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Adhesive Manufacturing Processes

Chapter 7:
Constructions Suitable for Adhesive
bonding

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Prof. h.c. Stefan Böhm


Department for Cutting and Joining Manufacturing Processes (tff)
University of Kassel, Germany

Source: Wikipedia
Agenda

 Introduction

 Types of Stress and Stress Distribution

 Calculation of Adhesive Bonds

 Design of Adhesive Bonds

 Constructional Examples

2
Introductional Example
Parameter
Mass of the car 1200 kg
Diameter of the 30 cm (≙ 0,3 m)
Bond
Necessary bond wanted
strength

Formula
Bond strength

Force

Circular area
3
Parameters that Influence the Strength

Adhesive Bond
• Adhesion properties
• Inner strength

Geometrical
design of the Material
bond seam
Strength of the bond • Surface properties
• Adherent thickness • Stiffness
• Adhesive layer • Mechanical properties
thickness

Stress
• Operating conditions
Suitable • Type of stress
construction (mechanical, ...)

Source: vgl. www.seyffer-gmbh.de 4


Load and Stress Model (1)
 Load:
● Forces and movements that occur from the outside
 In the introductional example the car poses the load
 Stress:
● Stresses and movements produce inner stress within the building element
● Tensions occur
 In the introductionary example the tensions are within the bond
 Stress resistance:
● Max. stresses which can be beared by the bond (adhesive and substrates) without
failure

Source: „Einführung in die Maschinenelemente“, Künne 5


Load and Stress Model (2)

Outer Load

...affect...

Building
Bauteil
Element

...reacts with...

Inner Load Deformations

Tensions Distortions
Source: vgl. www.mp.haw-hamburg.de 6
Agenda

 Introduction

 Types of Stress and Stress Distribution

 Calculation of Adhesive Bonds

 Design of Adhesive

 Constructional Examples

7
Types of Stress
 Mechanical Stress
● Static: material is under stationary, constant load
● Dynamic: material under temporarily changing load

 Environmental Influences
● Humidity
● Heat
● Chemical reaction

 Decisive Influential Factors


● Period of load (short-term, long-term)
● Intensity of load

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Mechanical Types of Stress
Static Stress Dynamic Stress

Static Stress Vibration Stress Impact Stress


 Quickly used up  Intensity changes  Is used up quickly
constantly, over and
 Then constant  Evens out into a final
under an average
value
Source: "Technische Mechanik“, J. Dankert, H. Dankert 9
Frequent Types of Stress and Stress Distribution (1)
 Shear Stress

 Compressive Stress

Source: BBS Winsen Entwicklung und Konstruktion / Klebverbindung 10


Frequent Types of Stress and Stress Distribution (2)

Split Stress
● Should be avoided as it leads to high
linear stress

Peel Stress
● Should be avoided as it leads to high
linear stress

Source: BBS Winsen Entwicklung und Konstruktion / Klebverbindung 11


Frequent Types of Stress and Stress Distribution (3)
 Shear Stress:

Stiff Building Elements:


● Even stress distribution

Peak Stress at the Edge


Thin, Elastic and Yielding Building
Elements:
● Peak stress at the edge

Source: BBS Winsen Entwicklung und Konstruktion / Klebverbindung 12


Forces and Resulting Stress
 In case of our shear and compressive stress:
● Even stress distribution in the bond seam

 Reality: No uniaxial stress

 Additionally: Occurrence of shear, split and peel stress


● Uneven stress distribution in the bond seam
● Stress peaks possible

Source: www.seyffer-gmbh.de 13
Agenda

 Introduction

 Types of Stress and Stress Distribution

 Calculation of Adhesive Bonds

 Design of Adhesive Bonds

 Constructional Examples

14
Evaluation of Adhesive Bonds
 Goal:
● Technical and economical optimised construction
● Quantitative verification of stress resistance and durability
● Minimising of the necessary effort for physical tests

 Approaches to Calculation:
● Nominal tension
● Analytical Methods
● Numerical methods (i.e. finite elements method)

Source: www.fast.kit.edu/ 15
Nominal tension (1)
 Basic Principle:
● σ= (current tension)
● σ < σzul (current tension < safe tension)
● Reduction factors take account of boundary conditions

● Additionally: integration of safety reserve:


● Safety reserve takes account of:
– fluctuations in the strength properties that could be relevant for the production or raw
materials
– impact stresses under pressure surges or environmental impacts

– uncertainties during usage

– heat stress when the temperature changes


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Nominal tension (2) – Tensile Load

σ: Occuring Tension
σzul: Permissable Tension
Tension Analysis:
σB: Breaking Tension
F: Force
A: Cross-Section
(static) (dynamic)
Aerf: Necessary Cross-Section
Dimensioning: ν: Security Factor

Source: Uni Siegen 17


Nominal tension (3) – Shear Load

τ: Occuring Shear Load


τzul: Permissable Shear Load
Tension Analysis: τB: Shear Strength
F: Force
A: Adhesive Area (lÜ x b)
(static) (dynamic)
Aerf: Necessary Cross-Section
ν: Security Factor
Dimensioning:

Source: Uni Siegen 18


Reduction Factors (1)
 Hardness and strength depend on environmental and ageing conditions
 Factors that record the environmental and long-term loads
 Factors do not count universally for all adhesives, they depend on the specific
adhesive

 Highest permissable tension


● σ = 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∙ 𝐴
zul
ν
σzul: permissable standardised tension in the bond
A: reduction factor
ν: safety reserve
Short-term Strength.: Determied tensile strength, compressive strength or torsion shear strength of the
adhesive Source: „Handbuch Klebtechnik“, Rasche 19
Reduction Factors (2)
 Reduction factors apply „ideal“ to „real“ values

 Real values are derived from pre-tests of from guide lines


 The reduction factor is between 0 and 1

 If the „real“ expected strength factors deviate strongly from the „ideal“ ones,
then the reduction factor is small (minimally 0)
 If the „ideal“ expected strength factors are close to the „real“ ones, then the
reduction factor is big (maximum 1)

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Reduction Factors (3)
 The reduction factor is composed of many individual factors:
 A = AA x AW x Alü x Ad x AD x AT x Awa x AM x Ast x Agesch x Adyn x Az x Aalt

● A = Total reduction factor


● AA = binding conditions ● AM = Media impact

● AW = Setting conditions ● Ast = Static long-term load

● Alü = Overlap length ● Adyn = Dynamic long-term load

● Ad = Thickness of joint element ● Agesch = Influence of speed

● AD = Thickness of adhesive layer ● Az = Additional reduction factors for


specific applications
● AT = Operating temperature
● Aalt = Ageing influence
● AWa = Water and humidity impact

Source: „Handbuch Klebtechnik“, Rasche 21


Reduction Factors - Example

Source: „Handbuch Klebtechnik“, Rasche 22


Calculation Example – Reduction factors (1)
 Given Values:
● Joint Element Material: X5 Cr Ni 18 9
● Thickness of Joint Element: 1,5 mm
● Width of the joint element: 60 mm
● Operational Temperature: 60 °C
● Bonding Strength according to DIN 53283: 24 Nmm-2
● Continuous load that is to be transmitted at vibration
cycle frequence 25min-1: 8000 N

 Calculation of reduction factors:


● Fatigue strength obtained by setting up a Wöhler curve
● Bond strength at 107 load change: τschwD = 15 Nmm-2
15 𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
● fD = 24 𝑁𝑚𝑚−2
= 62,5%
Source: „Kleben - Grundlagen, Technologien, Anwendungen“ Habenicht 23
Calculation Example – Reduction Factor (2)
 Calculation of reduction factor:
● Influence of temperature is determined in form of a temperature-bond-strength
curve
● Bond strength at 60 °C operating temperature: τBT = 20 Nmm-2
● fT = = 83,3%

 Total reduction factor:


● fGes= fD x fT =0,625 x 0,833 = 0,5206

 Real bond strength:


● τBReal = τB x fGes = 24 Nmm-2 x 0,5206 = 12,495 Nmm-2
Source: „Kleben - Grundlagen, Technologien, Anwendungen“ Habenicht 24
Calculation Example – Reduction Factor (3)
 Calculation of overlap length in consideration of reduction factors:

● From:

● Results:

● Thus:

Source: „Kleben - Grundlagen, Technologien, Anwendungen“ Habenicht 25


Analytical Methods
 Models by Volkersen,Goland & Reissner,
Hart-Smith
 Example: model by Volkersen:
τmax: Maximum Shear Stress
τm: Medium Shear Stress
Gk: Shear Modulus Adhesive
EF: Elasticity Modulus Joint
Element
lü: Overlap Length
sF: Thickness of Joint Element
dk: Thickness of Adhesive Layer
Source: www.carbon-composites.eu/ 26
Finite Elements Method (FEM) (1)
 Enables exact calculation of stress distribution in building elements

 Principle:
● Decomposition of building element that is to be examined into small elements
● From the elemental solution, the solution for the entire system is derived
● Continuity conditions and equilibrium conditions at junction points are taken into
consideration

 Result: An approximate solution for the entire system is derived from the
system of equations and its solution

Source: „Handbuch Klebtechnik“, Rasche 27


Finite Element Method (FEM) (2)
 Process:
1. Preprocessing
– geometry of the structure is formed
– material data is provided
– structure is interlinked

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Finite Elements Method (FEM) (3)
2. Set-up and separation of the FE-system
– Calculation of the stiffness relation between the elements

– Assembly of entire system and definition of boundary conditions

– Solving of the equation system and calculation of the unknown displacements

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Finite Elements Method (FEM) (4)
3. Postprocessing
– Calculation of expansion and tensions within the elements

– Graphic evaluation

30
Finite Element Method in Bonding Technologies
 Allows the exact calculation of stress distribution in adhesive bonds

 Is only valid for newly joined bonds, not for aged adhesive bonds
● Reasons:
– There are no material principles that describe the material and adhesion

– So: ageing reductions are taken into account

– Consequence: calculation is not exact

Source: „Handbuch Klebtechnik“, Rasche 31


Finite Element Method in Bonding Technologies –
Example (1)
 Depiction of the finite elements and the junction points of the adhesive bond

Source: www.sciencedirect.com 32
Finite Element Method in Bonding Technologies –
Example (2)
 Depiction of the stress distribution in the adhesive bond

x [mm]

Quelle: TC Kleben 33
Agenda

 Introduction

 Types of Stress and Stress Distribution

 Calculation of Adhesive Bonds

 Design of Adhesive Bonds

 Constructional Examples

34
Design of Adhesive Bonds
 These factors (amongst others) should be considered when designing
adhesive bonds:
● thickness of adhesive layer influences the bond strength
● no proportional relation between transferable force and overlap length

 optimal balance between overlap length and adhesive layer thickness is necessary

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Influence of the Adhesive Layer Thickness (1)

 In shear testing, if all other conditions stay the same, the strength of a
bond depends on the thickness of the adhesive layer
Source: www.leitfaden.klebstoffe.com 36
Influence of the Adhesive Layer Thickness (2)

 Increasing adhesive layer thickness:


● Inhomogeneity increases and notch effect
occurs (i.e. air bubbles, areas of bad
intermixture)
● Increase of torque caused by eccentric force
transmission

 Decreasing adhesive layer thickness:


● Increase of notch effect through surface
roughness
Source: www.leitfaden.klebstoffe.com 37
Influence of the Adhesive Layer Thickness (3)
 Optimal Layer Thickness δ
● δ = 0,02 ... 0,1 mm for thinly fluid anaerobic adhesive or cyanate
adhesives
● δ = 0,1 ... 0,25 mm for epoxy resins with medium viscosity
● δ > 0,25 mm for silicone-sealing pastes and filler-material-
containing epoxy

Source: Uni Siegen 38


Influence of the Overlap Length (1)
 Optimal overlap relation:

_____
ü=
tmin
 For application: ü = 2,5....50;

 Values normally between 10 and 20

Source: Uni Siegen 39


Influence of the Overlap Length (2)
 Optimisation of the overlap length does not mean the maximum elongation of
the bonding seam
● Explanation: breaking load does not increase proportionally with the bonding seam
length or bonding area

2 3
1

1 2 3
overlap length [mm]
____ : real stress distribution

------- : medium stress distribution


Source: www.seyffer-gmbh.de 40
Agenda

 Introduction

 Types of Stress and Stress Distribution

 Calculation of Adhesive Bonds

 Design of Adhesive Bonds

 Constructional Examples

41
Constructional Examples
 Increase of bonding area
● Flat material
● Round material
● Hub-shaft-connections

 Avoiding peel stress


● Overlapping
● Butt Joint Angle

 Avoiding stress peaks


 Problematic in hollow spaces

Source: „Kleben - Grundlagen, Technologien, Anwendungen“ Habenicht 42


Constructional Examples – Increase of Bonding Area (Flat
Material)
 Butt joint:
● Bonding at the front surfaces
● Mostly small bonding areas
● Pressure load poses no problem

Increase of Bonding Area Through:


 „Finger“ Bonding
● Finger-like incisions
● But: elaborate production

 Mounting:
● Chamfering of joint elements (angle ≈ 30°)
● Bonding area is in the force line Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 43
Constructional Design – Increase of Bonding Area
(Round Material)
 Butt joint:
● Bonding at the front surfaces
● Mostly small bonding areas

Increase of Bonding Surface through:


 Socket
● Increase of bonding area with socket
● Additionally: Increase of lateral stability

 Pin:
● Increase of bonding area through pin
● Information: Drill a hole in the blind hole for ventilation!
Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 44
Constructional Design – Increase of Bonding Area (Hub-
Shaft-Connections)
 Hub-Shaft-Connection
● Bonding of disc on shaft
● Mostly small bonding area

Increase of Bonding Area through:


 Hub
● Increase of bonding area with a hub

 Rings:
● Increase of bonding area with additional rings

Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 45
Constructional Design – Peel Stress (Overlapping) (1)
 Overlap Bond:
● Peel stress at transition point to other buillding element
● Poor utilisation of the bond area

Avoiding Peel Stress Effects through:


 Increase in Stiffness
● Reduce peel stress by stiffening the endangered area

 Increase of Area
● Reduce peel stress by increasing the bonding area and
reducing stiffness at the same time

Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 46
Constructional Design – Peel Stress (Overlapping) (2)
 Support through formed sheets
● Relief of bonding area with the help of formed sheets

 Support through rivets


● Relief of bonding areas by applying rivets to the
endangered area

 Change of type of stress


● By putting building elements into a different order, peel
stress is totally avoided

Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 47
Constructive Design – Peel Stress (Butt Joint Stress)
 Butt angle impact
● Oppositioning forces create unfavorable peel stresses at the
bond

Avoiding Peel Stress Effects through:


 Support with profiles:
● Relief of the shank with a U-profile

 Relief Flap:
● Relief of critical areas with a flat material
● Flap takes forces as its position is in the force line

Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 48
Constructional Design – Stress Peaks (1)
 Occurance of boundary stress peaks

Avoiding boundary stress peaks through:

 Slanted overlapping building elements

 Chamfered building elements

Source: Uni Siegen 49


Constructional Design – Stress Peaks (2)
Avoiding boundary stress peaks through:

Double flapped building elements

Locationally stiffened building elements

Elastic-plastic joint elements

Source: Uni Siegen 50


Constructional Design – Stress Peaks (3)
 Simple overlapping building  Slanted overlapping building
elements elements

building
element 2
building
element 1

Source: „Konstruktiuonselemente“, Kapitel 4, Ettemeyer, Olbrich 51


Constructive Design – Hollow Spaces
 Hollow Spaces:
● Inclosed air influences the change in volume and
therefore also the bond, this is caused by changes in
temperature

Avoiding hollow space:


 Drilling a hole for ventilation:
● Pressure balance by drilling a hole to let air out

Source: www.konstruktionsatlas.de 52
Rules of Design for Adhesive Bonds
 Joint areas must fit to each other
 Joint elements have to be fixated to each other during curing
 Tensile and peel stress should be avoided, shear stress is better
 Force transmission should be taken into account
 Same thermal expansion of the parts
 Bond areas should be dimensioned sufficiently

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