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1
ABSTRACT
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CONTENTS
PAGE NO.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 5
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CHAPTER 5 STATIC VOLTAGE RELAY USING 32
OP-AMP 741
5.1 Basic Principle 32
5.2 Practical Considerations 33
5.3 Design Considerations 37
5.4 Practical Implementation 49
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
APPENDIX – I SPECIAL FEATURES OF OP-AMP 741
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CHAPTER – 1: INTRODUCTION
Due to the dynamic load conditions, the system voltages are never steady at the
nominal system voltage, but undergo continuous fluctuations. This is not desirable
since it adversely affects the system performance. Hence, there should be a
mechanism to guard the system against these abnormal voltage conditions.
A static voltage relay is a device that senses the abnormalities in the system
voltages and initiates an appropriate action as per the requirement, thus protecting the
electrical equipment from damage.
The op-amp – based static voltage relay takes into consideration the minimum
and maximum voltage limits prescribed by the standards and is designed to provide a
visual indication using two LEDs – one for over-voltage indication and the other for
under-voltage indication. Personnel, watching the visual indication may switch-off or
switch-on the load as per the requirement.
In order to understand the complete concept of the static voltage relay, it is first
customary to know the phenomenon of abnormal voltages. The basic relaying system
will be explained exclusively in the following chapters.
The electrical energy is normally generated at the power stations far away from
the urban areas, where consumers are located, and delivered to the ultimate
consumers through a network of transmission and distribution. For satisfactory
operation of motors, lamps and other loads, it is desirable that the voltage at the
consumers‟ end is always maintained substantially constant. Too wide a variation of
voltages may cause erratic operation or even mal-functioning of consumers‟
appliances. The main cause responsible for voltage variation is the variation in load
on the supply system. With the increase in load on the supply system, the voltage at
the consumer premises falls due to increase in voltage drop in (i.) alternator
synchronous impedance, (ii) transmission lines, (iii) transformer impedance, (iv)
feeders, (v) distributors and (vi.) other electrical equipments. The reverse would also
happen if the load on the system falls. The voltage may also rise because of increase
in capacitive reactive power of the system. Such voltage variations are undesirable
and the voltage at the consumers‟ premises should always be within the prescribed
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limits, given by + or – 5 % of nominal supply voltage so that the consumer appliances
operate satisfactorily. If the voltage at the consumer premises exceeds the upper limit,
then the phenomenon is referred to as over-voltage. If the voltage falls below the
lower limit, it is known as under-voltage.
The most important effect of over-voltage are insulation break-down of
consumer appliances. On the other hand, the under-voltages result in reduced
intensity of lamps, reduced efficiency of induction motors, time errors in electrical
clocks, etc.
A voltage relay senses both of these phenomena and helps prevention of
damage of electrical appliances.
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CHAPTER – 2: SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The following block diagram represents the general principle of a static voltage
relaying system:
The different elements and blocks of the system may be explained as follows:
2.1 AC Supply:
It is the system voltage of the system, whose level is to be checked for
abnormality. It is taken from the bus or the ac mains.
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2.3 Rectifier:
The stepped – down ac voltage is converted into a corresponding dc value, using a
rectifier. It can be done using different rectifier circuits employing different solid-state
devices like the diodes, thyristor bridges, etc.
2.4 Filter:
The output of the rectifier is a pulsating and intermittent dc signal. The ripples in
this signal are filtered out using a filter, to obtain a uni-directional dc signal. It can be
made using different combinations of passive components.
2.6 Comparator:
It is the heart of the entire relaying circuit. It has two inputs and one output. One
of its input is from the constant reference voltage, V ref, which is given from the constant
reference voltage source, Vref, while the other input is fed from the filter output, Vin.
The comparator compares the system voltage, Vin with the reference voltage, Vref
at every instant of time. Under normal operating conditions, the output of the comparator
is low. During abnormal conditions, i.e., either under-voltage or over-voltage, the output
magnitude is high with either sign.
2.7 Indicator:
The comparator output is fed to the indicator. It gives an indication when the
comparator output is high and gives no indication when the comparator output goes low.
Thus, as long as the system works in the normal condition, there is no indication
by the indicator, and any abnormal voltages are indicated by the indicator.
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CHAPTER – 3: PROTECTIVE RELAYING:
3.1 Introduction:
Protective relaying is that branch of the power engineering in which the design,
operation and application of the equipment required to detect the abnormal operating
condition on the system and initiate action for an automatic isolation of the faulty
section as quickly as possible so that damage to the system is minimized and the
system operation is brought back to normal operating condition, is explained.
In case of any fault, the device should be able to respond quickly in taking
suitable steps for isolating the disturbance. During this period the device should not
malfunction under any extraneous noise that may be generated by the disturbance.
Failure to protect can result in increased damage to the system equipment and
personnel apart from monetary loss.
In general, a relay is a device, which senses the abnormal conditions in the
system and gives a signal for the circuit breaker to operate.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines a relay as
“an electric device designed to interpret input conditions in a prescribed manner and
after specific conditions are met to respond to cause contact operation or similar
abrupt change in the associated electric control circuits”. From this definition it is
clear that a relay transfers the information for a device to operate and isolate a section
of the system. Another word for transfer is of message is “relaying “. Hence, the
name “relay”. A relay whose function is to detect defective lines or apparatus or
other power system conditions of an abnormal or dangerous nature and/or to initiate
appropriate control circuit action is termed as “Protective Relay” (IEEE).
Thus, in short, a relay is a device which senses and/or causes fast disconnection
of equipment from power system during abnormal conditions and
Minimizes damage
Minimizes effects on the system operation
Maximizes power transfer
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3.2 Basic Principle:
As already stated, a relay is a relaying element. It is a device to detect the
defective lines or apparatus and initiates appropriate control action. It integrally
consists of:
Measuring device - It receives a signal from the Power System (PS) &
determines if the condition is abnormal.
Control device - For abnormal conditions, it signals Circuit Breakers (CB) to
disconnect the equipment.
It actuates a signal from the PS to the CB. Relay & CB are the parts of
protection system.
Any power system relay can be represented in the form of a simple block
diagram as shown in fig.3.1.
The components of each block may be electro-mechanical, solid-state or both.
While functions of the block diagram are general, they may be independently
designed or may be combined in any particular unit. In the case of static relays, for
example, a static comparator is exclusively used for comparison and the output is fed
to a slave device, which may be an electromechanical component. On the other hand,
in wholly electromagnetic relays, sensing and comparison is done by the relay itself
by balancing two fluxes provided by the input quantities.
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3.3 Types of Relays:
Relays are classified in several different ways based on the function,
constructional features, inputs, performance characteristics or operating
principles.
The relays may be classified into different types on the basis of the actuating
quantities, which may be any one of the following:
1) Current
2) Voltage
3) Impedance
4) Power
Whenever faults occur, the voltages fall and the currents increase in
magnitude. Besides these changes, or more of the following parameters may change.
1) Phase angle
2) Frequency
3) Harmonic components
4) Rate of change
5) Direction
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merits and have been replacing the conventional electromagnetic relays for various
applications. Before the 1980‟s protective functions were independent of the control
and monitoring functions. With the advent of microprocessor operating on digital
techniques the functions of supervision, control and protection have been made
complementary rather than being independent. This has led to the combined
monitoring, control and protection functions in a single unit. These systems are
called the Combined Protection, Control and Monitoring systems (CPCMs). It is
possible, now-a-days, to develop microprocessor based units for independent or
combined functions as per requirements. Thus, a classification of relays may be stated
as follows:
1. Electromagnetic Relays
2. Static Relays
3. Microprocessor- based Relays
4. Computerized Relays
In addition, it is possible to develop relays using the non-electric quantities like
pressure, temperature etc for operation and have been developed. These go by the name
non-electric relays (thermal, pressure ...etc.).
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3.) The response time is more due to the inertia of the moving contacts. Hence,
the time required for fault clearance is more.
4.) The efficiency of the system is low due to the frictional losses.
5.) Due to the friction, there may be wear and tear of the contacts, which
requires frequent replacement.
6.) There is a possibility of arcing at the contacts, which may damage the entire
unit.
7.) There is chance of unwanted tripping due to the ageing of springs, loss of
magnetism, decrease in magnetic strengths, etc.
8.) Their operation is much influenced by the surrounding atmosphere and
external operating conditions like gravity, presence of stray magnetic fields, etc.
9.) The life of the relays is less.
10.) A single relay seldom performs multiple functions. Thus, different units are
required for protection against different actuating quantities.
3.4.2 Advantages of static relays:
1.) The power consumption in case of static relays is usually much lower than
that in the case of their electro magnetic equivalents. Hence burden on the instrument
transformers (CTs and PTs) is reduced and their accuracy is increased, possibility of
use of air gapped CTs is there, problems arising out of CT saturation are eliminated,
and there is an overall reduction in the cost of CTs and PTs.
2.) Quick response, long life, shock proof nature, fewer problems of
maintenance, high reliability and a high degree of accuracy.
3.) Absence of moving contacts and associated problems of arcing, contact
bounce, erosion, replacement of contacts etc..
4.) Quick reset action- A high reset value and absence of overshoot can be
easily achieved because of the absence of mechanical inertia and thermal storage.
5.) There is no effect of gravity on the operation of static relays and therefore
they can be installed in vessels and aircraft, etc.
6.) Ease of providing amplification enables greater sensitivity to be obtained.
7.) Use of printed (or integrated) circuits avoids wiring errors and facilitates
rationalization of batch production.
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8.) The basic building blocks of semi conductor circuitry permit a greater degree
of sophistication in the shaping of operating characteristics, enabling the practical
realization of relays with threshold characteristics, more closely approaching the ideal
requirements.
9.) By combining various functional circuits, several conventional relays can be
substituted by a single static relay. For example, a single static relay can provide
over- current, under-voltage, and single phasing, short – circuit protection in an ac
motor by incorporating respective functional blocks.
10.) Static relays are very compact. A single static relay can perform several
functions. Single micro-processor based systems can substitute several independent
protection and control relay units.
The space required for installation of protective relays and control relays etc., is
reduced.
11.) The characteristics of static relays are accurate and superior. They can be
altered within certain range as per protection needs.
12.) Static relays can be designed for repeated operations. This is possible
because of absence of moving parts in the measuring circuits.
13.) The risk of unwanted tripping is less with static relays.
14). Static relays are quite suitable for earthquake- prone areas, ships, vehicles,
locomotives, aeroplanes, etc. This is because of high resistance to shock and
vibration.
15.) The static relays are provided with integrated features for self-monitoring,
easy testing and servicing. Defective module can be replaced easily.
16.) A Static protection, control and monitoring system can perform several
functions such as protection, monitoring, data acquisition, measurement, memory,
indication, data-communication etc..
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These may be hard-wired or programmable. As static relays perform protective
and monitoring functions, the additional cost is justified on the basis of improved
system stability and reliability.
For integrated protection and monitoring systems programmable
microprocessor controlled static relays are preferred.
Having mentioned the advantages of the static relays, they have been
explained comprehensively in the following article.
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of fast and reliable protective schemes was realized because short-circuit levels,
circuit ratings and complexity of interconnection have increased. Shorter operating
times have become more essential for preserving dynamic stability of the system as
the characteristics and loading approach design limits. The satisfaction of the
requirements has left little scope for further improvements in further electro-magnetic
relays. Experience shows that such requirements can readily be met by static relays,
which are capable of performing electronic circuit control functions in a manner
similar to that of an electro-magnetic relay without using moving parts or elements.
The transistors have made it possible to achieve greater sensitivity and
simultaneously excellent mechanical stability, which would have never been possible
with electro-mechanical relays. The noteworthy point is that it is usually not
economical to replace the existing electro-magnetic relays with their static
counterparts just to reduce maintenance.
It is interesting to note that the static relays have been commercially
manufactured for the distance and the differential protective schemes while the much
the simpler over-current relays have not been developed. This is because the distance
and differential schemes are more amenable to mathematical analysis whereas the
over-current characteristics are more of empirical nature. With the use of static relays
it has been possible to achieve many varied and complex distance protection
characteristics, which are impossible with the conventional electro-magnetic relays.
3.5.3 Essential elements of a static relay:
The essential components of static relay are shown in figure 3.2 below:
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Here, the relaying quantity i.e., the output of a CT or PT or transducer is
rectified by a rectifier. The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit comprising
of comparators, level detectors, filters, logic circuits. The output is actuated when the
dynamic input (i.e., the relaying quantity) attains the threshold value. This output of
the measuring unit is amplified by an amplifier and fed to the output device, which is
essentially an electro-magnetic one. The output unit energises the trip coil only when
relay operates.
In a static relay the measurement is carried out by static circuits consisting of
comparators, level detectors, filters, etc., while in a conventional electro-magnetic
relay, it is done by comparing operating torque with restraining torque. In the
individual relays, there is wide variation. The relaying quantity such as voltage or
current is rectified and measured. When the quantity under measurement attains a
certain well-defined value, the output device is triggered and thereby the circuit
breaker trip circuit is energized.
Static relay can be operated to respond electrical inputs. The other types of
inputs such as heat, light, magnetic field, travelling waves etc, can be suitably
converted in to equivalent analogue or digital signals and then supplied to the static
relay. A multi-input static relay can accept several inputs. The logic circuit in the
multi-input digital static relay can determine the conditions for relay response and
sequence of events in the response.
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CHAPTER – 4: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:
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4.2 Basic information of OpAmp:
4.2.1 Circuit Symbol:
The µA741 is a general-purpose operational amplifier featuring offset-voltage
null capability.
The circuit schematic of an OpAmp is a triangle as shown in fig - 4.1.
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Op-Amps have five basic terminals, that is, two input terminals, one output
terminal and two power supply terminals. The significance of other terminals varies
with the type of Op-Amp and its application. Each of the pins and its significance
may be explained as follows:
Pin 1 - Offset Null: Since the op-amp is the differential type, input offset
voltage must be controlled so as to minimize offset. Offset voltage is nulled by
application of a voltage of opposite polarity to the offset. An offset null-adjustment
potentiometer may be used to compensate for offset voltage. The null-offset
potentiometer also compensates for irregularities in the operational amplifier
manufacturing process which may cause an offset. Consequently, the null
potentiometer is recommended for critical applications.
Pin 2 - Inverted Input: All input signals at this pin will be inverted at
output pin 6. Pins 2 and 3 are very important (obviously) to get the correct input
signals or the op amp cannot do its work.
Pin 3 - Non-Inverted Input: All input signals at this pin will be processed
normally without inversion. The rest is the same as pin 2.
Pin 4 - (-V): The V- pin (also referred to as -Vcc) is the negative supply
voltage terminal. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is -4.5 volts (minimum)
to -18 volts (max), and it is specified for operation between -5 and -15 V dc. The
device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in
timing period. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage change is low, typically
0.1% per volt.
Pin 5 - Offset Null: Same as pin 1.
Pin 6 - Output: The polarity of the output signal will be the opposite of
the input when this signal is applied to the op-amp's inverting input.
Pin 7 – Pos V: The V+ pin (also referred to as +Vcc) is the positive supply
voltage terminal of the 741 Op-Amp IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741
is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +18 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation
between +5 and +15 Vdc. The device will operate essentially the same over this range
of voltages without change in timing period. Actually, the most significant
operational difference is the output drive capability, which increases for both current
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and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to
supply voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt.
Pin 8 (N/C): The 'N/C' stands for 'Not Connected'. There is no other
explanation. There is nothing connected to this pin, it is just left open to make it a
standard 8-pin package.
4.2.3 Op-Amp Ideal Characteristics:
An ideal op amp has infinite gain (A = ∞), infinite input resistance (R in = ∞),
and zero output resistance (Rout = 0).
1) Gain is infinite.
2) Input impedance is infinite.
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3) Output impedance is zero.
4) Bandwidth is infinite.
5) Voltage out is zero (when voltages into each other are equal).
6) Current entering the amp at either terminal is extremely small.
Fig-4.4: Typical curves showing open-loop gain and frequency of 741 op-amp
This decrease continues until the gain is unity, or 0 dB. The frequency at which
the gain is unity is called the unity gain frequency. A real op-amp has a gain in the
range - (depending on the type), and hence, actually maintains a very small
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difference in input terminal voltages when operating in its linear region. For most
applications, we can get away with assuming +V = -V. We will use two operational
amplifiers in our laboratory exercises, the 741, a general purpose bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) based amplifier with a typical input resistance of 2 M . The output
resistance is 100Ω.
One of the main factors of consideration of a specific op-amp is its "gain-
bandwidth product". The product of the open-loop gain and frequency is a constant at
any point on the curve, so that: GBP = Aol.BW. Graphically, the bandwidth is the
point at which the closed-loop gain curve intersects the open-loop curve, as shown in
fig-2.4 for a family of closed-loop gains. For a more practical design situation, the
actual design of an op-amp circuit should be approximately 1/10 to 1/20 of the open-
loop gain at a given frequency. This ensures that the op-amp will function properly
without distortion.
One additional parameter is worth mentioning, the Transient Response, or rise
time is the time that it takes for the output signal to go from 10% to 90% of its final
value when a step-function pulse is used as an input signal, and is specified under
close-loop conditions. From electronic circuit theory, the rise time is related to the
bandwidth of the op-amp by the relation: BW = 0.35 / rise time.
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Dissipation (Pd): It is the maximum power the op-amp is able to dissipate
at the specified ambient temperature (500mW at 80° C).
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c.) Input Parameters:
Input Offset Voltage (Voi): This is the voltage that must be applied to one
of the input pins to give a zero output voltage. For an ideal op-amp, output offset
voltage is zero.
Input Bias Current (Ib): This is the average of the currents flowing into
both inputs. Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal.
Input Offset Current (Ios): This is the difference of the two input bias
currents when the output voltage is zero.
Input Voltage Range (Vcm): The range of the common-mode input voltage
(i.e. the voltage common to both inputs and ground).
Input Resistance (Zi): This is the resistance looking-in at either input with
the remaining input grounded.
d.) Output Parameters:
Output Resistance (Zoi): It is the effective resistance of the device seen
looking into the op-amp's output.
Output Short-Circuit Current (Iosc): This is the maximum output current
that the op-amp can deliver to a load.
Output Voltage Swing (Vo max): Depending on what the load resistance is,
this is the maximum 'peak' output voltage that the op-amp can supply without
saturation or clipping.
e.) Dynamic Parameters:
Open-Loop Voltage Gain (Aol): The output to input voltage ratio of the
op-amp without external feedback is termed as Open-Loop Voltage Gain.
Large-Signal Voltage Gain: This is the ratio of the maximum voltage
swing to the charge in the input voltage required to drive the output from zero to a
specified voltage (e.g. 10 volts).
Slew Rate (SR): The time rate of change of the output voltage with the op-
amp circuit having a voltage gain of unity (1.0).
f.) Other Parameters:
Supply Current: This is the current that the op-amp will draw from the
power supply.
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Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): This is the measure of the
ability of the op-amp to reject signals that are simultaneously present at both inputs. It
is the ratio of the common-mode input voltage to the generated output voltage,
usually expressed in decibels (dB).
Channel Separation: Whenever there is more than one op-amp in a single
package, like the 747 op-amp, a certain amount of "crosstalk" will be present. That is,
a signal applied to the input of one section of a dual op-amp will produce a finite
output signal in the remaining section, even though there is no input signal applied to
the unused section.
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a.) The inverting Amplifier:
This is perhaps, the most widely used of all possible configurations. The circuit
is as shown in fig 4.6.
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Fig-4.7: Op-Amp Non-inverting Amplifier
The term in the brackets indicates the closed-loop gain of the non-inverting
amplifier. The gain can be adjusted to unity or more, by proper selection of resistors
Rf and R1. Compared to the inverting amplifier, the input resistance of the non-
inverting amplifier is extremely large as the op-amp draws negligible current from the
signal source.
c.) The Differential Amplifier:
A circuit that amplifies the difference between the two signals is called
difference or differential amplifier. This mode of operation is instrumental in the
design of the relay.
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op-amp with differential inputs and outputs. It required a ±300 V dc power supply,
dissipating 4.5 W of power, had a corner frequency of 1 Hz, and a gain bandwidth
product of 1 MHz.
In an era of discrete tube or transistor op-amp modules, any potential advantage
to be gained from fully differential circuitry was masked by primitive op-amp module
performance. Fully differential output op-amps were abandoned in favour of single
ended op-amps. Fully differential op-amps were all but forgotten, even when IC
technology was developed. The main reason appears to be the simplicity of using
single ended op-amps. The number of passive components required to support a fully
differential circuit is approximately double that of a single-ended circuit.
Almost 50 years later, IC processing has matured to the point that fully
differential op-amps are possible that offer significant advantage over their single-
ended cousins. The advantages of differential logic have been exploited for 2 decades.
More recently, advanced high-speed A/D converters have adopted differential inputs.
Single-ended op-amps require a problematic transformer to interface to these
differential input A/D converters. This is the application that spurred the development
of fully differential op-amps. An op-amp with differential outputs, however, has far
more uses than one application.
4.4.3 Differential Amplifier Basic Circuits:
The easiest way to construct fully differential circuits is to think of the inverting
op-amp feedback topology. In fully differential op-amp circuits, there are two
inverting feedback paths:
Inverting input to non-inverting output
Non-inverting input to inverting output
Both feedback paths must be closed in order for the fully-differential op-amp to
operate properly.
4.4.4 Basic Differential Amplifier Circuit:
This type of amplifier is very useful in instrumentation circuits. A typical circuit
is shown in the fig-4.8.
Since, the differential voltage at the input terminals of the op-amp is zero, both
the input nodes are at the same potential.
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The two inputs V1 and V2 are applied to the inverting and non-inverting
terminals respectively through the resistances R1, equal in value. The non-inverting
terminal is grounded through the resistance R2. The feedback is negative feedback
30
gets cancelled and produces no output voltage. This is true for an ideal Op-Amp,
however; a practical op-amp exhibits some small response to the common mode
component of the input voltages too. The output voltage depends not only upon the
difference signal Vd as input, but is also affected by the average voltage for the input
signals, called the common-mode signal Vcm defined as,
Vcm = (V1+V2)/2
For differential amplifier, though the circuit is symmetric, because of the
mismatch, the gain at the output with respect to the positive terminal is slightly
different in magnitude to that of the negative terminal. So, even with the same voltage
applied to both inputs, the output, therefore, must be expressed as,
Vo=A1V1+A2V2
Where, A1(A2) is the voltage amplification from input 1(2) to the output with
input 2(1) grounded. since Vcm = (V1+V2)/2 and Vd = (V1-V2)
V1 = Vcm+Vd/2
And V2 = Vcm-Vd/2
Substituting the value of V1 and V2 in Vo equation, we get
Vo=AdmVd+AcVc
Where, Adm = (A1-A2)/2
And Acm = A1+A2
The voltage gain for the difference signal is Adm and that for the common-mode
signal is Acm.
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CHAPTER – 5: STATIC VOLTAGE RELAY USING OP-AMP 741:
32
The inverting terminal of the op-amp is maintained at some reference value, say
Vref as shown in the figure. The input at the non-inverting terminal corresponds to the
supply voltage, which has to be identified for normal or abnormal levels.
The output of the differential amplifier in the above fig is given by:
Vo = - (Rf/R1) Vref + (1+Rf/R1) {R‟/(R‟+R2)} Vin (5.1)
The resistance values R1 and R2 are equal in magnitude. The resistance values R‟
and Rf are simulated so that a desirable output may be obtained.
Under normal conditions, the value Vin is maintained equal to the reference value
Vref. Under this condition, the output is zero. Under abnormal conditions, the
following two cases arise:
(i.) Under voltage: Under this condition, Vin < Vref and the output goes negative.
(ii.) Over voltage: Under this condition, Vin > Vref and the output goes positive.
Thus, it may be seen that the circuit does not give any output under normal
operating conditions. However, under abnormalities, there is a substantial magnitude
of the output. This output may be used to drive any indicating device like an LED and
a tripping element or a circuit breaker.
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Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the maximum permissible
limits in the voltage levels for any system is (+ or -) 5% of the nominal value.
The voltage limits, thus, for a 230V system are +11.5V for over voltage and -
11.5V for under voltage. These limits should be taken into account for the operation
of the relay.
Thus, the relay should be designed as follows:
(i.) 218.5V <= Vin <= 241.5V: Normal operation. The relay should take this
condition as normal and should not respond by giving any visual indication or
tripping signal.
(ii.) Vin < 218.5V: Under-voltage: In this case, the input voltage should
become less than the reference voltage and the output should go negative. The circuit
should give a visual indication and/or give the signal for the circuit breaker to
disconnect the load and avoid it from being exposed to under voltages.
(iii.) Vin > 241.5V: Over voltage: In this case, the input voltage should become
greater than the reference voltage and the output should go positive. The circuit
should give a visual indication and/or give the signal for the circuit breaker to
disconnect the load and avoid it from being exposed to over voltages.
Apart from these considerations, the voltage drops in the various components of
the circuit should also be taken onto account.
5.2.2 Resistance values:
In the fig 5.1, according to equation 5.1, the output depends on the values of the
resistances R1, R2, R‟ and Rf..
The resistances R1 and R2 are usually equal in order to ensure a justified
distribution of voltage and equalize the voltage drops at both, the inverting as well as
the nom-inverting terminal so that the output depends solely on the difference
between the input voltages. This helps to nullify the effect of unequal voltage
distributions, leading to undesirable noise in the signal.
The other factor that needs to be taken into consideration is the number of
connections. More the number of connections, more is the number of joints, and
correspondingly, more is the noise. This leads to the false or the mal-operation of the
circuit. Thus, it is a general practice to use the resistance values that are available as
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standard resistors as far as possible. Hence, it is advisable that during designing the
resistance values, the resistance values R1 = R2 and the grounding resistance R‟ are
fixed to standard, readily available values and vary the feedback resistance value for
different modes of operation, to obtain different resolutions and different values of
output.
5.2.3 Indicator Considerations:
The relay designed here is basically meant to give a visual indication in case of
either under voltage or over voltage considerations. Since both of these cannot occur
simultaneously, the circuit output corresponds to only one of the over voltage or
under voltage at any given instant.
Different types of indicators are available, which provide a proper and precise
visual indication under faulty conditions. The most common type is a Light Emitting
Diode (LED). The LED has many advantages over the other indicators, some of
which are low on-state voltage drop, low breakdown voltage, less turning-on time and
less power dissipation for full glow.
The On-state voltage drop, i.e., the breakdown voltage of a green LED, which is
the most readily available and commonly used LED, is about 1.79V, which may be
approximated to 1.8V. Thus, 1.8 volts is the threshold value for the LED to glow.
This means that the LED starts to glow only if the output voltage reaches 1.8V on
either side. In case of over voltage, the threshold point of operation is V o = +1.8V and
the LED is placed at the output terminal with anode connected to the output terminal
of the OpAmp and the cathode is grounded. In case of under voltage, the threshold
point of operation is V o = -1.8V and the LED is placed with cathode connected to the
output of the op-amp and the anode grounded.
Usually, the under voltage and the over voltage indication are obtained by two
separate op-amp circuits. Also, both modes of operations may be achieved using a
single op-amp. In such case, the two LEDs, one indicating over voltage and the other
indicating under voltage, both connected to the common output terminal of the op-
amp. In such case, the two LEDs are connected anti-parallel to each other.
The value of resistance Rf is simulated and then practically implemented such
that the resolution is same in both positive and negative LEDs.
35
5.2.4 Op-Amp Biasing Voltages:
An Op-amp has two pins –pin 7 and pin 4 which are fed with +Vcc and –Vcc
respectively. These power supplies are required for the operation of an Op-amp.
These are typical values, but in general, the supply voltage may range from about 5V
to 22V.The common terminal of the two supplies is connected to ground. The supply
source can be anything like battery, generator etc. Providing the biasing voltage for
op-amp through some source is again one of the most important challenges that need
to be overcome while implementing the relay practically.
The use of a transformer-converter circuit with some filters may serve the
purpose to much extent. Once rectified, the dc may be adjusted to be maintained at a
constant value with the help of 3-pin regulators, zener diodes, etc. Apart from these
methods, a combination of parallel RC networks can also be used, whish divides the
supply available at the input terminals into two equal values. The capacitors and
resistors should be selected judiciously.
5.2.5 Reference Voltage:
The reference voltage is fed at the non-inverting terminal through the resistance
R2 as in fig-5.1. The reference voltage should have following characteristics:
It should be a fixed value.
It should be maintained constant under all operating conditions.
The fluctuations in the voltage levels of load circuit should not affect its
operation and output.
The variation in the output, if any, should be as low as possible. It should
be such that it may be assumed to be constant practically under all
operating conditions.
It should not be affected by being loaded. That means to say that it should
maintain its voltage value at the same value at either no-load or loaded
conditions.
It should be economical and flexible enough to be used simultaneously by
more than one Op-Amp circuit.
36
The features can normally be achieved with the help of a constant battery
source, but it is prone to fall in its output gradually under continuous use. This may
prompt the user to replace the battery source frequently, which is a costly affair.
The other methods of providing the constant reference voltage Vref is to rectify
the voltage to suitable levels and then make use of 3-pin regulators or zener diodes.
However, the care should be taken that these components would not be affected by
the load on them.
5.2.6 Input Voltage, Vin:
This is the most important quantity in the circuit. It is this voltage value, which
determines the output of the circuit, once it has been designed for particular values of
resistances.
The quantity Vin is the replica of the system voltage of the ac system. It is
obtained by stepping down the supply voltage (which needs to be checked for
abnormality) to the value close to the reference dc voltage and rectifying it to the
value such that it is equal to the reference voltage, under normal conditions.
This can be done using a transformer of suitable rating with or without a centre
tap as per the requirement. In case the centre tap is not required, but is present, it is
left unconnected. The stepped-down ac voltage is rectified using a bridge rectifier
employing diodes or a rectifier IC into intermittent dc voltage. The ripple is filtered
using a C-filter across the diode bridge.
In order to achieve accurate results, the transformer must give appropriate
voltage at its output, which, under normal conditions, is very close to the reference dc
voltage. Else, it may lead to the mal-operation of the relay.
37
5.3.1 Simulation:
The simulation may be either digital simulation or analog simulation.
Simulation is mainly aimed at providing a general idea to the user about the likely or
possible values of the circuit components in order that the proper output is achieved.
Digital simulation is the one done on a computer system, with the aid of many
simulating software such as PSPICE, Multisim, Simulink, MATLAB, etc. Each of
these softwares has its own advantages.
PSPICE is the most basic and versatile software available for digital simulation.
It provides many features, which is a collection of many electronic components, its
practical electrical characteristics, and gives a desired level of accuracy to the user.
The simulation using PSPICE may be done in two ways:
(i.) Using Program.
(ii.) Using circuit components.
The simulation that has been adopted here is the one using program.
While doing simulation, the following factors need to be considered:
The resistance values arte as close to standard, readily available ones as
possible.
The resistances R1 = R2 are fixed and either of Rf an R‟ is varied keeping
the other one constant at a standard value.
It is a general practice to fix the grounding resistance, R‟ constant and
vary the feedback resistance Rf to obtain the desired output.
The desired output implies that one of the LEDs glows for the abnormal
conditions and both LEDs remain in Off-state under normal operating conditions.
Each of these factors is taken into consideration while selecting suitable values
of resistances.
After having a sufficient information and approximate value of R f through
digital simulation, the values of the circuit components is implemented using analog
simulation.
Analogue simulation is the one where all the circuit components are practically
connected together and some of the quantities are varied using variable resistances,
capacitances or inductances. Since analog simulation involves the real-time, practical
38
and actual simulation, it takes into consideration the original behaviour of circuit
components under operating conditions, which is usually neglected during the digital
counterpart.
The simulation is carried using a breadboard. A breadboard is a versatile circuit
board, which provides flexible and easy connections of different circuit elements
according to the requirement. It consists of pairs of a series of holes, which are
shorted in different directions. Any connection can be easily made, broken or varied
using the breadboard.
The values R1, R2 and R‟ are replaced by standard, pre-decided values obtained
in the digital simulation and the feedback resistance R f is a decade resistance box.
The pairs of LEDs are connected in anti-parallel at the output terminals of the op-amp
to obtain the visual indication.
The op-amp biasing voltages (+Vcc and –Vcc), the reference voltage (Vref) and
the input voltage under test (Vin) are applied using a regulated power supply (RPS).
All other values except the Vin and Rf are fixed. Rf and Vin are variable and it is
these values that are varied to obtain he desired output.
Rf is initially fixed at the value obtained by digital simulation. The Vin is now
varied in both the directions (above and below the reference). The voltage limits are
also taken into consideration. It is desirable that both the LEDs remain off as long as
the voltage Vin is within the prescribed limits. The moment it violates the limits in
either direction, the LED should glow. This means to say that the value of R f has to
be adjusted to such a value that the threshold of the LED (say, 1.8V) is obtained at the
output at the value of Vin that violates the limits in either direction.
Thus, it may be observed that the value for Rf under practical scenario is slightly
different from the one obtained in the digital simulation.
It would be first worthwhile focusing on the values of the standard and fixed
resistances and the reference input level, since these are the factors on which the
design is completely based upon.
5.3.2 Resistances R1, R2 and R’:
The resistance values form the heart of the circuit. These are the values which
determine the points and ranges of operation of the devices, and must be judiciously
39
selected. Some practical limitations and requirements of the op-amp must be taken
into consideration while deciding the resistance values.
Right from the beginning of the description, it has been specified that that the
resistances R1 and R2 are selected to be equal in value. This is done to ensure that the
unequal distribution of voltages at the two terminals is avoided, as already been
explained.
In any op-amp circuit, it may be observed that the output is not zero even if the
difference in the inputs is zero. This is due to the presence of some unbalance, leading
to input offset current. It is usually desirable that the value of input offset current is as
low as possible. This can be achieved by keeping the feedback resistance at a low
value.
From the fig 5.1, it can be seen that the input impedance of the op-amp is
affected by the values of R1 and R2. Ideally, we know that, the input impedance of the
op-amp is infinite. Thus, the value of input impedance should be as large as possible.
Thus, the values of input resistances R1 and R2 should be sufficiently large in
magnitude.
Now, from the explanation made in the article 4.5.2 about the basic differential
amplifier circuit, the reduced output equation is given by:
Vo = (Rf / R1) (Vin – Vref) (5.2)
Thus, The gain of the circuit depends on the value of the feedback resistance. In
order to keep the gain at a larger value, the feedback resistance is usually kept at a
value higher than the resistance R1.
Taking the above mentioned problems into consideration, the resistance values
R1 and R2 are fixed at 1KΩ(arbitrary).
The grounding resistance value is usually selected to be comparable to that of
the feedback resistance. Since the feedback resistance is varied to obtain the desired
output, and the value of gain should be considerable, the value of the grounding
resistance is fixed at an arbitrary value higher than the value of R 1, say 3.3KΩ.
Thus, by proper analysis, the values of the constant resistances R 1, R2 and R‟ are
fixed as:
R1 = R2 = 1KΩ, R‟= 3.3KΩ
40
The value Rf is determined by simulation.
5.3.3 Decision on the value of Reference Voltage, Vref:
The voltage inputs given to the op-amp are the dc inputs. The input at the
inverting terminal is the reference input and has to be maintained constant under all
circumstances. The value should be easily obtainable. For that, the value should
correspond to a value that can be easily stepped down using a transformer whose HV
rating corresponds to the system nominal voltage of 230V.
The centre-tapped transformers of the rating 230/(6-0-6) are readily available in
the market at low costs and various current ratings. Thus, the reference voltage is
selected as 6V constant dc source. It is maintained at constant potential using a zener
diode of the rating 6.2V, 0.5W.
5.3.4 RC potential divider circuit:
The op-amp 741 requires pair of a constant biasing voltages +V cc and -Vcc to be
fed to the 7th and 4th terminals respectively. The voltage values can be anything
ranging from 5V to 22V.
There are many methods to provide the constant voltage for the operation of the
op-amp, like the use of regulator pairs of the series 7800 and 7900. However, another
method has been tried here as a matter of practical implementation.
The method adopted here employs an RC potential divider, which divides the
voltage applied across it into two equal parts. By applying a dc voltage of some 18 to
20 V using the rectifier set-up stated in the above article, such dc voltage can be
developed.
When a dc is applied across the common terminals of the output of the rectifier,
the voltage is divided into two halves, equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign. The
two RC pairs, which consist of a parallel combination of R and C, are grounded at the
common point of their connection. The upper RC pair is at the positive potential and
forms the +Vcc supply while the lower RC pair is at a negative potential with respect
to the ground and forms the –Vcc supply.
The values of the resistance and capacitance have to be selected judiciously. For
this, there are two methods- one is to design using proper analysis and the other one is
by practical trial and error method.
41
By trial and error method, it has been found that the values given by R = 1KΏ
and C = 100μF.
With this particular combination, the required biasing potential may be obtained
for satisfactory operation of the op-amp.
5.3.5 Design of Rf:
The design of the feedback resistance is the most important design aspect in the
circuit, since it is this value which determines the gain of the circuit and drives the
visual indication circuit.
The design of the resistance can be done using three different methods, given by
design calculations, digital simulation using PSPICE and analogue simulation.
Each of these designs has been described below:
(a.) Design calculations:
The output equation of the op-amp circuit with resistances R1, R2, Rf and R‟ is
given by equation 3.1 as:
Vo = - (Rf/R1) Vref + (1+Rf/R1) {R‟/(R‟+R2)} Vin (5.1)
We know that R1 = R2 and the value of grounding resistance should be
approximately equal to the feedback resistance value, i.e, R‟ and R f are approximately
the same. Substituting this condition in the above equation, the reduced output
equation may be given as:
Vo = (Rf/R1) (Vin – Vref) (5.2)
We know that for visual indication, the output value V o should be more than the
threshold breakdown voltage of the LED, which is equal to 1.8V.
Thus, the condition for visual indication may be specified as follows:
i. One LED should glow when V o < -1.8V. This condition describes the
under voltage condition. It happens when Vin < Vref, taking into account
the prescribed limit.
ii. The other LED should glow when Vo > 1.8V. This condition describes the
over voltage condition. It happens when Vin > Vref, taking into account the
prescribed limit.
iii. None of the LEDs should glow for the condition -1.8V <= Vin <= 1.8V,
which indicates the normal operation.
42
Thus, it can be seen that the threshold point for the operation of the LED is Vo =
1.8V.
We have, R1 = 1KΩ, Vref = 6V and the threshold points of operation given by
Vin = 6.3 V for overvoltage
And Vin = 5.7 V for under voltage.
Substituting the above values in the equation 3.2, the value of R f can be
determined as:
1.8 = (Rf/ 103) (0.3)
Solving, we get:
Rf = 6 x 103 Ω
Thus, Rf = 6 KΩ
(b.) Simulation using PSPICE:
The simulation is done by writing a program in PSPICE. In PSPICE, there is no
exact provision to club together both the cases. The values of known elements are,
hence, specified and the circuit is simulated separately for over voltage and under
voltage conditions. The output of the op-amp is noted down for each value of R f. The
value of Rf at which the output is closest to the threshold of operation of LED (i.e.,
1.8V and -1.8V respectively for over voltage and under voltage) is the desired value.
The PSPICE programs and diagrams are as given below:
43
PSPICE program for under voltage operation:
* Simulation for Under Voltage
Vref 1 0 DC 6V
Vin 5 0 DC 5.7V
R1 1 2 1K
RL 4 0 8K
R2 5 3 1K
.PARAM VAL1 = 3K
Rf 2 4 {VAL1}
.STEP PARAM VAL1 LIST 3K 3.1K 3.2K 3.3K 3.4K 3.5K
3.6K 3.7K 3.8K 3.9K 4K
Rf2 3 0 3.3K
XA1 2 3 4 3 OPAMP
.SUBCKT OPAMP 1 2 7 4
R1 1 2 2MEG
R0 5 7 75
EA 4 5 3 4 2E+5
EB 4 3 1 2 0.1M
C1 3 4 1.5619UF
.ENDS OPAMP
.OP
.PROBE
.END
The output for this was as follows:
Rf Vo
3k -0.3V
3.1K -0.6V
3.3K -0.9V
3.5K -1.2V
3.7K -1.6V
3.8K -1.8V
44
3.9K -1.9V
4K -2.1V
Table – 5.1: Simulation Results for under-voltage conditions
From the above output, it may be seen that the output voltage, V o = -1.8V,
which is the threshold for the LED to glow. It is obtained at R f = 3.8K. Thus, for
under voltage operation, 3.8K is the feedback resistance value.
45
Rf Vo
3k 2.4V
2.9K 2.1V
2.8K 1.9V
2.7K 1.8V
2.6K 1.6V
2.3K 0.9V
Table – 5.2: Simulation Results for Over-Voltage condition
From the above output, it may be seen that the output voltage, V o = 1.8V, which
is the threshold for the LED to glow. It is obtained at Rf = 2.7K. Thus, for under
voltage operation, 2.7K is the feedback resistance value.
From the simulation results, it can be seen that the values of Rf are different in
case of under-voltage and over-voltage conditions. The resistance values obtained for
each case are as follows:
Rf = 3.8 KΩ, for under voltage indication
And Rf = 2.7 KΩ, for over voltage indication.
46
down for each resistance. The readings of analog simulation are shown in the
following table.
R‟ = 3.3KΩ, R1 = R2 = 1KΩ, Rf is varying.
47
For over voltage condition, we have R1 = R2 1KΩ; R‟ = Rf = 3.3KΩ; Vref = 6V
and Vin = 6.5V.
Substituting these values, the output voltage is obtained as:
Vo = 1.65V
This value is very close to the LED threshold value of 1.8V. This shows that
the design of Rf is approximately accurate theoretically.
48
Abnormal Condition:
Under voltage: Vin < 5.5V, when Vac < 212 V. In this case, the LED2
glows.
Over voltage: Vin > 6.5V, when Vac > 248 V. In this case, the LED1 glows.
RC potential divider values:
R = 1KΩ, C=100μF.
Zener diode for Vref:
Vref = Vz, taken across the zener diode 6.2V, 0.5W
49
Fig – 5.4: Circuit to obtain biasing voltages
50
voltage of 6.2V under no-load and about 6.05v under loaded condition, which is
approximately equal to Vref = 6.0V.
The 1KΩ resistor in the circuit is for the protection of the zener diode.
This voltage is fed to the 1K resistor at the inverting terminal of the
input.
51
Fig – 5.6: Circuit diagram to obtain Vin
For a 230V system, at Vac =230V, Vin =6V when the 5K pot is
approximately 650Ω (by practical measurement).
52
The LED1 has its anode connected to the output. It provides a visual
indication if there is an over voltage in the system voltage.
53
Fig – 5.8: Complete Circuit Diagram of Static Voltage Relay using Op-Amp
54
The ac voltage is converted into a dc voltage of low value, V in, with the
help of the diode bridge and capacitor and is adjusted to the normal level of 6V at the
reference of 230V with the help of the 5Kpot.
This voltage, Vin is fed to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp
through the 1K resistor R2.
The op-amp in the fig-5.8 requires a biasing voltage of +V cc and –Vcc.
This voltage is obtained through the dc output of the other diode bridge and the
capacitor, which is halved by using an RC potential divider circuit grounded at its
common terminal.
The voltage +Vcc is fed to the 7th pin and the voltage –Vcc is fed to the 4th
pin of the op-amp.
The reference voltage, Vref is taken across the zener diode placed parallel
to the +Vcc circuit. It gives a constant voltage reference of 6V under all conditions.
This reference voltage is given to the inverting terminal of the op-amp
through the 1K resistor R1.
The feedback resistance and the grounding resistance, which have been
simulated earlier are responsible for the gain of the operational amplifier.
The LEDs at the output of the op-amp are connected in an anti-parallel
fashion. The LED2 and LED1 provide visual indication in case of under-voltage and
over-voltage condition respectively.
If the reference nominal voltage is taken as V s = 230 V, the pattern of
glowing of LEDs and the corresponding condition are as follows:
(i.) LED2 glows when the system voltage, Vs < 212V, i.e., under-voltage
(ii.) LED1 glows when the system voltage, Vs > 248V, i.e., over-voltage
(iii.) No LED glows when 212V <= Vs <= 248V, i.e., normal voltage.
Thus, the LED glow indicates the abnormality in the system voltage levels.
55
Sr.No. Component Component Specifications Qty
Code
1. Operational amplifier μA741 ±18Vcc, 500mW 1No.
2. Resistors -- 1KΩ, 0.5W 6No.
3. Resistors -- 3.3KΩ, 0.5W 2No.
4. LEDs -- 1.8V, green LED 2No.
5. Op-amp IC Base -- 4-pin flat package 1No.
6 Capacitors -- 1000µF, 16V 2No.
7. Capacitors -- 100 µF, 16V 2No.
8. Diodes IN4007 -- 8No.
9. Zener Diode -- 6.2V, 0.5W 1No.
10. Transformer -- 230 / (6-0-6), 0.5A 1No.
11. Transformer -- 230 / 6-0-6, 1A 1No.
12. Pot (variable resistance) -- 5K pot 1No.
13. Connecting wires -- Single stranded As per
requirement
Table – 5.8: Components list for the project
56
CHAPTER – 6: ADVANTAGES OF THE OP-AMP – BASED
STATIC VOLTAGE RELAY :
The relay circuit designed above has many advantages over the other methods.
Some of them may be enumerated as follows:
a) Flexibility: This is, perhaps, the most important advantage of the circuit.
The 5K pot used in the circuit provides added flexibility to be used for different
system voltages. By varying the setting of the pot, the same circuit can be used to
indicate over voltages and under voltages for multiple system values. While that is
done, the resolution is maintained constantly at 8% irrespective of the normal
operating voltage.
b) Reduced losses: Unlike the electromagnetic counter parts, it contains no
moving parts. This ensures less loss due to the absence of friction. Thus, the
efficiency is improvised.
c) Fast response: Since the response is the indication using LEDs, which are
static devices, the response time and the delay is very less. Thus, the indication is
very fast.
d) Simplicity: The circuit is very simple to understand, analyse and simulate.
Thus, it can be easily repaired in case of any disturbances and malfunctioning. The
complexity involved is very less.
e) Robustness: It is very robust and works satisfactorily for all operating and
environmental conditions. It is not affected by the external conditions like
temperature, humidity, etc. However, the indication can be observed with great ease
in a dark room.
f) Single op-amp circuit: Bothe over voltage and under voltage can be sensed
using a single op-amp. Thus, the problems like biasing multiple ICs are eliminated.
g) Precise Indication: The indication is very precise in case of abnormal
voltage levels. The intensity of glow of the LEDs increases as the voltage levels
deviate away from the reference voltage.
h) Size: The relay, being small in size and light in weight is easily portable.
57
i) Cost: The relay is made of the components which are readily available at
a very cheaper value. The overall cost of the device is also very low. The total cost of
the device is as low as about Rs.200/-.
j) Less Noise: Since the number oif components in the circuit and the
interconnections are very less, effect of noise introduced is very less in this circuit.
k) Much scope for future advancement: The relay that has been designed is a
basic idea of implementation of op-amp circuits for power system protection. The
idea may be extended to any range by introducing suitable modifications in the
circuits. However, the basic principle remains the same.
58
CHAPTER – 7: SCOPE FOR FUTURE ADVANCEMENTS:
As has been described in the previous chapter, the relay has certain limitations.
Overcoming each of these limitations in itself signifies the scope for future
advancements of the relaying circuit that has been developed.
The advancements may include the improvement of the design or the extension
over the existing model. The advancements may be listed as follows:
59
a.) Current amplification using Darlington pair:
A Darlington pair is two transistors that act as a single transistor but with a
much higher current gain.
Transistors have a characteristic called current gain. This is referred to as its hfe.
The amount of current that can pass through the load when connected to a transistor
that is turned on equals the input current x the gain of the transistor (hfe).
In some applications, the amount of input current available to switch on a
transistor is very low. This may mean that a single transistor may not be able to pass
sufficient current required by the load.
As stated earlier this equals the input current x the gain of the transistor (hfe).
If it is not be possible to increase the input current then we need to increase the gain
of the transistor. This can be achieved by using a Darlington Pair
A Darlington Pair acts as one transistor but with a current gain that equals:
Total current gain (hfe total) = current gain of transistor 1 (hfe t1) x current gain of
transistor 2 (hfe t2).
60
Thus, using a Darlington pair, the current at the op-amp is amplified to a value
which is sufficient to energise the coil of the tripping circuit. The load shown in the
above circuit may be replaced by the tripping coil contacts.
b.) Auto reset and counters:
The difficulty of closing the circuit and regaining normal operation of the load
circuit may be overcome using this method.
In this method, the breaking is achieved with the help of gate pulse provided
from the output of the op-amp during abnormality. The making may be achieved
using a combination of counters and timers set for a particular duration, say 5 sec. In
this case, once the circuit is broken, the timer starts to count for the specified time. As
soon as the preset time is reached, it releases a signal for resetting the solid switch,
which is applied to the gate pulse. The circuit is then made and if the abnormality still
exists, it is broken again. The process is repeated till the abnormality is finally
cleared.
This method is analogous to a circuit breaker with automatic reclosure.
c.) Logic Gates:
It may be seen from the general operation of the LEDs that at any given time,
either both the LEDs are in off state or one of the LEDs glows during abnormal
conditions. The circuit has to be tripped off when either of the LEDs glows and has to
be made when both the LEDs are under non-operating state.
By proper observation, it may be found that this is the basic logic of an XOR
gate. Thus, by practical implementation of logic gates, the desired tripping may be
achieved.
d.) Different breakers for both modes:
The problem discussed in the feature 5.1.1.3 can be overcome by making the
use of two separate circuit breakers, connected back-to-back for each mode. One of
the breakers responds for under voltage, while the other operates for under voltage. In
either case, the load is disconnected from the supply during abnormal condition and
vice-versa.
61
e.) Independent circuits for both modes:
Another way out for the problem discussed in 5.1.1.3 is to implement both
under voltage and over voltage using separate circuits. In this case, the circuit is
operated by applying constant reference voltage to inverting terminal for over voltage
and non-inverting terminal for under voltage. Thus, the interference between the two
operations may also be avoided.
62
CHAPTER – 8: CONCLUSION:
63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES:
A Text Book on Linear Integrated Circuits - Roy Chowdary & Shail Jain
A Course in Electrical Power - J.B. Gupta
Switchgear & Protection - Prof. C. Lakshminarayana
Electronic Devices and Circuits - Millman & Halkins
Switchgear and protection - Sunil. S. Rao.
Art and Science of Protective Relaying - C.R Mason
MANUALS:
Basic Op-Amp Circuits - TEXAS instruments (.pdf)
Op-Amp Reference Manual - TEXAS Instruments (.pdf)
Op-Amp Differential Amplifier- TEXAS Instruments (.pdf)
Darlington Pair - Google Books
Electronics For You (magazine)
WEBSITES:
Google: www.google.co.in ; www.google.com
Wikipedia: www.wikipedia.org
www.electronics4u.com
www.ask.com
64
LIST OF FIGURES
65
LIST OF TABLES:
66
APPENDIX – I : SPECIAL FEATURES OF OP-AMP 741:
67
Table: Electrical characteristics of Op-Amp
68
69
70
Fig: Graphs showing typical characteristics of a Op-Amp
Schematic Diagram:
71