Dispersion (optics)
This article is about dispersion of waves in optics. For
other forms of dispersion, see Dispersion (disambigua-
tion).
In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the
In a dispersive prism, material dispersion (a wavelength-
dependent refractive index) causes different colors to refract at
different angles, splitting white light into a spectrum.
A compact fluorescent lamp seen through an Amici prism.
phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency.[1] Me-
dia having this common property may be termed disper-
sive media. Sometimes the term chromatic dispersion
is used for specificity. Although the term is used in the
field of optics to describe light and other electromagnetic
waves, dispersion in the same sense can apply to any sort
of wave motion such as acoustic dispersion in the case of
sound and seismic waves, in gravity waves (ocean waves),
and for telecommunication signals along transmission
lines (such as coaxial cable) or optical fiber.
In optics, one important and familiar consequence of dis-
1
persion is the change in the angle of refraction of differ-
ent colors of light,[2] as seen in the spectrum produced by
a dispersive prism and in chromatic aberration of lenses.
Design of compound achromatic lenses, in which chro-
matic aberration is largely cancelled, uses a quantifica-
tion of a glass’s dispersion given by its Abbe number V,
where lower Abbe numbers correspond to greater dis-
persion over the visible spectrum. In some applications
such as telecommunications, the absolute phase of a wave
is often not important but only the propagation of wave
packets or “pulses"; in that case one is interested only
in variations of group velocity with frequency, so-called
group-velocity dispersion (GVD).
1 Examples of dispersion
The most familiar example of dispersion is probably a
rainbow, in which dispersion causes the spatial separation
of a white light into components of different wavelengths
(different colors). However, dispersion also has an effect
in many other circumstances: for example, group velocity
dispersion (GVD) causes pulses to spread in optical fibers,
degrading signals over long distances; also, a cancellation
between group-velocity dispersion and nonlinear effects
leads to soliton waves.
2 Material and waveguide disper-
sion
Most often, chromatic dispersion refers to bulk material
dispersion, that is, the change in refractive index with op-
tical frequency. However, in a waveguide there is also
the phenomenon of waveguide dispersion, in which case
a wave’s phase velocity in a structure depends on its fre-
quency simply due to the structure’s geometry. More
generally, “waveguide” dispersion can occur for waves
propagating through any inhomogeneous structure (e.g.,
a photonic crystal), whether or not the waves are confined
to some region. In a waveguide, both types of dispersion
will generally be present, although they are not strictly
additive. For example, in fiber optics the material and
waveguide dispersion can effectively cancel each other
out to produce a zero-dispersion wavelength, important
for fast fiber-optic communication.
2 4 GROUP AND PHASE VELOCITY

3 Material dispersion in optics
The variation of refractive index vs. vacuum wavelength for var-
ious glasses. The wavelengths of visible light are shaded in red.
with respect to the wave’s wavelength n = n(λ). The wave-
length dependence of a material’s refractive index is usu-
ally quantified by its Abbe number or its coefficients in an
empirical formula such as the Cauchy or Sellmeier equa-
tions.
Because of the Kramers–Kronig relations, the wavelength
dependence of the real part of the refractive index is re-
lated to the material absorption, described by the imagi-
nary part of the refractive index (also called the extinction
coefficient). In particular, for non-magnetic materials (μ
= μ0 ), the susceptibility χ that appears in the Kramers–
Kronig relations is the electric susceptibility χₑ = n2 − 1.
The most commonly seen consequence of dispersion in
optics is the separation of white light into a color spec-
trum by a prism. From Snell’s law it can be seen that the
angle of refraction of light in a prism depends on the re-
fractive index of the prism material. Since that refractive
index varies with wavelength, it follows that the angle that
the light is refracted by will also vary with wavelength,
causing an angular separation of the colors known as an-
gular dispersion.
For visible light, refraction indices n of most transpar-
ent materials (e.g., air, glasses) decrease with increasing
wavelength λ:

1 < n(λred ) < n(λyellow ) < n(λblue ) ,

or alternatively:

dn
< 0.
dλ
In this case, the medium is said to have normal disper-
sion. Whereas, if the index increases with increasing
Influences of selected glass component additions on the mean dis- wavelength (which is typically the case for X-rays), the
persion of a specific base glass (nF valid for λ = 486 nm (blue),
medium is said to have anomalous dispersion.
nC valid for λ = 656 nm (red))[3]
At the interface of such a material with air or vacuum
Material dispersion can be a desirable or undesirable (index of ~1), Snell’s law predicts that light incident at an
effect in optical applications. The dispersion of light angle θ to the normal will be refracted at an angle arc-
by glass prisms is used to construct spectrometers and sin(sin θ/n). Thus, blue light, with a higher refractive in-
spectroradiometers. Holographic gratings are also used, dex, will be bent more strongly than red light, resulting in
as they allow more accurate discrimination of wave- the well-known rainbow pattern.
lengths. However, in lenses, dispersion causes chromatic
aberration, an undesired effect that may degrade images
in microscopes, telescopes, and photographic objectives. 4 Group and phase velocity
The phase velocity, v, of a wave in a given uniform
medium is given by Another consequence of dispersion manifests itself as a
temporal effect. The formula v = c/n calculates the phase
velocity of a wave; this is the velocity at which the phase of
c any one frequency component of the wave will propagate.
v=
n This is not the same as the group velocity of the wave, that
is the rate at which changes in amplitude (known as the
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and n is the envelope of the wave) will propagate. For a homogeneous
refractive index of the medium. medium, the group velocity v is related to the phase ve-
In general, the refractive index is some function of the locity v by (here λ is the wavelength in vacuum, not in the
frequency f of the light, thus n = n(f), or alternatively, medium):
 3

the optical fibre at a wavelength where the GVD is zero

c v
vg = = .
n − λ dn
dλ 1 − λ dn
n dλ
The group velocity v is often thought of as the velocity at
which energy or information is conveyed along the wave.
In most cases this is true, and the group velocity can be
thought of as the signal velocity of the waveform. In some
unusual circumstances, called cases of anomalous disper-
sion, the rate of change of the index of refraction with
respect to the wavelength changes sign (becoming nega-
tive), in which case it is possible for the group velocity to
exceed the speed of light (v > c). Anomalous dispersion
occurs, for instance, where the wavelength of the light is
close to an absorption resonance of the medium. When
the dispersion is anomalous, however, group velocity is
no longer an indicator of signal velocity. Instead, a signal
travels at the speed of the wavefront, which is c irrespec-
tive of the index of refraction.[4] Recently, it has become
possible to create gases in which the group velocity is not
only larger than the speed of light, but even negative. In
these cases, a pulse can appear to exit a medium before
it enters.[5] Even in these cases, however, a signal trav-
els at, or less than, the speed of light, as demonstrated by
Stenner, et al.[6]
The group velocity itself is usually a function of the
wave’s frequency. This results in group velocity disper-
sion (GVD), which causes a short pulse of light to spread
in time as a result of different frequency components of
the pulse travelling at different velocities. GVD is often
quantified as the group delay dispersion parameter (again,
this formula is for a uniform medium only):
(e.g., around 1.3–1.5 μm in silica fibres), so pulses at this
wavelength suffer minimal spreading from dispersion. In
practice, however, this approach causes more problems
than it solves because zero GVD unacceptably amplifies
other nonlinear effects (such as four wave mixing). An-
other possible option is to use soliton pulses in the regime
of anomalous dispersion, a form of optical pulse which
uses a nonlinear optical effect to self-maintain its shape.
Solitons have the practical problem, however, that they
require a certain power level to be maintained in the pulse
for the nonlinear effect to be of the correct strength. In-
stead, the solution that is currently used in practice is
to perform dispersion compensation, typically by match-
ing the fiber with another fiber of opposite-sign disper-
sion so that the dispersion effects cancel; such compen-
sation is ultimately limited by nonlinear effects such as
self-phase modulation, which interact with dispersion to
make it very difficult to undo.
Dispersion control is also important in lasers that produce
short pulses. The overall dispersion of the optical res-
onator is a major factor in determining the duration of
the pulses emitted by the laser. A pair of prisms can be
arranged to produce net negative dispersion, which can
be used to balance the usually positive dispersion of the
laser medium. Diffraction gratings can also be used to
produce dispersive effects; these are often used in high-
power laser amplifier systems. Recently, an alternative to
prisms and gratings has been developed: chirped mirrors.
These dielectric mirrors are coated so that different wave-
lengths have different penetration lengths, and therefore
different group delays. The coating layers can be tailored
to achieve a net negative dispersion.

λ d2 n
D=− .
c dλ2 5 Dispersion in waveguides
If D is less than zero, the medium is said to have positive
dispersion. If D is greater than zero, the medium has neg- Waveguides are highly dispersive due to their geometry
ative dispersion. If a light pulse is propagated through (rather than just to their material composition). Optical
a normally dispersive medium, the result is the higher fibers are a sort of waveguide for optical frequencies
frequency components travel slower than the lower fre- (light) widely used in modern telecommunications sys-
quency components. The pulse therefore becomes posi- tems. The rate at which data can be transported on a sin-
tively chirped, or up-chirped, increasing in frequency with gle fiber is limited by pulse broadening due to chromatic
time. Conversely, if a pulse travels through an anoma- dispersion among other phenomena.
lously dispersive medium, high frequency components In general, for a waveguide mode with an angular fre-
travel faster than the lower ones, and the pulse becomes quency ω(β) at a propagation constant β (so that the elec-
negatively chirped, or down-chirped, decreasing in fre- tromagnetic fields in the propagation direction z oscillate
quency with time. proportional to ei(βz−ωt) ), the group-velocity dispersion pa-
The result of GVD, whether negative or positive, is ul- rameter D is defined as:[7]
timately temporal spreading of the pulse. This makes
dispersion management extremely important in optical
communications systems based on optical fiber, since if 2πc d2 β 2πc dvg
D=− 2 = 2 2
dispersion is too high, a group of pulses representing a λ dω 2 vg λ dω
bit-stream will spread in time and merge, rendering the
bit-stream unintelligible. This limits the length of fiber where λ = 2πc/ω is the vacuum wavelength and v =
that a signal can be sent down without regeneration. One dω/dβ is the group velocity. This formula generalizes the
possible answer to this problem is to send signals down one in the previous section for homogeneous media, and
4 9 DISPERSION OF PULSAR EMISSIONS

includes both waveguide dispersion and material disper- 8 Dispersion in imaging

sion. The reason for defining the dispersion in this way is
that |D| is the (asymptotic) temporal pulse spreading Δt In photographic and microscopic lenses, dispersion
per unit bandwidth Δλ per unit distance travelled, com- causes chromatic aberration, which causes the different
monly reported in ps/nm/km for optical fibers. colors in the image not to overlap properly. Various tech-
In the case of multi-mode optical fibers, so-called modal niques have been developed to counteract this, such as
dispersion will also lead to pulse broadening. Even in the use of achromats, multielement lenses with glasses of
single-mode fibers, pulse broadening can occur as a re- different dispersion. They are constructed in such a way
sult of polarization mode dispersion (since there are still that the chromatic aberrations of the different parts can-
two polarization modes). These are not examples of chro- cel out.
matic dispersion as they are not dependent on the wave-
length or bandwidth of the pulses propagated.
9 Dispersion of pulsar emissions
Pulsars are spinning neutron stars that emit pulses at very
6 Higher-order dispersion over regular intervals ranging from milliseconds to seconds.
broad bandwidths Astronomers believe that the pulses are emitted simul-
taneously over a wide range of frequencies. However, as
observed on Earth, the components of each pulse emitted
When a broad range of frequencies (a broad bandwidth)
at higher radio frequencies arrive before those emitted at
is present in a single wavepacket, such as in an ultrashort
lower frequencies. This dispersion occurs because of the
pulse or a chirped pulse or other forms of spread spec-
ionized component of the interstellar medium, mainly the
trum transmission, it may not be accurate to approximate
free electrons, which make the group velocity frequency
the dispersion by a constant over the entire bandwidth,
dependent. The extra delay added at a frequency ν is
and more complex calculations are required to compute
effects such as pulse spreading.
( )
In particular, the dispersion parameter D defined above DM
is obtained from only one derivative of the group veloc- t = kDM ×
ν2
ity. Higher derivatives are known as higher-order disper-
sion.[8] These terms are simply a Taylor series expansion where the dispersion constant kDM is given by
of the dispersion relation β(ω) of the medium or waveg-
uide around some particular frequency. Their effects e2
kDM = ≃ 4.149 GHz2 pc−1 cm3 ms,
can be computed via numerical evaluation of Fourier [11]
2πme c

transforms of the waveform, via integration of higher-

order slowly varying envelope approximations, by a split-
step method (which can use the exact dispersion relation
rather than a Taylor series), or by direct simulation of the
full Maxwell’s equations rather than an approximate en-
velope equation.
and the dispersion measure (DM) is the column den-
sity of free electrons (total electron content) — i.e. the
number density of electrons nₑ (electrons/cm3 ) integrated
along the path traveled by the photon from the pulsar to
the Earth — and is given by

∫
7 Dispersion in gemology d
DM = ne dl
0
In the technical terminology of gemology, dispersion is
with units of parsecs per cubic centimetre (1 pc/cm3 =
the difference in the refractive index of a material at the
30.857 × 1021 m−2 ).[12]
B and G (686.7 nm and 430.8 nm) or C and F (656.3
nm and 486.1 nm) Fraunhofer wavelengths, and is meant Typically for astronomical observations, this delay can-
to express the degree to which a prism cut from the not be measured directly, since the emission time is un-
gemstone demonstrates “fire.” Fire is a colloquial term known. What can be measured is the difference in arrival
used by gemologists to describe a gemstone’s dispersive times at two different frequencies. The delay Δt between
nature or lack thereof. Dispersion is a material property. a high frequency ν ᵢ and a low frequency ν ₒ component
The amount of fire demonstrated by a given gemstone is of a pulse will be
a function the gemstone’s facet angles, the polish quality,
the lighting environment, the material’s refractive index,
( )
the saturation of color, and the orientation of the viewer 1 1
relative to the gemstone.[9][10] ∆t = kDM × DM × − 2
νlo2 νhi
 5

Rewriting the above equation in terms of Δt allows one
to determine the DM by measuring pulse arrival times at
multiple frequencies. This in turn can be used to study
the interstellar medium, as well as allow for observations
of pulsars at different frequencies to be combined.
[8] Chromatic Dispersion, Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and
Technology (Wiley, 2008).
[9] Schumann, Walter (2009). Gemstones of the World:
Newly Revised & Expanded Fourth Edition. Sterling Pub-
lishing Company, Inc. pp. 41–2. ISBN 978-1-4027-
6829-3. Retrieved 31 December 2011.

[10] What is Gemstone Dispersion? by International Gem So-

10 See also ciety (IGS). Retrieved 03-09-2015

• Abbe number [11] Single-Dish Radio Astronomy: Techniques and Applica-

tions, ASP Conference Proceedings, Vol. 278. Edited by
• Calculation of glass properties incl. dispersion Snezana Stanimirovic, Daniel Altschuler, Paul Goldsmith,
and Chris Salter. ISBN 1-58381-120-6. San Francisco:
• Cauchy’s equation Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 2002, p. 251-269
• Dispersion relation [12] Lorimer, D.R., and Kramer, M., Handbook of Pulsar
Astronomy, vol. 4 of Cambridge Observing Handbooks
• Fast radio burst (astronomy) for Research Astronomers, (Cambridge University Press,
• Fluctuation theorem Cambridge, U.K.; New York, U.S.A, 2005), 1st edition.

• Green–Kubo relations
• Group delay 12 External links
• Intramodal dispersion • Dispersive Wiki – discussing the mathematical as-
pects of dispersion.
• Kramers–Kronig relations
• Dispersion – Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and
• Linear response function
Technology
• Multiple-prism dispersion theory
• Animations demonstrating optical dispersion by
• Sellmeier equation QED

• Ultrashort pulse • Interactive webdemo for chromatic dispersion Insti-

tute of Telecommunications, University of Stuttgart

11 References
[1] Born, Max; Wolf, Emil (October 1999). Principles of Op-
tics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–24.
ISBN 0-521-64222-1.

[2] Dispersion Compensation Retrieved 25-08-2015.

[3] Calculation of the Mean Dispersion of Glasses

[4] Sommerfeld, A. (1960). Chapter 2 in Brillouin, Léon

Wave Propagation and Group Velocity. Academic Press:
San Diego.

[5] Wang, L.J.; Kuzmich, A.; Dogariu, A. (2000). “Gain-

assisted superluminal light propagation”. Nature.
406 (6793): 277. Bibcode:2000Natur.406..277W.
doi:10.1038/35018520. PMID 10917523.

[6] Stenner, M. D.; Gauthier, D. J.; Neifeld, M.

A. (2003). “The speed of information in a
'fast-light' optical medium”. Nature. 425
(6959): 695–8. Bibcode:2003Natur.425..695S.
doi:10.1038/nature02016. PMID 14562097.

[7] Ramaswami, Rajiv and Sivarajan, Kumar N. (1998) Op-

tical Networks: A Practical Perspective. Academic Press:
London.
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