful.
Many researchers (Peshkin, 1992; Protheroe & Barsdate, 1992; and Lee, 1992)
emphasize the importance of incorporating a student's cultural background into
the curriculum. As the world changes, students must learn to understand and
appreciate the experiences and contributions of people from different
backgrounds. A culturally-responsive education links curriculum, instruction, and
assessment to the students' experiences, language, and culture, in other words,
to their prior knowledge. Additionally, this instructional strategy defines a proper
starting place for instruction and the sequence of instructional activities. As stated
by educational psychologist David Ausubel, “The most important single factor
influencing learning is what the learner already knows.”
Make it Happen in the Classroom

Exercises to access prior knowledge can be used at any grade level, with any
content area, and with any subject. Prior knowledge is the proper entry point for
instruction because it builds on what is already known, supports comprehension,
and makes sense of new learning (Kujawa and Huske, 1995). Tapping students’
prior knowledge is an effective way to start a new unit or lesson and an even
better way to get students involved right from the start. Referring back to this
knowledge throughout a unit of study will keep students engaged in their learning
and keep the material relevant.
Examples Across the Curriculum

From simply asking questions aloud to formally using a journal to document
students' prior knowledge, there are a wide range of activities teachers can use.
The following examples can be used across the curriculum and at any grade
level.
Written Activities
Written activities prompt students to write and reflect about what they already
know about new content. These include quick writes, journals, and learning logs.
Written activities that prompt students to write and reflect upon what they already
know help students tap prior knowledge.
Quick Writes
Quick writes are usually done at the beginning of the lesson or unit to get
students to think about the new content or respond to a prompt. The writing is not
5050
graded and allows students the freedom to express their ideas and make
personal connections to the new content being addressed. Occasionally,
teachers will challenge students to write or brainstorm their ideas within a time
limit. Once they are completed, these quick writes stimulate class discussion.
Example Prompt: Take five minutes to write about what friendship means to
you. Use examples and brainstorm characteristics of a good friend.
Example Response: Friendship means everything to me. I have many friends.

We like to play together and tell each other our secrets. My friend, Melanie,
spends the night at my house. She is kind, caring, and funny. That’s what I like
about her. Friends should never be mean and if they are, they should apologize
and say they’re sorry. Friends are important people. Everyone should have one.
Journals
Another way to prompt students and activate prior knowledge is journal writing.
Like a quick write, but longer and not necessarily timed, journal writing allows
students to respond to a prompt or write what they already know about a topic.
These journal responses may be collected and reviewed to give feedback to the
student. The journal may cover several topics over the course of a semester or
quarter. The entries could be shared with partners or small groups to spark
discussion. If graded, journals should not be graded for content but rather for
effort, completeness, and thoroughness.
Journaling can be used across the curriculum and is not just a language arts
activity. Journaling can be just as effective in a mathematics classroom as it is in
an English classroom. Allowing students to organize their thinking, respond to
new content, and make personal connections without the threat of grades, is very
important in tapping students’ prior knowledge.
Example Journal Prompt: How do you feel about voting? Give examples and
support your opinion.
Example Journal Entry: I believe in voting. I believe that democracy is a

privilege even if your vote is one voice in a million. It’s hard to see how one vote
will make a difference when a simple majority wins. But that is why it is important
to vote, your vote may make the difference. Recently, a governor in Washington
State was elected by a difference of 200 or so votes in a race where several
millions voted.
Learning Logs
Learning logs are an excellent way to get students to record thought processes,
ideas, and questions throughout a unit of study. Learning logs are similar to quick
writes and journals but focus on documenting a learning experience. Students
describe what they investigated, accomplished, or learned in an activity or class
exercise. Logs are appropriate across the curriculum and at all grade levels.
5151
Questions, prompts, or free writes can be incorporated into the learning logs.
They can be used by teachers as informal ways to check for student
understanding. Many times, the teacher uses the learning logs as a way to have
a written discussion by responding to the student’s entries and posing more
thought-provoking questions. For younger students, words and pictures can be a
way to record ideas and thoughts. These can be written documents that students
maintain throughout a project.
Teacher entry: February 12: Wow! You have learned more information. You
knew some important facts before we started learning about plants but now you
know a ton! Isn’t it amazing that plants give us our oxygen and we help them
make food by breathing out carbon dioxide? I was so surprised when I learned
that. I’m so glad you’ve learned so much while studying plants!
Know-Wonder-Learn Charts (K-W-L)

An instructional technique used to activate students’ prior knowledge, set goals,
and record new knowledge gleaned from a unit of study.
Learning About Know-Wonder-Learn Charts

A Know-Wonder-Learn (K-W-L) chart is one of the most commonly used graphic
organizers to tap students’ prior knowledge. This simple chart activates students’
prior knowledge by asking them what they already know about a particular
subject. This allows the students to make personal connections before the
content is deeply explored. The students brainstorm their ideas on the Know
section of the chart. Then the students independently or collaboratively
brainstorm questions they have about the content in the Wonder section. Once
students begin to answer these questions during a project, they record this
information on the Learn section of the chart. By using this chart, students are
constructing meaning from what they’ve been learning, comparing their new
knowledge to what they already know, and are able to clarify their ideas. This
also keeps students focused and interested in the content and are a way to keep
track of what they are learning. Ultimately, the chart could be used as a
document for an assessment portfolio to show what the student has learned.
A K-W-L chart can be used across the curriculum at any grade level. It can be
used to start a new unit of study and referred to throughout the unit. It is usually
not a graded document but rather a place for students to write down their ideas
and questions without the fear of being judged or graded. This chart also helps
with student organization and can be a starting point for peer-to-peer or whole-
class discussion.
Thinking Activities
Thinking activities tap students’ thinking by giving them an opportunity to make
predictions, list and rank ideas, and make analogies based on their prior
knowledge.
5252
Learn About Thinking Activities

Thinking activities are used to tap students’ prior knowledge by giving them an
opportunity to create lists, make predictions, and use analogies. By using these
activities, students are put in control of their learning and allowed to make
personal connections to new content.
Organized Lists
Making organized lists that rank items in an order that makes sense to the
student is one way to help students organize what they know as way of tapping
prior knowledge. The Visual Ranking Tool: Is an online thinking tool for ordering
and prioritizing items in a list, which helps students analyze and evaluate criteria
for their decisions. Visually comparing reasoning promotes collaboration and
discussion. With the use of this tool, students can use prior knowledge at the
beginning of a unit or lesson to rank items and then see how their new
knowledge expands their viewpoint over the course of study.
Discussions
Teacher-to-student and whole-class discussions activate students’ prior
knowledge by providing opportunities to orally share ideas and discuss opinions.
Learn about the importance of tapping students’ prior knowledge to help students
construct new understanding.
Learn About Discussions

Teacher-to-student and whole-class discussions are great ways to activate
students’ prior knowledge by allowing them opportunities to orally share their
ideas and discuss their opinions. The art of discussion is an important piece in
the learning process. A common mistake many teachers make is to present a
question or idea and expect most of their students to respond and discuss. It can
be frustrating and a waste of time for both the teacher and students to listen to a
select few students have a discussion.
To conduct successful discussions, teachers need:
 To be armed with the right types of questions and ready to respond to

various answers
 To be able to use “teachable moments” to spark student interest and keep
the discussion lively
 To use the discussion as a jumping off point for new content
 To pose questions that directly relate to students and their prior knowledge
 To allow the students to lead the discussion with teacher facilitation and
probing
 To accept all appropriate answers as correct and encourage additional
responses by others
 To permit “think time” and use think-pair-share strategies to think about
answers before having students respond.
5353
Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers help students to think about, visualize, and arrange their
knowledge. In a traditional classroom setting, most teachers rely on talking,
reading, and writing for representing and communicating concepts. Studies show
that when students create nonlinguistic representations of their knowledge there
is increased activity in the brain (Gerlic & Jausovec, 1999). Whether creating a
concept map, a flow chart, or a simple storyboard, students must draw upon
analysis skills to clarify relationships, organize their thoughts, and formulate
plans or process steps. The process of creating the representations helps
students retain information and extends students’ ability to convey and exchange
their thinking in collaborative group work.
Bring New Strategies to Your Classroom

Using graphic organizers is a universal strategy that is equally appropriate across
all grade levels and subject areas. It can be introduced at the beginning of a unit
of study and referred to throughout, and used as a means of assessment. There
are many uses for graphic organizers.
 A high school English teacher uses a chain-of-events graphic organizer

while students are reading a novel. This organizer helps them to
document events as they read, reflect upon prior reading, make
predictions, and prepare for discussions. The completed work is used as
an assessment.
 An elementary school teacher has students create a T-chart to compare
and contrast the differences and similarities of two Indian tribes. This T-
chart is then used to help students with a multimedia presentation.
 In middle school, a science teacher has students build a casual map to
show the causes and effects of tectonic plate movement in a study of
earthquakes. Discussions of each other’s maps lead students to deeper
analysis of their findings.
Examples Across the Curriculum

Many types of graphic organizers can be used across grades and subject areas.
Concept Maps
Concept maps help students cluster and brainstorm ideas and information. A
causal map is a specific kind of concept map that shows cause-and-effect
relationships.
Cluster Maps
These maps are a useful way to help students cluster and brainstorm ideas and
information or show relationships. They can be used as a starting point before
beginning a larger project or as a pre-writing activity to be checked by a peer or
teacher. This visual representation helps all students to see their ideas on paper
and then use these ideas to write essays, reports, or create multimedia
presentations. From simple clusters to more complex ones, students at all levels
and in all subject areas can use clustering strategies to generate ideas.
5454
Sequencing Activities
These activities help students to sequence information and organize their
thoughts in a logical way. These include chain of events, timelines, and
storyboard planners.
Chain-of-Events
The use of a chain-of-events graphic organizer is a valuable way to:
 Organize steps in a procedure
 Trace plot development in a story or novel
 Document actions of a character
 Record the important stages of an event
Timelines
Like a chain-of-events organizer, timelines help students place events and
people in chronological order. Throughout a lesson or unit, students can add to
the timeline, use it as a reference and a benchmark to make sense of dates and
events and to see patterns in history. By sequencing important events, students
can make connections to past and current content. Individual and class timelines
can be effective ways to represent events and time periods.
Storyboard Planners
Storyboard planners are helpful ways to construct ideas and organize information
before creating a product. Students can create storyboards, using multimedia
technology or paper and pencil. These storyboards can be used as pre-writing or
brainstorming activities before students create a final product. The storyboards
can be checked by a peer or teacher to make sure the student is on-track and
provide feedback before getting to work.
Sequencing Examples
 Chain of Events
 Timeline
 Storyboard Planner
Classification Charts
T-charts and Venn diagrams are charts that help students organize information
visually for comparing, contrasting, or finding similarities and differences.
Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are used across the curriculum and with any grade level to
compare information. A venn diagram is made up of two or more overlapping
circles. The similarities between topics are listed in the intersection of the two
circles. The differences are listed in the remaining sections. From simple two-
circle venn diagrams to four-circle venn diagrams, students construct visual
representations of their learning. Students use the diagrams to organize
information as an aid for developing multimedia presentations, reports, essays,
or oral presentations. Teachers can use venn diagrams as a way to assess
5555
student learning or as a quick, informal means to check for student

understanding.
T-Charts
Another type of classification chart is a T-chart. With T-charts, students can clarify
concepts or ideas by comparing and contrasting them visually by listing and
examining two facets of a topic. They can, for example, list pros and cons,
advantages and disadvantages, facts and opinions, strengths and weaknesses,
or problems and solutions. Like the venn diagram, the T-chart can be used to
organize learning for a report, presentation, or essay.
Classification Chart Examples

 Venn Diagram
 T-chart
Prioritized Lists: These lists help students analyze and prioritize information
while evaluating criteria for their decisions.
Analyzing and Prioritizing Information in Lists

Making a list is a pretty simple task, but when a student is required to order and
prioritize the list, higher-level skills of analysis and evaluation are put to use. With
the use of ordered lists, students visually construct information on paper or with a
computer. These lists promote collaboration and discussion among students
while they compare their lists and reasoning in a visual diagram.
The Visual Ranking Tool helps students analyze and evaluate criteria for the
decisions they make in forming a list. By ranking lists, students must identify and
refine criteria as they assign rank to a list. While using this graphic organizer,
students can manipulate and order information and visually represent content
being learned. These lists can be used to spark debates, create proposals, or to
understand the quality of a character in a story.
Cooperative Learning
Two heads learn better than one. This variation on the classic saying is very true
for students in a classroom. Cooperative group work is an important part of an
effective classroom. However, there is much more to group learning than just
having students “work together.” The primary goal of group work is to get
students actively involved in their learning where there is an accepted common
goal. This grouping allows students to work together to maximize their own and
each other’s learning.
“In a cooperative learning situation, interaction is characterized by positive goal

interdependence with individual accountability.” (Johnson & Johnson, 1998).
One frustration many teachers, students, and parents have with cooperative
groups is that many times the high-achieving students do most of the work. In
order for cooperative grouping to be effective and make good use of classroom
5656
time, group work must have clear role responsibilities, goals, and individual
accountability.
In a classroom setting, cooperative groups give students opportunities to learn

from and teach one another under “real” world conditions. “By the 1990’s,
teamwork became the most frequently valued managerial competence in studies
of organizations around the world.” (Goleman, 1998). We can prepare our
students to enter the working world by giving them these valued opportunities to
work together to create products and solve problems.
By organizing a classroom around cooperative group work, the ultimate goal is to

get students actively involved in their learning. Grouping students in pairs or
small groups increases their chances of involvement. Students feel less pressure
when asked to complete a task with a peer than they do completing it
independently. Cooperative learning should be used strategically. "Research has
established that the cooperative structure outperforms competitive and
individualistic structures academically and socially, regardless of content or grade
level.” (Kagan 1997). Students often view school as a competitive enterprise
where they try to outdo their classmates. Research shows that students are more
positive about school, subject area, and teachers when they are provided
structure to work cooperatively (Johnson & Johnson).
Make it Happen in Your Classroom

With time and patience, any teacher at any grade level can incorporate
cooperative learning into instruction. The keys to success are maintaining high
expectations, keeping students individually and collectively accountable, and
creating a classroom environment where cooperation is encouraged.
Cooperative Grouping Across the Curriculum

There are many types of cooperative grouping strategies are supported by
research and can be used across grades and subject areas.
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching is a cooperative grouping strategy that calls on students to
become “the teacher” and work as a group to bring meaning to text.
Reciprocal Teaching Strategy

Reciprocal teaching (Palincsar, 1984) is a cooperative grouping strategy that
calls on students to become “the teacher” and work as a group to bring meaning
to text. Teachers and students engage in dialogue regarding segments of text.
The dialogue is structured by using four strategies:
5757
 Summarizing
 Question generating
 Clarifying
 Predicting
It is important that each of the above strategies has been taught and practiced
before reciprocal teaching takes place. The stages of reciprocal teaching are
easy to set up.
Jigsaw Strategy
A cooperative learning technique that allows greater amounts of content to be
studied and shared by students in a group. The jigsaw cooperative-learning
technique promotes better learning, improves student motivation, and allows
greater amounts of content to be studied and shared by students in a group. The
jigsaw technique was first developed by Elliot Aronson and his college students.
The technique allows for:
 An efficient way to learn content

 Development of listening, engagement, and empathy skills
 A way for students to work independently
 Interaction among all students
Students are divided into small groups of five or six. Each group’s task is to learn
about one aspect of a subject area and become ”experts” on the subject. In this
“expert” group, students do research together and collaboratively create a report
or presentation. Each student is also individually responsible since they will teach
others about the content. Once students have become “experts” they are
reassigned a new group. Each new group is formed with “experts” from the
original groups. The task for each “expert” is to teach the others in their group
about the content they have studied. Once all “experts” have presented, each
group member has learned five or six new aspects of the subject area and is
ready to take an exam, write an essay, or group with another “expert” to create a
multimedia presentation.
Think-Pair-Share
A cooperative discussion strategy is made up of three stages of student action
where students talk about the content and discuss ideas before sharing with a
whole group. Think-Pair-Share is a cooperative discussion strategy where
students talk about the content and discuss ideas before sharing with a whole
group. It introduces the elements of “think time” and peer interaction, which are
two important features of cooperative learning. Think-Pair-Share’s purpose is to
help students process information, develop communication skills, and refine their
thinking.
5858
With this strategy the teacher:

 Poses an open-ended question or problem
 Gives students a minute or two to think about their answer, pairs
students to discuss the answer and share ideas
 Gives opportunities for students to share their response with a small group
or the whole class
Because students have time to think about their answer, then share with a peer
and get a different perspective, they may be more willing and less apprehensive
about sharing with a larger group. It also gives them time to change their
response if needed and relieves the fear of giving the “wrong” answer.
Brainstorm Groups
A cooperative learning strategy that calls upon groups of students to brainstorm
thoughts and build upon each other's flow of ideas.
The use of cooperative brainstorming is an effective and valuable strategy that

calls upon teams of students to brainstorm thoughts and build upon one
another’s flow of ideas in a safe environment. With creative groupings, students
have opportunities to work together and learn important content at the same
time. Dr. Spencer Kagan, an expert on cooperative grouping structures has
created a myriad of cooperative grouping structures to use with students of all
ages. The main goal of these structures is to promote:
 Participation in structured interactions

 Equal participation
 Student interaction
 Effective communication
 Cooperative learning as part of any lesson
 Through many years of research and training, Dr. Spencer Kagan has
refined and developed over 160 structures. All of these give teachers a
well planned way to group students and teach them important content in
engaging ways.
Feedback
Understand how teacher and peer feedback encourages student learning and
can be integrated in everyday teaching.
Providing Feedback to Students

Feedback enhances student achievement by highlighting progress rather than
deficiency. With progress feedback, a student is given opportunities for checking-
in with the teacher and multiple opportunities to ask questions. Students answer
the following questions during progress feedback:
 Am I on the right track?
 What improvements can I make?
 What am I doing well?
5959
 How am I doing overall?

With progress feedback, a student will be able to successfully self-monitor, have
higher aspirations for further achievement, greater self-satisfaction, and higher
performance overall. By taking the time to sit down with a student and offer
constructive criticism, give necessary help, offer suggestions, and provide
positive feedback, teachers can positively impact student learning. Marzano,
Pickering and Pollock (2001) cite providing feedback as one of the nine effective
classroom strategies in their book, Classroom Strategies that Work: Researched-
Based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement. Effective feedback should:
 Be “corrective” in nature. Feedback should provide students with an

explanation of what they are doing correctly and what they are doing that
is not correct.
 Be timely. Immediate feedback is necessary in order for it to be the most
effective.
 Be specific to a criterion. Feedback should reference a specific level of
skill or knowledge and not be norm-referenced.
 Allow students to provide their own feedback. Students should be able to
effectively monitor their own progress through self-evaluation based on
the feedback given by the teacher.
 Feedback can be informal or formal. With informal feedback, teachers can
“drop by” students’ desks and comment on their work. With this type of
feedback students receive instantaneous suggestions and can make
immediate changes. With formal feedback, students attend a conference
with the teacher where teachers check progress toward goals, discuss
progress, and work with students to set new goals. Conferences help
develop self-direction and protect students from the fear of failure. When
students are given feedback along the way, they are able to learn from
their mistakes, make the necessary changes and achieve at higher levels.
“The best feedback appears to involve an explanation as to what is
accurate and what is inaccurate in terms of student responses. In addition,
asking students to keep working on a task until they succeed appears to
enhance achievement.” (Marzano p. 96).
Learn About Peer Feedback

Students value each other’s opinions and ideas. In most cases, they enjoy
working with one another. If given the opportunity, students can give and receive
important and valuable ideas from a peer. When set up correctly, structured peer-
to-peer conferences give students time to get suggestions, ideas, and
compliments on their work. When conferences are productive, students are
aware of what to look for and have specific criteria to follow as they work with
their peers. Evaluation guides or checklists can be handy tools to keep students
on task and remind them to offer positive feedback as well as suggestions and
ideas. With practice and modeling, teachers can implement this strategy into the
classroom at any time for a variety of purposes.
6060
Making the Most of Informal Encounters

Informal teacher feedback can take the place of many different forms. This type
of feedback is designed to give students on-the-spot responses to work they are
immersed in at the time. The teacher can use this time to answer questions,
provide suggestions, or just check in with the student to see how they are
progressing. Informal feedback can be done in the form of:
Periodic check  Students are assigned a few minutes each day to check in
ups with the teacher and go over any questions or ideas they
may want to discuss before continuing with the work.
A stop by a  A short visit with a few students during a work period to
student’s desk check in on how they are doing, answer questions, and offer
feedback.
Written  Respond to students’ entries in learning logs or journals,
responses in a pose questions and offer ideas.
learning log or on  Write comments on tests, reports, papers, and other work
the work itself products that prompt students to see mistakes and ask
questions.
 Allow students time to retake a test or find the right
answers with some improvement to their original score.
Student-Teacher Conferences
Teachers can provide feedback through structured conferences with specific
goals. Conferences focus on suggestions and comments along with
individualized goal setting on a formal level. Teachers can meet with a few
students a day or a week depending on specific projects, deadlines, and
individual student needs. It is important to set up these conferences in a
structured way so both teacher and student make good use of their time. Below
is a list of helpful hints for setting up student-teacher conferences.
1. The teacher should look at student work beforehand.

2. A checklist or feedback form should accompany the work.
3. Comments should be specific to the work and elaborated on during the
conference.
4. The teacher should focus on two to three items that need work and be
prepared to share examples on how to improve them.
5. Plenty of positive feedback should be shared throughout the conference.
6. Time for the student to ask questions and give input should be allotted
Student should be able to take the feedback form/checklist with them at
the end of the conference to use as a reference in making revisions.
7. Student should be able to take the feedback form/checklist with them at
the end of the conference to use as a reference in making revisions.
8. The main goal should be to meet with the students two or more times
during the course of a project. This way, students are given multiple
opportunities to make sure they are on the right track and make necessary
6161
improvements to their work. Using formal conferencing along with informal

feedback, students are protected from failure and set up for success.
6262
Teacher Feedback Form
Student name: _______________________________
Title of work: _________________________________
Conference time: _____________________________
Some things you did successfully:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Some things you could improve upon:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Next steps:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Note: Keep this feedback form to refer to as you revise your work.
6363
Recognition
Can you remember a time when a peer, teacher, or coach recognized the work
you did as being valuable and important? How did that make you feel? The
power of recognition has an overwhelmingly positive effect on students but
unfortunately, doesn’t happen as often as it should. Once a project has been
completed, are students recognized for a job well done? How are they given an
opportunity to share their work with others, receive recognition for their effort, and
showcase the finished product?
Educational reformer, Dr. Phillip Schlechty best defines affirmation of

performances as, “Persons who are significant in the lives of the student,
including parents, siblings, peers, public audiences, and younger students, are
positioned to observe, participate in, and benefit from student performances, as
well as the products of those performances, and to affirm the significance and
importance of the activity to be undertaken.” (2002). Giving students an
opportunity to have their work affirmed and recognized by others makes learning
authentic and worthwhile. Some students may engage in the work from the start
because they know their work will be affirmed by important people at the end.
Recognition in this sense should not be confused with praise or other kinds of
extrinsic rewards. Although, praising students for the work they are doing is
important, recognition is far deeper than that. Schlechty states that to “affirm or
recognize student work is not to approve or disapprove; it is to declare that what
happened matters and is important. Affirmation suggests significance and thusly
attaches importance to the event or action” (1997). Teachers hope that students
take home their projects, share with their parents, and possibly save them in a
portfolio. But the reality may be that students’ work never makes it home, and all
the hard work and effort the students put forth is never shared or recognized. By
making the work visible to others the students get that opportunity to hear, “Job
well done.”
Recognition of student work can take place in many different ways across all
grade levels and subject areas. Providing students simple opportunities to
display work in the hallways of the school or on a bulletin board in the classroom
displays exemplary work to peers and school faculty and staff. Holding Parent
and Community Nights, inviting experts into the classroom to see the work
students have completed, and sharing work with younger and older buddy
classes are all significant ways in which students can be recognized for their hard
work and effort. Not only do students share the work products but the important
learning that took place as well.
6464
Ways to Recognize Student Work
Discover ways to affirm and recognize student work at a classroom and school
level.
Classroom Level School Level

 Display student work in hallways of  Hold Community Nights where
school. family, friends, and community
members are invited to watch
 Display student work on bulletin presentations, view work products,
boards of classroom and invite and see performances.
parents and other school personnel
to come by and view the student  Hold Science Fairs, Art Showcases,
work and offer positive feedback. Literature Nights, Math Nights, and
History Fairs where all students and
 Have a Parent Night, inviting classes are represented and are
parents and other family members able to share work products with the
to recognize student work. guests.
 Invite experts to view student  Implement a buddy class system to

performances, debates, or work pair older and younger classes
products. together to share work with one
another.
 Have students share finished
products with a same grade-level  Hold a monthly or quarterly school
class. walk –through where classes are
able to visit other classrooms and
 Invite the principal, secretary, or view the work products of the
other teachers in to view students.
presentations and be part of the
audience.  Provide comment sheets to give
recognition.
 Post student work on classroom
Web sites and invite family, friends,  Post student work on a school Web
and community members to see the site and invite family, friends, and
work and send emails to students. community members to see the
work and send emails to
classrooms.
6565
Questioning
Questioning is at the heart of good teaching. Choosing the right types of

questions to ask students is necessary to spark thought-provoking answers and
engage students in productive discussions. The instructional strategy of
questioning is about asking probing and challenging questions that call for higher
cognitive thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. By asking
challenging questions, we call upon students to explore ideas and apply new
knowledge to other situations.
Using different types of questioning allows students to think in different and

unique ways. At the core of a project-based learning, classrooms are enduring
Essential Questions and higher-level Curriculum-Framing Questions. These
questions are posed at the beginning of a unit of study, and students continue to
explore and revisit these questions throughout.
Questions that require students to defend or explain their positions are open-
ended questions. Closed questions are limiting and allow for one or two students
to answer either correctly or incorrectly. Open-ended questions are probing and
encourage students to think about several ideas. There isn’t just one correct
answer. By posing open-ended questions to a group of students, the amount of
ideas and answers are limitless. Open-ended questions:
 Tell students what is valued and what is important.

 Elicit a range of responses.
 Involve teacher and student communication.
 Stir discussion and debate in the classroom.
Effective questioning involves both teacher and student. It is important for the
teacher to give “wait time” before asking for responses. Wait time is defined as
the amount of time that lapses between a teacher-initiated question and the next
verbal answer given by a student. This allows students the opportunity to reflect
and think before they speak. Allowing many student ideas, rather than just a
couple, is imperative as well. All who want to share should have an opportunity to
do so. If time does not allow, these students should have a place to go such as a
journal, a learning log, or a whiteboard, to record ideas that can be discussed at
a later time. Effective questioning can be used at all grade levels and with all
subjects to engage students in the content being taught.
6666
Elaborating, Hypothetical and Clarification Questions
See examples of different types of questioning techniques that can be used with
students at all levels.
Questions for Different Kinds of Thinking

Different kinds of questions generate different kinds of thinking. These definitions
and examples describe three kinds: elaborating, hypothetical, and clarification
questions.
Questioning Technique Definition Examples

These questions help to  What are the
Elaborating Questions extend and broaden the implied or
importance of the meaning. suggested
Students can elaborate on meanings?
the question making it more  What does this
personal to them. mean to you?
 How could you
take the meaning
farther?
 What could the
next step be?
These questions help to  What if the earth
Hypothetical Questions explore possibilities and test had no sun?
theories. These are the “what  What if the polar
would happen if…” ice caps melted?
questions, allowing students  What if Charlotte in
to use their imaginations Charlotte’s Web
based on the facts they have had lived?
learned.  What are the
possible pros and
cons?
These questions help to  How did the
Clarification Questions define words and concepts character get to
and clarify meaning. this point?
 How did they
gather the data?
 Was it a reliable
process?
 What is the
sequence of ideas
and how do they
relate to one
another?
6767
The Socratic Questioning Technique
The Socratic approach to questioning is based on the practice of disciplined,

thoughtful dialogue. Socrates, the early Greek philosopher/teacher, believed that
disciplined practice of thoughtful questioning enabled the student to logically
examine ideas and to determine the validity of those ideas. In this technique, the
teacher professes ignorance of the topic in order to engage in dialogue with the
students. With this “acting dumb,” the student develops the fullest possible
knowledge about the topic.
The Socratic Questioning technique is an effective way to explore ideas in depth.

It can be used at all levels and is a helpful tool for all teachers. It can be used at
different points within a unit or project. By using Socratic Questioning, teachers
promote independent thinking in their students and give them ownership of what
they are learning. Higher-level thinking skills are present while students think,
discuss, debate, evaluate, and analyze content through their own thinking and
the thinking of those around them. These types of questions may take some
practice on both the teacher and students’ part since it may be a whole new
approach.
Tips for Using Socratic Questioning
 Plan significant questions that provide meaning and direction to the

dialogue.
 Use wait time: Allow at least thirty seconds for students to respond.
 Follow up on students’ responses.
 Ask probing questions.
 Periodically summarize in writing key points that have been discussed.
 Draw as many students as possible into the discussion.
 Let students discover knowledge on their own through the probing
questions the teacher poses.
Classroom Management of Resources and Technology Access

Technology can play a big part in project-based units. The use of technology
enhances the learning experience and allows students to make connections to
the outside world. It gives students a place to find resources and to create work
products. Efficient management of available technology during projects takes
planning and organization.
The One-Computer Classroom

One of the biggest challenges many teachers face is the lack of computers. Even
with only one computer in the classroom, there are many ways to use technology
effectively to improve student learning.
 Pair up students and set up a daily computer use schedule.

 Try to find time to have open blocks of time for individual student use.
6868
 Use a timer to keep students to their time limits.

 Make sure computer time is used for creating products and doing
research. All other pre-planning work should be done ahead of time
(storyboards are a good way to do this).
 Use teacher-created templates for students to fill in to save time.
 Display posters using computer terms and commands.
 Make sure computer etiquette and guidelines have been modeled.
In a one-computer classroom, students can conduct research in smaller chunks

of time, create work products piece by piece, and send and receive email to
outside experts. Time is probably the biggest issue with a one-computer
classroom, but through creative scheduling, computer use can happen. For
example, allowing students to work on the computer when they have finished
with other subject work is a resourceful solution. Another solution is to group
students and give them a day of the week for their computer day.
On designated days, particular groups of students have access to the computer.

They can work independently or in pairs depending on the work that needs to be
completed. If a computer is open and not being used by a member of the
assigned group, anyone can use it until it is needed.
Learning Stations
Learning stations provide teachers and students a structured way to rotate
through a small number of computers during class time. With access to three or
four computers, students get more time and extended opportunities to work with
technology to create projects. Stations should be connected to one another in a
way that makes sense for the students to rotate through in a timely fashion.
These stations can be set up so the content they are learning and work they are
producing relates to each other. For example:
 Station One: Storyboard planning
 Station Two: Peer reviewing and feedback
 Station Three: Revising and drafting
 Station Four: Computer use to create work products
 Station Five: Computer use: researching, working with experts on the

computer, publishing
The amount of time devoted to learning stations depends on how much time is
available and the amount of work that will be expected of the students. The
important piece in using learning stations effectively is making sure students are
aware of what to do at each station through teacher modeling and monitoring.
6969
They should be held accountable for their work with checklists and/or teacher
conferencing and have a place to store their works in progress for the next day.
Computer Labs
Computer labs are another way to get students to use technology. With the use
of computer labs, students are given chunks of time during the week to use
computers. With these labs, students must come prepared with the work they
need to complete using the computer. Because time is always limited, students
need to be able to work independently and efficiently. Depending on how many
computers there are, students can work on the computers independently or in
pairs. Non-computer learning stations can take place in the classroom
beforehand, and the computer station can be saved for the visit to the lab.
7070
Modeling, Coaching and Scaffolding
In Vygotsky’s Social Enculturation Theory, learning is seen as an active and

social process. Learning takes place through learner interactions with more
knowledgeable people. The goal of social enculturation is for the learner to
internalize processes that are modeled. Once the processes are internalized the
learner then becomes self-reliant.
Learning support and fading

There must be a support relationship between a learner and an expert. Support
fades as the learner performs the task (walking).
Sometimes the only way a learner can satisfactorily perform a task is with the
support of an expert. The expert should take into account the initial abilities of the
learner, the instructional goals, and the task complexity. At the beginning, the
learner needs a great deal of support. This support is gradually taken away, as
time passes, to allow the learner to experience independency.
The process of gradual reduction of support is called fading. Fading support
provides student with feedback about his or her proficiency level of a specific
task.
Modeling
In modeling, the focus resides on the performance of an expert.

The modeling concept is credited to Bandura. This type of learning occurs by first
observing the expert's behavior. After that, the learner tries to reproduce the
actions performed by the expert. Imitation is an important place of the learning
process.
Modeling consists in demonstrating to the learner why and how to perform the
activities necessary for the completion of some task or objective. This can be
accomplished by providing examples of the desired performance. The objective
is to articulate the reasoning and decision-making involved in each step of the
process. When the model has finally faded, meaning that the students have
followed their own thoughts instead of following an example, the modeling
becomes has become part of a scaffolding process.
7171
Coaching
In coaching, the focus resides on the learner's performance.

"Coaching can be defined as the learning support aimed at improving the
performance of a student during the carrying out of a task" (Brown, Collins, &
Duguid, 1989) "…with the goal of bringing this performance closer to expert
performance" (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989).
Coaching should intervene at critical points in the instruction in order to provide
the learner with encouragement, diagnosis, directions and feedback. Coaching
can be as simple as providing a series of timely pre-programmed hints, or as
complex as analyzing what the learner is doing and offering help if the learner
seems to be lost. Coaching is highly interactive and situated.
A coach needs to be receptive to the learner's current level of performance and
realize that learners should become self-reliant during performance of the task.
Eventually, a coach will fade the support that is given. So, in the case where
coaching has faded, coaching is a part of the scaffolding process.
Scaffolding
In scaffolding, the focus resides on the characteristics of the particular task, the
environment, the instructor and the learner.
The main objective of scaffolding is to adjust the task complexity for the learner
to match his or her level of performance. In the long run, the objective is to
remove all support systems when the learner is ready to think on his or her own.
Scaffolding is not a static, predetermined instructional condition. Rather, the
degree of scaffolding changes with the abilities of the learner, the goals of
instruction and the complexities of the task. On new or difficult tasks, scaffolding
may be substantial at first and then can be gradually removed. The student
should do the majority of the work while the expert simply provides the outer
structures. A gradual release of responsibility is involved in scaffolding.
Scaffolding principle characteristics are listed below:
7272
1. Provides clear direction and reduces students' confusion.

2. Clarifies purpose.
3. Keeps students on task.
4. Clarifies expectations and incorporates assessment and feedback.
5. Points students to worthy sources.
6. Reduces uncertainty, surprise, and disappointment.
Traditionally, scaffolding occurred through personal interaction between students

and instructors. However, scaffolding also is also being integrated into electronic
learning environments.
Source: The Council for Exceptional Children
7373
Using Scaffolded Instruction to Optimize Learning
Today's responsible learners are challenged to (a) know how to learn, (b) access
changing information, (c) apply what is learned, and (d) address complex real-
world problems in order to be successful. The ultimate academic goal is for
students to become independent lifetime learners, so that they can continue to
learn on their own or with limited support. Using scaffolded instruction optimizes
student learning by providing a supportive environment while facilitating student
independence.
What Is Scaffolded Instruction?

The concept of scaffolding (Bruner, 1975) is based on the work of Vygotsky, who
proposed that with an adult's assistance, children could accomplish tasks that
they ordinarily could not independently perform. Scaffolded instruction is "the
systematic sequencing of prompted content, materials, tasks, and teacher and
peer support to optimize learning." (Dickson, Chard, & Simmons, 1993).
Scaffolding is a process in which students are given support until they can
independently apply new skills and strategies (Rosenshine & Meister, 1992).
When students are learning new or difficult tasks, they are given more
assistance. As they begin to demonstrate task mastery, the assistance or support
is decreased gradually in order to shift the responsibility for learning from the
teacher to the students. Thus, as the students assume more responsibility for
their learning, the teacher provides less support. For example, a young child or a
child with physical disabilities likely would need assistance when learning how to
use a playground slide (Dixon, 1994). At first, an adult might carry the child up
the steps and slide with the child several times. Then some of the scaffolding or
support would be removed when the adult placed the child on the lower portion of
the slide and allowed him or her to slide with little guidance. The adult would
continue to remove the scaffolding as the child demonstrated that he or she
could successfully slide longer distances without support.
Scaffolding Guidelines
Scaffolding is one of the principles of effective instruction that enables teachers
to accommodate individual student needs (Kame'enui, Carnine, Dixon, Simmons,
& Coyne, 2002). Hogan and Pressley (1997) summarized the literature to identify
eight essential elements of scaffolded instruction that teachers can use as
general guidelines. Note that these elements do not have to occur in the
sequence listed.
 Pre-engagement with the student and the curriculum. The teacher
considers curriculum goals and the students' needs to select appropriate
tasks.
 Establish a shared goal. The students may become more motivated and
invested in the learning process when the teacher works with each student
to plan instructional goals.
 Actively diagnose student needs and understandings. The teacher
must be knowledgeable of content and sensitive to the students (e.g.,
7474
aware of the students' background knowledge and misconceptions) to

determine if they are making progress.
 Provide tailored assistance. This may include cueing or prompting,
questioning, modeling, telling, or discussing. The teacher uses these as
needed and adjusts them to meet the students' needs.
 Maintain pursuit of the goal. The teacher can ask questions and request
clarification as well as offer praise and encouragement to help students
remain focused on their goals.
 Give feedback. To help students learn to monitor their own progress, the
teacher can summarize current progress and explicitly note behaviors that
contributed to each student's success.
 Control for frustration and risk. The teacher can create an environment
in which the students feel free to take risks with learning by encouraging
them to try alternatives.
 Assist internalization, independence, and generalization to other
contexts. This means that the teacher helps the students to be less
dependent on the teacher's extrinsic signals to begin or complete a task
and also provides the opportunity to practice the task in a variety of
contexts.
Larkin (2001) interviewed and observed teachers who scaffolded instruction to

help their students become more independent learners. She found that these
teachers regularly incorporated several of the eight essential elements of
scaffolding into instruction. Other guidelines for effective scaffolding that these
teachers shared included the following:
 Begin with what the students can do. Students need to be aware of
their strengths and to feel good about tasks they can do with little or no
assistance.
 Help students achieve success quickly. Although students need
challenging work in order to learn, frustration and a "cycle of failure" may
set in quickly if students do not experience frequent success.
 Help students to "be" like everyone else. Students want to be similar to
and accepted by their peers. If given the opportunity and support, some
students may work harder at tasks in order to appear more like their
peers.
 Know when it is time to stop. Practicing is important to help students
remember and apply their knowledge, but too much may impede the
learning. "Less is more" may be the rule when students have
demonstrated that they can perform the task.
 Help students to be independent when they have command of the
activity. Teachers need to watch for clues from their students that show
when and how much teacher assistance is needed. Scaffolding should be
removed gradually as students begin to demonstrate mastery and then no
longer provided when students can independently perform the task.
7575
Scaffolding Throughout The Lesson

In order to incorporate scaffolding throughout the lesson, teachers may find the
framework outlined by Ellis & Larkin (1998) helpful.
 First, the teacher does it. In other words, the teacher models how to
perform a new or difficult task, such as how to use a graphic organizer.
For example, the teacher may have a partially completed graphic
organizer on an overhead transparency and "think aloud" as he or she
describes how the graphic organizer illustrates the relationships among
the information contained on it.
 Second, the class does it. The teacher and students work together to
perform the task. For example, the students may suggest information to
be added to the graphic organizer. As the teacher writes the suggestions
on the transparency, students fill in their own copies of the organizer.
 Third, the group does it. Students work with a partner or a small
cooperative group to complete a graphic organizer (i.e., either a partially
completed or a blank one).
 Fourth, the individual does it. This is the independent practice stage
where individual students can demonstrate their task mastery (e.g.,
successfully completing a graphic organizer to demonstrate appropriate
relationships among information) and receive the necessary practice to
help them to automatically and quickly perform the task.
For additional scaffolding tips, teachers may want to view the videotape, How to
Scaffold Instruction for Student Success (ASCD, 2002). See Beed, Hawkins, &
Roller (1991) for examples of teacher-student dialogue during scaffolded
instruction.
Scaffolding Challenges and Cautions

Although scaffolding can be used to optimize learning for all students, it is a very
demanding form of instruction (Pressley, Hogan, Wharton-McDonald, Mistretta, &
Ettenberger 1996). The following are some challenges and cautions for
scaffolding instruction.
 Use scaffolding when appropriate. Keep in mind that all students may
not need scaffolding for all tasks and materials. Provide scaffolding to
those students who need it only when they need it.
 Be knowledgeable of the curriculum. This will enable you to determine
the difficulty level of particular materials and tasks as well as the time and
supports necessary to benefit students.
 Practice generating possible prompts to help students. The first
prompt you give to a student may fail, so you may have to give another
prompt or think of a different wording to help the student give an
appropriate response.
 Be positive, patient, and caring. You may become discouraged if
students do not respond or are not successful as a result of your initial
scaffolding efforts. Continue to convey a positive tone of voice in a caring
7676
manner along with continued scaffolding efforts and student success may
soon be evident.
7777
Collaboration: Essential Understandings
Defining characteristics of collaboration
 Collaboration is a style of interaction.

Collaboration refers to how individuals interact, not the activity
they’re doing.
 Collaboration is voluntary.
Collaborative relationships are entered into freely and exist by
choice. However, the service or program that is intended to be
collaborative may be mandated.
 Collaboration is based on parity.
Participants have equal power in decision-making, and their
contributions are equally valued.
 Collaboration occurs around a common goal.
Collaboration occurs in response to a common goal, problem or
need that is jointly shared by the participants.
 Collaboration includes shared responsibility for key decisions.
Participants share responsibility for participating in the activity and
in the decision-making that the activity requires.
 Collaboration includes shared responsibility for outcomes.
Participants in a collaborative activity have equal accountability for
the outcome of that activity.
 Collaboration implies that participant’s offer shared resources.
Participants in a collaborative activity share material and human
resources.
 Collaboration has certain emergent characteristics.
Certain characteristics both contribute to and emerge from effective
collaborative relationships. These include beliefs and values that
support collaboration, mutual trust, mutual respect, and
establishment of a sense of community.
How does collaboration differ from co-teaching?

“Although generally it is preferred that co-teaching be collaborative, it might or
might not be. Collaboration refers to how individuals interact, not the activity
they’re doing. Thus, any activity—co-teaching, problem solving, consultation—
may or may not be collaborative.” ~ Friend, 2005
“Co-teaching at its most effective is based on collaboration. Collaboration

is a style for interaction between co-equal parties voluntarily engaged in
shared decision making as they work toward a common goal. It is HOW
you work together, not WHAT you are doing.”
~ Friend & Cook, 1996
7878
Collegial Collaboration: Practices that Promote School Success
Studies have shown that high performing schools have high levels of
collaboration. “The nature of relationships among adults within a school
has a greater influence on the character and quality of that school and on
student accomplishment than anything else.” ~ Barth, 2006
 The most successful schools are schools where all the stakeholders work
together to function as professional learning communities.
 Successful schools have strong and functional cultures that develop
deliberately; they are nurtured and built by the school leadership, the
principal, and the members of the learning community.
Barth (2006) believes that collegial relationships are about getting the key
players in schools to work together. Indicators of collegiality include:
educators talking with one another about professional practice, sharing
their craft knowledge, observing one another while engaged in professional
practice, and rooting for one another’s success.
 Creating a collegial culture within a school requires mutual respect,

essential conversations about teaching and learning, shared values and
vision, clear expectations, time to share, teamwork, professional
development, inquiry, and reflective practice.
 In order to become true members of the learning community, teachers
must be empowered, by the principal, and by each other.
Kleinsmith (1999) discusses school reform issues, and suggests that

school reform is based on three concepts: community, collaboration and
collegiality. The principal, teachers, and staff members must join together
if a school is to become a learning community intent on increasing student
achievement.
 Community suggests bonds of "shared values, purposes and

commitments" that define reform initiatives.
 Schools with strong professional communities are better able to offer
authentic pedagogy and are more effective in promoting student
achievement.
 Collaboration involves replacement of the traditional norms of
independence and isolation to create opportunities for constructive
interaction among educators.
 The collegial community is characterized by a reciprocal relationship
between the community and its individual members, where each promotes
the growth of the other.
7979
“When collegiality is high, a strong, professional culture held together by

shared work norms emerges in the school. The norms are aligned with
school purposes, contributing consistently to increased commitment and
extraordinary performance.” ~ Sergiovanni, 2001
Benefits of Collaboration
 Shifting an organizational paradigm

(Vill, Thousand, Nevin & Malgeri, 1996)
 Increasing the ability to meet diverse needs
(Purcell & Leppien, 1998)
 Achieving more complex goals, improving social interactions, and
increasing creativity
(Pugach & Johnson, 1995)
 Assisting with problem-solving
(Foley & Mundschenk, 1997)
 Modeling and communicating the value of collaborative behaviors
(Villa et al., 1996)
 Providing additional enrichment opportunities
(Purcell & Leppien, 1998)
 Encouraging the interaction of university & K-12 faculty for data collection
& research
(Murawski, 2003)
Co-Teaching

Source: Friend, Marilyn, The Power of Two
8080
Co-Teaching is:
“Two or more professionals delivering substantive instruction to a

diverse, or blended, group of students in a single physical space.”
(Cook & Friend, 1995)
“An educational approach in which two teachers work in a coactive and

coordinated fashion to jointly teach academically and behaviorally
heterogeneous groups of students in an integrated setting.”
(Bauwens, Hourcade, & Friend, 1989)
“Two or more team members teaching in a class together. When special

and general educators teach together, the motivation is often more
effective instruction of a diverse group of students.”
(Snell & Janney, 2000)
Co-teaching is a service delivery system in which

 Two (or more) educators or other certified staff
 Contract to share instructional responsibility
 For a single group of students
 Primarily in a single classroom or workspace
 For specific content (objectives)
 With mutual ownership, pooled resources, and joint
accountability
 Each individual’s level of participation may vary
(Dr. Marilyn Friend)
What Co-Teaching is Not
Co-teaching is sometimes confused with other terminology. Three terms are

related to co-teaching, yet they actually have their own specific definition.
Collaboration is the way in which individuals interact with each other and
does not refer to the actual activity that is taking place. Co-teachers should
engage in collaboration to inform their instruction.
Inclusion refers to the belief system that all students can and should be
included in the general learning environment even though learning abilities
differ.
8181
Benefits of Co-Teaching For Teachers: Dr. Wendy W. Murawski
 Teachers involved in co-teaching relationships state that this relationship

results in increased professional satisfaction, opportunities for professional
growth, personal support, and opportunities for collaboration (Walther-
Thomas, 1997).
 Special education teachers gain insight into the realities of the general
classroom while general educators learn valuable lessons in planning,
accommodating, and instructing students with learning or behavioral
difficulties (Friend & Cook, 2003; Salend, et al., 1997).
 Teachers working together leads to increased friendships, which can in
turn increase both morale and student performance (Salend, et al., 1997).
 Having two teachers in one room allows for the experimentation with new
teaching methodologies (Giangreco, Baumgart, & Doyle, 1995).
 Co-teaching makes it easier to conduct hands-on activities and provide
flexible testing situations (Cross & Walker-Knight, 1997).
 Co-teaching enables whole group instruction to be provided while still
meeting individual needs (Adams & Cessna, 1993).
 Co-teaching provides for more on-task time as both teachers are able to
manage behavior (Cross & Walker-Knight, 1997; Gerber & Popp, 1999).
 Co-teaching enourages teachers to share expertise, providing one another
with valuable feedback (Cross & Walker-Knight, 1997; Hughes &
Murawaki, 2001).
 Co-teaching allows educators to assist one another in addressing the
issues related to content, accountability, and structure unique to the
secondary level (Dieker & Murawaki, 2003).
 Educators who experience co-teaching find that they were more energized
and creative, are able to trust one another, and have more fun teaching
(Adams and Cessna, 1993).
 Hohenbrink, Johnston, and Weshoven (1997) report on personal
experiences with co-teaching and state that it has prompted self-reflection,
as well as led to significant changes in their understandings and teaching
practices.
 Gately and Gately (2001) state that as co-teachers move into the
collaborative state of interaction, “communication, humor, and a high
degree of comfort punctuate the co-teaching, collaborative classroom”
(p.42).
8282
Benefits of Co-Teaching For Students: Dr. Wendy W. Murawski
 Access to the general curriculum for students with disablities (Bauwens &
Hourcade, 1997; Cook & Friend, 1995).
 Positive social outcomes for students with and without disablities (Hunt,
Alwell, Farron-Davis, & Goetz, 1996; Pugach & Wesson, 1995).
 Increased student engagement & more interaction with teachers
(Zigmond, Magiera, & Matta, 2003).
 More individual attention & more interaction with teachers (Zigmond,
Magiera, & Matta, 2003).
 Improves students’ social skills and self-concept through the reduction of
pull-out situations which are thought to be potentially stigmatizing for
students (Jones & Carlier, 1995; Salend et al., 1997; Walther- Thomas,
1997).
 Frequently, the delivery of services and modifications can be provided to
students with academic difficulties or who are considered “at-risk” without
requiring those students to be labeled as needing special education
(Adamson, Matthew, &n Schuller, 1990; Bauwens & Hourcae, 1991;
Salend, et al., 1997).
 Behavior and academic expectations remain high for students with and
without disabilities (Dicker, 2000).
8383
Do’s and Don’ts of Co–Teaching

Adapted from: Murawski, W.W. (2002) demystifying co-teaching.
Co-Teaching Is…. Co-Teaching is not…

Two or more co-equal (preferably A teacher and an assistant, teacher’s
credentialed) faculty working together. aide, or paraprofessional.
Conducted in the same classroom at A few students pulled out of the
the same time. classroom on a regular basis to work
with the special educator. It is also not
job-sharing, where teachers teach on
different days.
Both teachers plan instruction together. Pulling a group of students with
The general education teacher is the disabilities to the back of the general
content specialist while the special education class.
education teacher is the expert on
individualizing and delivery to various
learning modalities.
Both teachers provide substantive The special education teacher walking
instruction together- having planned around the room all period as the
together, the special education teacher general education teacher teaches the
can grade homework, teach content, content.
facilitate activities, etc.
Both teachers assess and evaluate The general education teacher grades
student progress. IEP goals are kept in “his” kids - or the general education
mind, as are the curricular goals and teacher grades all students and the
standards for that grade level. special education teacher surrepti-
tiously changes the grades and call it
“modifying after the fact.”
Two teachers maximize the benefits of Teachers take turns being “in charge”
having two teachers in the room by of the class so that the other teacher
having both teachers actively engaged can get caught up on grading,
with students. photocopying, making phone calls,
creating IEP’s.
Students remain in the large group
setting in lecture-format as teachers
rotate who gets to “talk to them.”
Teachers reflect on the progress and Teachers getting frustrated with one
process, offering one another feedback another and telling the rest of the
on teaching styles, content, activities, faculty in the teachers’ lounge or when
and other items pertinent to improving one teacher simply tells the other
the teaching situation. teacher what to do and how to do it.
8484
Co-Teaching Approaches: Overview

(Dr. Marilyn Friend)
1. One Teach, One Support. One of the advantages in co-teaching is that

more detailed observation of students engaged in the learning process
occurs. With this approach, for example, co-teachers decide in advance
what types of specific observational information to gather during
instruction and agree on a system for gathering the data. Afterward, both
teachers analyze the information.
2. Station Teaching. In this co-teaching approach, teachers divide content
and students. Each teacher then teaches the content to one group and
subsequently repeats the instruction for the other group. If appropriate, a
third “station” could give students an opportunity to work independently.
3. Parallel Teaching. In parallel teaching, the teachers are both teaching
the same information to two groups of students.
4. Alternative Teaching. In alternative teaching, one teacher takes
responsibility for the large group while the other works with a smaller
group. This provides an opportunity to provide specialized attention to
students in need of intervention.
5. Teaming. In team teaching, both teachers deliver the same instruction at
the same time. Some teachers refer to this as having “one brain in two
bodies.” Others call it “tag team teaching.” Most co-teachers consider this
approach the most complex, but a satisfying way to co-teach. This
approach is most dependent on teachers’ styles.
6. One teach, One Assist. In this approach to co-teaching, one person
assumes primary responsibility for teaching while the other professional
circulates through the room providing unobtrusive assistance to students
as needed.
Factors for Selecting a Co-Teaching Approach: Dr. Marilyn Friend
1. Student characteristics and needs

2. Teacher characteristics and needs
3. Curriculum, including content and needs
4. Pragmatic considerations

Source: Friend, Marilyn, The Power of Two.
8585
Co-Teaching Lesson Plan Considerations
A. Topic
B. Learning Objectives/Evaluation
C. Special Considerations for particular students
D. Selection of Co-Teaching Approach
E. Teaching Strategies (How): large group, small group, stations,
F. Teaching Strategies (Who): divided between teacher A & B
Topics for Co-Teachers to Discuss
1. Instructional content and expectations for students

2. Instructional format, including who does which part of the instructional
delivery
3. Planning, including time to do it and who does which part.
4. Parity, or how it is clear that both educators have the same status in the
classroom
5. Space, related to both students and teachers
6. Noise levels and each educator’s tolerance for it
7. Instructional routines
8. Organizational routines
9. The definition of “help”
10. Discipline procedures for the classroom
Evaluating the Co-Teaching Process
1. What sustained training sessions or activities occur to implement

collaboration, inclusive strategies, and co-teaching?
a. Professional Development
b. Parent Education
c. Student Education
2. How does the service for and instruction of students with disabilities
change?
a. Is the time spent in pull-out programs decreased?
b. To what depth is co-teaching being implemented?
c. Where are co-teaching practices experiencing success?
d. How much differentiated instruction is taking place?
8686
Looking at Outcome Data of Co-Teaching
1. What is the impact of the activities/changes implemented?

A. How is student achievement influenced by the implemented
activities?
B. How is student behavior influenced by the activities?
Ten Factors that Undermine the Effectiveness of a Co-Teaching

Program: Dr. Marilyn Friend
1. Ignoring the importance of a shared understanding on the part of all

involved professionals (teachers, related services personnel,
administrators, and paraprofessionals) of what co-teaching is and what it
involves.
2. Using co-teaching as the basis of all inclusive services in a school, often
fostering a school culture that implies that if a student with an IEP is in a
general education setting, then there must be a special educator there to
provide services.
3. Failing to clearly distinguish among the roles of the various adults who
might be in classrooms--teachers, related services staff members,
paraprofessionals, student teachers, volunteers.
4. Basing co-teaching on the preferences and wishes of staff rather than on
clear standards, expectations, and the needs of students. A typical result
is that co-teaching may be offered only at certain grade levels or on
particular middle school teams or in just some high school departments.
5. Neglecting to develop implementers’ knowledge and skills; co-teaching,
differentiated instruction, positive behavior supports, and related areas.
6. Implementing co-teaching without using a range options for grouping
students and dividing instructional tasks between the educators. The
related question is this: What is being called co-teaching practice?
7. When professionals over-use an approach (e.g., teaming or teacher
assisting) on a consistent basis rather than interchanging methods,
optimal results are not obtained.
8. Time: Failing to arrange for a least periodic shared planning time for the
co-teachers, teachers failing to use that time wisely, using time as a
reason not to implement co-teaching practices.
9. Placing too many students with special needs into a co-taught class. One
version concerns placing a highly disproportionate number of students
with disabilities in the class; another concerns placing an appropriate
number of students with disabilities in a class, but then filling the rest of
the class slots with students who struggle to learn or who have other
special needs.
10. Failing to gather on-going data that demonstrates the impact of the co-
teaching services on student achievement.
8787
References
Allen, Jennifer. (2006). Becoming a literacy leader. Stenhouse Publications.
Allington, Richard. (2001). What really matters for struggling readers. Addison-
Wesley Educational Publishers, Inc.
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (Producer). (2002).

How to scaffold instruction for student success. [videotape]. (available
from the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1703
North Beauregard Street, Alexandria, VA 22311-1714).
Beed, P. L., Hawkins, E. M., & Roller, C. M. (1991). Moving learners toward
independence: The power of scaffolded instruction. The Reading
Teacher, 44, 648-655.
Buly, M. R., Coskie, T., Robinson, L. A., and Egawa, K. editors. (2004). NCTE.
What is a Literacy Coach? Retrieved June 7, 2006 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.ncte.org/collections/literacycoach
Bruner, J. S. (1975). The ontogenesis of speech acts. Journal of Child Language,

2, 1-40.
Cawalti, G, Editor. (2004). Handbook of research on improving student

achievement, Third Edition. Educational Research Service.
Carr, J. F.,Herman, N. & Harris, D.E. (2005). Creating dynamic schools through
mentoring, coaching, and collaboration. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Collins, J. (2001). Good to great. Fast Company, 51, 90-104.
Cook, L., & Friend, M. (1995). Co-teaching: Guidelines for creating effective
practices. Focus on Exceptional Children, 28(2), 1-12.
Costa, A. & Garmston, R. (2002) Cognitive Coaching: A Foundation for

Renaissance Schools.
Covey, S. (1996). Three roles of the leader in the new paradigm. F. Hesselbein,
M. Goldsmith, & R. Beckhard (Eds.), The leader of the future (pp. 149-
160). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1993). The evolving self: a psychology for the third

millennium.
8888
Davies, Anne. (2004). Transforming learning and teaching through quality

classroom assessment: What does the research say? National Council
of Teachers of English, 10(1). Retrieved June 6, 2006, from
http://www.ncte.org/library/files/Free/Journals/st/ST0101October04.pdf
Denton, C. & Hasbrouck, J. (2005). The reading coach: A how–to manual for
success. Boston, MA: Sopris West.
Dickson, S. V., Chard, D. J., & Simmons, D. C. (1993). An integrated

reading/writing curriculum: A focus on scaffolding. LD Forum, 18(4), 12-16.
Dixon, R. (1994). Research-based guidelines for selecting a mathematics

curriculum. Effective School Practices, 13(2), 47-61.
DuFour, R., & Eaker, R. (1998). Professional learning communities at work:

Best practices for enhancing student achievement. Bloomington, IN:
National Education Service.
Ellis, E. S., & Larkin, M. J. (1998). Strategic instruction for adolescents with
learning disabilities. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.), Learning about learning
disabilities (2nd ed., pp. 585-656). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Flowers, N., Mertens, S.B., & Mulhall, P.F. (1999). The impact of teaming: Five
research based outcomes. Middle School Journal, 31 (2), 57-60.
Friend, Marilyn. (2006). Co-teaching principles, practices and pragmatics.

Workshop presented July, 2005.
Friend, M. (Co-Producer with L. Burrello & J. Burrello). (2004) The power of

two: including students through co-teaching (2nd edition) [videotape]
Bloomington, IN: Elephant Rock Productions. Distributed by the Council
for Exceptional Children, Reston, VA.
Friend, M., & Cook. L. (2007). Interactions: Collaboration skills for school
professionals (5th edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Fullan, M. (1993). Change focus: Probing the depths of educational reform.

London: Falmer Press.
Hogan, K., & Pressley, M. (Eds.). (1997). Scaffolding student learning:

Instructional approaches and issues. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement (2002).Overview of the

Reading Assessment Report and Analysis. Retrieved June 1, 2006, from
http://idea.uoregon.edu/assessment/sept_02_workshops/workshops/html
8989
Jackson, W.J., & Davis, G.A. (2000). Turning Points 2000. New York, NY:
Teachers College Press.
Kame'enui, E. J., Carnine, D. W., Dixon, R. C., Simmons, D. C., & Coyne, M. D.
(2002). Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners
(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Killion, J. & Harrison, C. (2005). 9 Roles of the school-based coach. National

Staff Development Council. Retrieved June 1, 2006 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.nsdc.org
King, D. and N., M. and Pelchat, J. and Potochnik, T. and Rao, Sanjiv &
Thompson, J. (2004). Professional Development Strategies That
improve Instruction. 1-3.
Knight, Jim. Instructional coaching research conducted by University of Kansas

Center for Research on Learning. Retrieved June 7, 2006 from the World
Wide Web:
http://www.instructionalcoach.org/research.html#implementation
Knight, Jim. Instructional coaching. The School Administrator. April 2006.

Retrieved June 7, 2006 from the World Wide Web:
http://web.aasa.org/publication/saarticledetail.cfm?mnitemnumber
The editor has granted your request to reprint “Instructional Coaching” by Jim Knight
from the April 2006 issue. Please acknowledge in an appropriate location, “Reprinted
with permission from the April 2006 issue of The School Administrator magazine.”
Knight, Jim. (2004, Spring). Instructional coaches make progress through

partnership: Intensive support can improve teaching. Journal of Staff
Development, 25(2), 1-8.
Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Larkin, M. J. (2001). Providing support for student independence through

scaffolded instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(1), 30-34.
Larner, Majorie. (2004). Pathways: charting a course for professional learning.

Portsmouth. N.H: Heinemann.
Lyons, C. & Pinnell, G. S. (2001). Systems for change in literacy education.

Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann.
Michigan Schools in the Middle. High Performing Teams. Retrieved June 7,

2006 from the World Wide Web: http://www.schoolsinthemiddle.cmich.edu/
9090
Murawski, W. W., & Swanson, H. L. (2001). A meta-analysis of co-teaching

research: Where are the data? Remedial and Special Education, 22,
258-267.
Nanus, B. (1992). Visionary leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
National Staff Development Council. Publications. Retrieved June 7, 2006 from

the World Wide Web: http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/index.cfm
Neufeld, B., & Roper, D. (2003). Coaching: a strategy for developing instructional
capacity, promises, and practicalities. Washington, DC: Aspen Institute
Program on Education and Providence, RI: Annenberg Institute for School
Reform.
Peer coaching to increase student learning (1998). Retrieved June 2, 2006 from
the World Wide Web: http://www.wcer.wis.edu/ccvi/
Pressley, M., Hogan, K., Wharton-McDonald,R., Mistretta, J., & Ettenberger, S.

(1996). The challenges of instructional scaffolding: the challenges of
instruction that supports student thinking. Learning Disabilities Research
& Practice, 11(3), 138-146.
http://reinvent.k12.wv.us. Team roles and responsibilities. Retrieved June 7,

2006 from the World Wide Web.
Richardson, J. (2001). Team learning: Teachers who learn together improve

together. Results. National Staff Development Council.
Rosenshine, B. & Meister, C. (1992). The use of scaffolds for teaching higher-
level cognitive strategies. Educational Leadership, 49(7), 26-33.
Schmoker, M. (2002). Up and away. Journal of Staff Development, 23 (2), 10-

13.
Scearce, Carol. (1992). 100 ways to build teams. Corwin Press.
Senge, P., Ross, R., Smith, B., Roberts, C., & Kleiner, A. (1994). The fifth
discipline field book: strategies and tools for building a learning
organization. New York: Doubleday.
Showers, Joyce & Bennett. (1987). “Professional development outcomes.” every

student succeeds: a conceptual framework for students at risk of school
failure. California State Board of Education. (1994).
Southern Regional Educational Board. Documents.

http://www.sreb.org/main/SREB/index.asp
9191
Standards for Middle and High School Literacy Coaches. International Reading
Association. Retrieved on May 24, 2006 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.reading.org
Sweeney, Diane. (2003). Learning along the way. Stenhouse Publishers.
Trimble, S. (2002). Common elements of high performing, high poverty middle

schools. Middle School Journal, 33 (4), 7-16.
University of Kansas. Instructional coaching research. Retreived June, 2006

from the World Wide Web:
http://www.kucrl.org/publications/index.html#coach
Walpole & McKenna. (2006). IRA Reading Research. Literacy Coaches in

Action: Strategies for Crafting Building-Level Support Systems.
9292
Dr. Steven L. Paine
State Superintendent of Schools
11

Coaching Model Defined

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Coaching Model Defined

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

COLLEGIAL

WEST VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

West Virginia Board of Education

Lowell E. Johnson, President

Robert W. Dunlevy, Member

Brian E. Noland, Ex Officio

James L. Skidmore, Ex Officio

Steven L. Paine, Ex Officio

State Superintendent of Schools

The Coaching Model Defined

The Coaching Model...............................................................................................1

Levels of Coaching Activities

How Effective is Your Team? ...............................................................................35

Teacher Modeling ...........................................................................................47-48

Collaboration: Essential Understandings ............................................................77

Tool Kit Development Committee

June Angle Vicki Nesler

The Coaching Model Defined

The professional development begins with subject specific training, focusing on

Coaches use a wide variety of professional development procedures to foster

Lessons from Research

Instructional coaching is grounded in current research and clinical knowledge on

Coaching provides such supports through an array of activities designed to build

The principles of instructional coaching are grounded in research on effective

Evidence of increased student learning as a direct result of coaching is not yet

The following paragraphs describe the positive effects of coaching:

 Effective coaching encourages collaborative, reflective practice.

 Effective embedded professional learning promotes positive cultural

 A focus on content encourages the use of data analysis to inform

 Coaching promotes the implementation of learning and reciprocal

 Coaching supports collective, interconnected leadership across a

Research findings indicate that effective coaching structures promote a

T he number of school districts using instructional coaches is growing at a

By offering support, feedback, and intensive, individualized professional learning,

 Proven research-based interventions. If instructional coaches are going to make a

concept diagrams using scientifically proven “content enhancement routines” developed

Similarly, if an instructional coach and teacher need to work on classroom management

 Professional development for instructional coaches. Coaches need to understand the

Professional development for coaches should address at least two subjects.

First, coaches should engage in various professional learning activities designed to

they share with teachers.

In addition, coaches should be highly skilled at building relationships. In our experience,

Effective coaches embody what Collins describes as a “compelling combination of personal

Involving coaches in the process of writing their evaluation guidelines accomplishes at

View The School Administrator Archived Issues

Instructional Coaching Research Conducted by

Does coaching lead to successful implementation of instructional

 Administrative support. The actions and expressed values of principals

 Qualified coaches. Instructional coaches must have a deep

Is fidelity to a program crucial to improving student achievement?

Instructional coaching is most effective when it occurs within a successful

 Research, presentation and explanation of the theory behind the practice

The chart below depicts the outcomes of different elements of professional

Professional Development Outcomes

Professional Knowledge Level Skill Level Transfer to

Coaching Continuum For Coach/Teacher Engagement

C. Coach/Teacher Build a Co-Teaching Relationship

D. Teacher Transitions to Guided Practice with Coaching Support

E. Teacher Refines Implementation with Coaching Feedback

Helpful Language to Use in Coaching Conversation

Protocols for Setting Norms

Protocols for Study Groups

 Establish a safe and secure environment/culture;

Norms to follow in the learning community:

A. _ Likes Authority A. _ Enjoys Challenges

A. _ Takes Charge A. _ Persistent

A. _ Action Oriented A. _ Independent

A. _ Adventurous A. _ Controlling

A. _ Determined A. _ Productive

_ Total Score for Category A ______

_ Total Score for Category B ______

_ Total Score for Category C ______

_ Total Score for Category D ______