F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry

21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

EOR/IOR-nanotechnologies: present and future

Alexander Khavkin, Gubkin RSUOG, Russia

Abstract
Control of nanophenomena in geological formations, fields fluids and production equipment in oil and gas in-
dustry are known as technologies of their regulation (nanotechnologies). Some ways for increasing of oil-and-
gas recovery are described: regulation of injected reagents ionic component, influence on the oil-and-gas layers
by physical fields resulting in change of balance in system «oil-gas-water-rock», and others nanotechnologies
which use for increases efficiency of oil-and-gas reserves operation (include gashydrate).
The analysis of the nanomineral complexes geometry change in oil formation is carried out. Our studies reveal
that the control of the above nanocomlexes can increase oil recovery of oil field due to change of the capillary
hysteresis value and clay minerals specific behaviour at water flooding.
Classification of ЕOR/IOR-nanotechnologies by their effect on oil reservoirs, examples of laboratory and field
test some ЕOR/IOR-nanotechnologies efficiency estimations, prospects of oil&gas nanoindustry are given.
Keywords: ЕOR/IOR, nanophenomena, nanotechnologies, nanomineral, nanoindustry, ion, clay, water flood-
ing, capillary hysteresis, oil fields

1. Introduction
Oil has entered into our life so deep that cost of a barrel of oil is announced daily alongside with common weather
forecast. And it is clear – power engineering and petrochemistry became the basis of well-being of many coun-
tries and their citizens.
Therefore, the world society is interested in good prospects of oil extraction. However, these prospects depend
significantly on amount of financial investments into fundamental researches of properties of oil reservoirs and
oil-field fluids, into creation of new efficient technologies and elements of oil-field equipment.
There is much information about special features of processes of reservoir drive, but conventional understanding
of a role of fundamental research in these processes has been not developed yet. It is enough to mention that the
basic equations of processes of oil displacement from oil stratums are traditionally grounded on foundations of
continuum mechanics, in which so-called «boundary phenomena» (which indeed are nanoscale phenomena) are
considered as negligible. These equations work well in pipe hydraulics, in high-size filters and rectifying col-
umns, in high-permeability stratums. As to low-permeability oil-saturated porous mediums, during the last years
it is became more and more clear that high recovery factor can be achieved only when decreasing capillary forces
keeping oil in rock pores. Here, fundamental knowledge in the area of physics-chemistry and nanomineralogy,
and ability to use this knowledge for recovery factor calculation are required.
Why «nano»-mineralogy? Because structural elements of surface of pores have nanoscale characteristic dimen-
sions. We have solid grounds to use the cult prefix «nano» here. Textbooks on physics of oil and gas stratums
considered physical-chemical problems of oil recovery from the point of view of physics, for example, they
mentioned influence of capillary forces. But, at the same time, formulas and schemes for calculation of a recov-
ery factor implied use of continuum mechanics instead of physics and chemistry.
In general, problems leading to a low recovery factor were mentioned (alongside with problems of insufficient
oil resources), but correlation of nanoscale effects with macro-dimensional volumes of oil was not taken into
account. But after all, this situation is similar to samples from classical mathematics, when one small parameter
significantly influences not only a solution of a certain equation, but also its principle features.
General modern interest to oil is based on research of macroeconomists (N. D. Kondratyev) in the area of techno-
logical foundations of economic crises. First of all, people create a science connected with new scientific prospects;
this period lasts 10-15 years. After that, the stage of development of prototypes takes place – during the next 10-15
years. At last, the third stage - penetration of new technologies into real economy - takes the same time. In the
Figure 1, dynamics of innovations in different technological areas (according to Kondratyev's cycles of economic
activity) is represented.

© World Petroleum Council

F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

Figure. 1. Dynamics of innovations in different technological areas according to Kondratyev's cycles of

economic activity

It is evident from Fig. 1 that the 4th Kondratyev's cycle (IV technological stage) took place in 1940-1980, when
technological progress of economy was provided by development of heavy equipment industry and great chem-
istry, mass production of cars and airplanes. During the 4th Kondratyev's cycle, nuclear industry and computers
appeared.
The 5th Kondratyev's cycle (V technological stage) concerns 1980-2020, when technological progress of econ-
omy is provided by development of personal computers and Internet, mass civil air transport, biotechnologies,
chemistry of small volumes.
The 6th Kondratyev's cycle (VI technological stage) is expected since 2020, and corresponding technological
progress of economy will be provided by development of robotics, biotechnologies, nanotechnologies, manage-
ment of health of a human due to new medicine, new nature management.
In all these cycles, oil (more exactly, products of its processing - fuel and new materials) have defining value.
Nanotechnologies for new nature management (and, first of all, innovative nanotechnologies in the area of oil
and gas recovery) will allow solving corresponding problems of the world economy.

2. Oil Production Engineering as a Section of Nanoscience

Application of nanomaterials and nanoparticles as well as management of nanoscale processes in oil and gas
stratums is very important for increase of efficiency of oil and gas recovery. It is evident that application of
nanomaterials and nanoparticles for increase of efficiency of oil and gas recovery is a nanotechnology, and its
scientific substantiation is a subject of nanoscience.
In the theory of oil-fields development, mathematical modeling is one of the major methods of research. The
purpose of modeling is prognostication of parameters of a certain oil-field development on the basis of mathe-
matical equations describing this process. At such modeling, the purpose can be dual: a) quantitative prognosti-
cation of parameters of development, and b) mathematical description of processes taking place in a stratum at
oil recovery, for their deeper understanding, management and optimization. Of course, quantitative prognostica-
tion is based on mathematical description of processes.
In the basis of hydrodynamic description of two-phase filtration (for example, of oil and water), there is the
generalized Darcy law connecting speed of filtration of the phase U with pressure difference ΔР, viscosity µ,
permeability of a porous medium k and length of a zone of filtration L:
k P
U . (1)
 L
Generalization of the Darcy law for the case of two-phase filtration in the Backley-Leverett model is based on
an assumption that permeability of each fluid (phase) depends on its properties and implies introduction of phase
permeability (indexing of permeability), phase pressure and viscosity of fluids (since pressure and viscosity of
different phases are different) as follows:

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

ki Pi
Ui  . (2)
i L
According to the Buckley-Leverett hypothesis, at water-oil displacement, phase permeabilities k1 (water) and k2
(oil) depend only on saturation S, i.e., on volume of the porous space occupied by one of phases (for example,
by water). The equation (2) is based on an assumption that each of the phases moves through "own" system of
pore channels and interacts with the other phase only as with a solid skeleton.
Applicability of the generalized Darcy law (2) to the processes of mutual displacement of immiscible fluids is
restricted by a zone of relatively slow change of saturation. Difference of pressure of phases P 1 (water) and P2
(oil) is connected with action of capillary forces. In the case of relatively slow processes of displacement, it was
supposed that the difference of pressure of phases is equal to static capillary pressure Pс depending as well as
phase permeability only from saturation S. In fact, in this case, the capillary effect in pores is neglected and taken
into account only in phase permeability.
At the same time, the role of well spacing and difference in values of oil recovery factor (ORF) in the process of
displacement of the same oil by water of different composition with the large range of speed of movement of the
water-oil interface were not explained. For example, the difference of values of ORF according to results of a
great number of laboratory experiments can reach 0.10-0.15.
The dependence of phase permeability on permeability of a collector and spacing is difficult to assess. At the
same time, application of the same phase permeability for oil stratums with different permeability and for oil-
fields with various spacing means neglecting influence of spacing on ORF in the course of hydrodynamic cal-
culations. The divergence between experience of oil-field development and principles of conventional hydrody-
namic calculation programs (software packages) was obvious.
Difference between results of calculations of technological parameters of oil recovery and their real values is
explained by insufficiently deep understanding of physical and chemical foundations of a process of multiphase
filtration rather than by low accuracy of numerical methods and low reliability of values of some geological-
technological parameters of the extraction system. On the basis of study of influence of physical-chemical phe-
nomena in stratum systems "oil-gas-water-rock" on processes of hydrocarbons displacement from productive
stratums, it is possible to draw a conclusion that without study and consideration of nanoscale phenomena in
processes of extraction of hydrocarbons from oil and gas stratums it is impossible to provide growth of efficiency
of petroleum industry.
In 1982, the first hydrodynamic calculations concerning the process of differently mineralized water-oil dis-
placement taking into account behavior of clay and capillary-gravitational segregation with capillary hysteresis
have been performed. In 1996, specialists advanced a hypothesis according to which water-oil displacement
from any productive layers is a physical and chemical process similar to pumping of surface-active agents or
solutions of polymers, since the influence of ion exchange of clay minerals with pumped water and influence of
microstructure of the porous medium through capillary hysteresis are equally important in the system "oil-gas-
water-rock".
Because of difference of ion exchange activity of different types of clay minerals, in addition to a conventional
coefficient of bulk shale of a rock-collector, it was suggested to use a coefficient of active shaliness characteriz-
ing physical and chemical activity of clay cement of certain composition in relation to pumped water, and the
coefficient of hydrodynamic dispersion of rocks has been suggested for taking into account microstructure of
porous environment. Further research demonstrated that they are the major characteristics of porous mediums.
For the last decade, there were many publications about a role of nanoscale phenomena in different areas of
science. Specialists in the field of physics and chemistry consider such very important oil and gas technologies
as control of wettability, interphase mass exchange and states of superdispersed systems (clay, fluid films on
surfaces, micellar solutions) from the point of view of nanoscience and nanotechnologies. Atypical properties of
fluids, for example, sharp increase of viscosity on walls of nanocapillary, change of thermodynamic properties
of fluids, are manifested on nanoscale. Here, atypical chemical activity at the rock-fluid interface takes place as
well. An electrolyte solution (for example, a solution of salt water) in nanopores may serve as an example: at the
interface of phases, there are surface charges and electrified surfaces with characteristic distribution of charge
known as a double electrical layer. In nanoscale pores, the thickness of the mentioned double layer can overlap

© World Petroleum Council

F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

completely the lateral dimension of pores that leads to a significant change of structure of a liquid, and, hence,
to change of a process of its motion in nanostructures.
According to recommendations of the 7th International Conference on Nanotechnologies (Wiesbaden, 2004),
the following types of nanomaterials exist: nanoporous structures; nanoparticles; nanotubes and nanowires;
nanodispersions (colloids); nanostructured surfaces and films; nanocrystals and nanoclusters. Besides small-size
particles, nanoparticles include surface nanostructures (fillets, ledges, grooves, walls), volume nanostructures
(pores and capillaries), films of mediums with nanoscale thickness, which are of crucial importance in processes
of oil displacement in porous rocks.
In a volume phase, properties of mediums and materials organized by structural elements with nanoscale dimen-
sions are not determined unequivocally. Changes of characteristics are caused not only by decrease of dimensions
of structural elements, but also by manifestation of quantum mechanical effects, wave nature of transfer pro-
cesses and by a dominating role of an interface. Nanoparticles are both too small (for direct observation and
study) and too great (for quantum mechanical calculations). At the same time, the main priority is creation and
optimization of nanotechnologies. Therefore, at modeling of nanotechnologies, it is recommended to consider
nanoparticles as structural components (elements) of larger dimensions - macro- and meso-dimensions.
Originally, nanoscale objects are determined as objects with at least one dimension within a range of 1-100 nm.
The special feature of nanoobjects is in a fact that such dimensions are comparable with the radius of action of
interfacial interaction forces, i.e., with a distance where interaction of objects at atomic level in ordinary mate-
rials must be taken into account.
In 1991, carbon nanotubes with a diameter of 0.5-1.0 nm were obtained, and the term nanosystems begun com-
prise the structures surrounded by a gas or liquid medium, which characteristic dimension being within 0.1-100
nm. These are intermediate structures between atoms and macroscopic physical bodies. For this reason, ultrafine
systems including clay, aerosols, micellar colloidal solutions (muds), polymeric sols and gels, surface fluid films,
are subjects of nanoscience. In this case, characteristic radiuses of ions lie within the range of 0.1-1 nm and
regulate properties of clay minerals with dimensions of 20-40 nm.
Analysis of nanoscale phenomena at the interface of phases in porous mediums has led scientists to a conclusion
about a defining role of capillary hysteresis. The magnitude of capillary hysteresis depends on wetting properties
of rock surface defined by charge interactions. Both in hydrophilic and hydrophobic medium, capillary hysteresis
is directed against movement of displaced oil. Neglecting capillary hysteresis leads to significant errors when
designing the process of oil-field development.
The multiphase filtration in the porous medium can be carried out either by means of motion of each of phases
through own systems of pore channels or by means of motion of the displaced phase in macrodisperse parts.
Analysis of physical and chemical literature showed in the case of water and oil contact, dispersion of the latter
takes place. Taking into account this fact, specialists have formulated the law of oil displacement in porous rocks
stating that at displacement of oil from an oil-field stratum by water solution pumping, oil is dispersed into
separate parts (aggregates, ganglia, blobs, bypassed oil, clusters – macrodisperse parts), distribution of which by
sizes is determined by capillary hysteresis in the system «oil-water-rock». Actually, this discovery has underlined
importance of nanoscale phenomena of wetting in the macroprocess of oil displacement.
The law of filtration, taking into account different sizes of clusters of oil (through introduction of the index R of
the length of a cluster of oil lR), can be represented as follows:
ki Pi
Ui  . (3)
i lR
We must notice that all parameters in formulas (1) and (2) are indexed. The specified approach based on the
corresponding discovery has allowed performing calculations that demonstrated a good fit to real oil-field sta-
tistics.
At the beginning of research of ion-exchange phenomena (1970s), their significance for efficient oil displace-
ment has been proved without underlining characteristic scale of these phenomena. Taking into account an opin-
ion of physicist and chemists, it is necessary to recognize that many technologies managing oil displacement
from porous mediums (i.e., technologies purposefully managing nanophenomena) are nanotechnologies in oil
and gas recovery.

© World Petroleum Council

F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

In 2006, as a result of analysis, it has been demonstrated that oil-driving (extraction) nanotechnologies include
thermal, physical, and biological technologies, and chemical and gas technologies occupy an intermediate posi-
tion between nanotechnologies and macrotechnologies depending on applied reagents and the mechanism of
their influence on a system "oil-gas-water-rock". Certain discomfort connected with the use of the term "nano-
technologies in the area of oil and gas recovery" in some specialists is caused by their unwillingness to under-
stand that this term means "technologies of use of nanomaterials and management of nanoscale processes (in-
cluding wetting and ion-exchange) for the purpose of increase of efficiency of oil and gas recovery".
Petroleum science (the main purpose of which is rational development of hydrocarbon resources) being a part
of Earth sciences and accumulating such scientific disciplines as geology, mathematics, physics, chemistry, has
own specific subject of study - physical and chemical nanoprocesses in rocks, oil-field fluids and equipment
including both nanophenomena and methods of their accounting in geological-hydrodynamic and technical-eco-
nomic calculations for exploitation of oil and gas resources. Here, an analysis of oil and gas fields with nanoscale
hydrocarbon collecting pores (with the characteristic size of pores up to 100 nm) play a significant role in in-
crease of the resource basis of oil recovery. Oil and gas extraction from such oil fields requires application of
specific technological solutions.
The Nobel Prize winner R. Smalley believed that the main problem faced by the world community or even by
humankind as a whole is the problem of energy supply. According to his research, the level of power consump-
tion will double (at least) to the middle of the 21st century, so it is necessary to master new technological pro-
cesses to increase power generation, and the problem of power supply of humankind can be solved only by those
directions of the modern science, where scientists can manage matter and processes at an atomic level. Exactly,
these directions are consolidated in nanoscience.
Taking into account physical-chemical nanophenomena in oil and gas stratums in corresponding hydrodynamic
models allows developing adequate scientific foundations of oil and gas nanotechnologies (of the oil and gas
branch of nanoscience) that will allow creating the uniform methodological basis for modeling of corresponding
processes of oil and gas fields development for the purpose of perfection of technologies of oil and gas recovery.
Of course, physical (and more exactly, physical-chemical) knowledge concerning specific processes in oil and
gas stratums has been strongly changed for the last 25 years. In fact, this new understanding of this matter became
the factor using which it is possible to improve significantly the efficiency of the whole gas-and-oil producing
industry both in respect of oil recovery increase and power consumption decrease. Investments to nanotechnol-
ogies of oil and gas recovery will bring maximum financial profit in the shortest time period in comparison with
investments into other fields. So, for example, special treatment of well bottom zones is repaid in a half a year,
increase of ORF of developed oil-fields will allow satisfying oil demand. Creation of the gas-hydrate branch of
the petroleum industry will also bring sufficient profit, since it will allow transporting gas in the form of gas-
hydrates, utilizing associated and low-pressure gas; it will create thousands of vacancies in this sphere, lead to
diversification of transportation of tank gas and pipe-less gasification of rural places. Current results of research
in this matter already prove necessity of active fundamental study of nanophenomena of oil and gas recovery
and transportation, and also optimization of their further processing.
Even U. Hartmann, a famous specialist in the area of nanotechnologies mentions the area of application in oil
and gas recovery. According to his opinion, today's annual oil demand is equal to 3.4 billion t/year, and accurately
enough explored reserves (taking into account standard technologies of extraction) are about 140 billion ton.
According to his estimate, about 100 billion ton of hydrocarbon resources can exist in oil fields of the Arctic
zone and at the bottom of the sea. However, modern technologies, especially for northern areas, where oil is
high-viscous, are required.
Thus, oil-and-gas nanotechnologies are those technologies, which, due to use of nanomaterials and management
of nanoprocesses, allow increasing power efficiency and decreasing expenditures in oil and gas production in-
dustry, and their scientific substantiation represents a separate branch of nanoscience.

3. Oil and Gas Nanophenomena

Oil and gas nanophenomena are processes that take place in oil-field liquids, in oil and gas stratums and equip-
ment. Their special feature is their thermobaric conditions: rock pressure exceed tens of MPa, and temperature -
tens of Celsius degrees.

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

The main oil and gas nanophenomena include corrosion of oil-field equipment; formation of asphaltene-pitch-
paraffin deposit on walls of oil-well tubing and hydrate blocks in them; ion-exchange between injected (pumped)
and oil-field waters leading to change of a state of clay minerals and properties of injected (pumped) agents;
biodegradation of the system «oil-gas-water-rock-equipment»; the phenomenon of wetting and charge interac-
tion in the system «oil-gas-water-rock».
For a long time, geologists study nanophenomena as fundamental processes of geology, where it is important to
distinguish properties of interface (boundary surface) and bulk of rocks. It is proved that many fundamental
properties of matter (melting temperature, residual magnetism, wettability) are determined to a large extend by
nanoscale dimensions of crystals.
These features are very important for mechanisms of mineral formation and rocks deflation. They lead to trans-
formation of clay minerals into other. On the basis of study of geological nanoscale complexes, the new direction
in Earth sciences – nanomineralogy (with roots in 1980-1990) – has appeared.
The principal results of study of nanophenomena in mineralogy are the following: 1) new types of structurally
and morphologically ordered objects – nanoindividuals are discovered; 2) morphological diversity of nanoindi-
viduals is not restricted by laws of classical crystallography and represents a new class of structurally ordered
mineral formations; 3) nanomineral objects follow the same laws of self-organization as flora and fauna forming
at a level of 0.1-1 nm.
Gas and oil collectors are characterized by steady-state equilibrium between water soaking them and clay min-
erals cementing a collector. When ionic equilibrium in the "water-clay mineral" system changes, the main special
property of clay minerals – capacity for ion-exchange - is implemented. Dynamics of this process is defined by
mineralogical structure of clays, their specific properties, and also by chemical content of injected (pumped)
water; it differs in sedimentary cover zones characterized by specific properties and structure of clay minerals.
Polymineral character of clay substance significantly deteriorate collecting properties that is connected in this
case with more dense packing of both micro-blocks of some clay minerals in aggregates and aggregates of var-
ious sizes in sediment. Depending on amount of argillaceous cement, the greatest permeability is typical for
terrigenous rocks with film-type cement, whereas the cement of porous type makes rocks almost impenetrable.
For the first time, specialists took into account influence of ion-exchange in clays on hydrodynamics of processes
of oil displacement in 1979. Further, they always underlined necessity of taking into account clay minerals dis-
tribution through the oil stratum.
Researches of interfacial space of different clay minerals of oil stratum demonstrate an important role of na-
nomineralogy in oil recovery processes. So, for example, hydromica complexes in collector structure usually
form nanotube films that change wetting properties of a collector, and sulfide nanominerals (in particular, pyrite,
after its formation due to reducing reactions following injecting sulfuric acid compositions into rocks) lead to
blocking of pores due to its accumulation in pore narrowings.
Surfaces of micro- and nanoscale objects can be considered as a distinctive physical and chemical state – by
their structural properties and reactivity, such surfaces are similar to bulk crystals and separate molecules of a
gas phase to a certain extent, but because of their specific distinctions, they are studied in a separate area of
science. Studying them, scientists face a great number of specific phenomena and processes (adsorption, evapo-
ration, condensation, diffusion, catalysis) taking place in a system "oil-gas-water-rock". Studying the system
"gas-mineral", they not only identified the surface centers, but also managed to create deficiency of electron (or
electron-hole) sites in comparison with the same in bulk of material. It changes charge properties of a surface of
a mineral, which are the basis of energy properties in mineral systems. The research demonstrated a possibility
of change of pore dimensions due to processes of defect formation and formation of nanoelectron structures by
the method of selective removal of atoms.
Analysis has revealed dependence of the filtration and capacity properties of terrigenous reservoirs (collectors)
on transformations of clay minerals of cement: depending on dimensions of free space, kaolinite crystallizes in
the form of thick-plate aggregates or fan-shaped joints. Formation of kaolinite and chlorite in pores of terrigenous
reservoirs (collectors) leads to deterioration of the filtration and capacity properties of rocks in case of bad per-
meability and, on the contrary, to improvement of the filtration and capacity properties in case when a collector
has high permeability and porosity.
Color change and re-crystallization of minerals (bio-mechanism) testifies to migration of hydrocarbons.

© World Petroleum Council

F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

Bioinert processes in rocks containing hydrocarbons strongly change traditional understanding of driving forces
and a stage character of epigenesis. It was shown that biogenic change of the sign of Eh can transform smectite
into illite in the process of diagenesis, with direct forming of 3D-blocks due to interstratifying of all polytypes.
It was revealed as well that main laws of geometrical crystallography do not work with transition to nanoscale
dimensions. The principal reason of dispersion of crystals of the secondary mica into separate nanoblocks is
disjoining pressure (wedge effect) of water nets between layers in the process of water injection. In argillite, it
can induce collapse of oil-field equipment, and in sandstones leads to "explosion" and ejection of nanoparticles
into a two-phase flow. Basically, formation of new blocks of smectite begins only after that, including previously
existing mixed-layer phases such as illite-smectite.
Influence of mineral nanophases of a collector on processes of field development is connected to a great extent
with physical-chemical features of used methods of increase of oil recovery (extraction). Development of oil
stratums, in particular with use of advanced recovery methods (ARM), leads to disequilibrium. Owing to a prin-
ciple of self-organization of non-equilibrium systems, physical-chemical change of nanophases takes place due
to power influence of different applied ARM complexes on a collector. It is expressed in change of crystal mor-
phology, chemical composition and reorientation (re-crystallization) of nanophases. Therefore, dynamics of
change of bulk characteristics of nanophases virtually regulates flows of fluids in oil collectors even at low
content of nanophases in them.
Academicians of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. E. Kontorovich and V. R. Livshitz have proved that the
process of oil genesis can be considered as a process of self-organization of dynamic systems in the Earth interior,
determining distribution of oil resources.
Permanent endogenous power influence leads to formation of specific spatiotemporal geological structures, in
which formation of general energetic autowave field takes place. Here, accumulation of energy passing through
these structures is quite possible; this leads to formation of energetically active zones of lithosphere, transfor-
mation of energy and its dissipation with partial accumulation. Understanding of energy principles of functioning
and dynamics of spatiotemporal geological structures (zones) is important for solution of problems of oil geology
and geophysics. They are either zones of oil and gas generation or transit zones (Earth crust wave guides), in
which the process of accumulation of hydrocarbons takes place.
The average pore width of an oil reservoir r and its permeability and porosity properties (permeability k and
porosity m) are related by the following equation:

r  4, 028. k m2,1 (4),

or, in an approximate form:
r2 m k . (5)
When permeability k = 0.1 m2 and porosity m = 0.2, the value of r is 3.4 m, and when permeability k = 0.0001
m2 and porosity m = 0.2, the value of r is 0.1 m = 100 nm. We will refer the oil reservoirs with pore width
less than 100 nm name to as nanoreservoirs. Examples of nanoreservoirs are dense rock of Bazhenovsky for-
mation of the Western Siberia, coal and shale stratums, granites, fundamental rock. For instance, oil-fields in
fundamental rock are discovered in many countries of the world. Amount of hydrocarbons in such reservoirs is
immense.
Movement of objects of the material world in such channels taking into account charge interactions is studied
by nanofluidics.
All minerals in natural conditions (feldspars, micas, etc.) are not pure substances, but represent complex mixtures
- solid solutions. Solid solutions are the phases of variable structure, in which atoms of different elements are
located in a common crystalline lattice. They can be disordered (with statistical distribution of atoms), partially
or completely ordered. Solid solutions are formed at crystallization of liquid melts or dissolution of gases in
solids.
Substitutional, interstitial, and omission solid solutions are distinguished. Solid substitutional solutions formed
with retaining the structure of solvent's crystalline lattice are the most widespread. In the course of formation of
solid substitutional solutions, atoms, molecules and ions in crystalline lattice sites of the given substance are

© World Petroleum Council

F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

substituted by particles of other substances. Formation of such solutions is possible when both substances have
similar crystalline properties and sizes of particles. Solid substitutional solutions of any structure are stable.
Solutions occupy intermediate position between chemical compounds and mechanical mixtures. Homogeneity
of solutions makes them similar to chemical compounds. Heat release at dissolution of some substances demon-
strates chemical interaction between components of solutions as well. Solutions differ from chemical compounds
by the fact that the composition of interacting substances can vary over wide range. In properties of a solid
solution, it is possible to distinguish many properties of its structural components; this feature is typical for
mechanical compounds.
In case of fractal surface structure, the effective contact angle will be determined not only by interfacial tension,
but also by sizes of molecules and the scale corresponding to an upper limit of fractal behavior of the surface; at
that, the tendencies of change of the effective contact angle on the fractal surface are similar to that of a rough
surface. Thereupon, processes of oil displacement from nanoreservoirs will determine the ratios of dimensions
of gas molecules and the fractal size of surface structure.

4. Oil and Gas Nanotechnologies

Not all processes of oil displacement from porous media are nanotechnologies. Oil and gas nanotechnologies in
oil and gas recovery are the technologies of use of nanomaterials and management of nanophenomena in oil and
gas stratums, stratum fluids and field equipment. As well, nanotechnologies of oil and gas recovery comprise
technologies of oil processing and transportation, well drilling and development of specific oil and gas equip-
ment.
According to implemented modes of oil-fields development, these technologies can be divided into primary,
secondary and tertiary. Primary - on the basis of natural modes of development (without keeping of rock pres-
sure); secondary - on the basis of maintaining rock pressure by waterflooding for oil reservoirs or cycling process
for gas deposits; tertiary - on the basis of maintaining rock pressure using of chemical reagents and physical
fields.
Depending on the means applied, corresponding measures of influence on oil stratums are the following:
- adjustment of field development System (densification of well pattern, grouping of objects and stratums),
 HyDrodynamic (cycles, change of flows directions, change of depression in extraction or injection
wells),
 TechNical (fracturing, horizontal and deviant directional wells, branching, perforation, drilling prac-
tices),
 CHemical (surfactants, polymers, alkalis, acids, emulsions, salts, gels, natural gas liquids, silicates),
 Gas (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbon gas and smoke fumes, nitrogen, water-gas mixtures, foams, ther-
mounstable agents),
 Thermal (hot water, steam, burning, heat-generating agents),
 PHysical (magnets, vibrotechnologies, electroimpact),
 Biological (on the basis of biotechnologies),
 combined (C – including the first three groups, CХ - not only the first three groups).
The underlined caps in names of corresponding groups of technologies allow brief identification of correspond-
ing type of measures. In respect of influence on oil and gas stratums, G-technologies, of course, include the
cycling process, and CH-technologies – pumping (injection) of water of controlled chemical content into a bar-
rier zone between an oil rim and a gas cap.
S-technologies based on changing well pattern have the characteristic scale of hundred meters. TN-technologies
of fracturing and use of horizontal wells – scale of tens and hundreds of meters. TN-technologies of perforation
– scale of meters. CH-technologies of liquidation of behind-the-casing flows – scale of centimeters. So, the
mentioned technologies cannot be treated as nanotechnologies. CX-technologies of cleaning of injected waters,
polymeric (thickening), gel, polymer-disperse, water-gas technologies have the characteristic scale of microns,
and also cannot be considered as nanotechnological measures of increasing oil recovery (NTMIOR) or oil and

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

gas recovery (NTMIOGR). From definition of nanoscience, it follows that NTMIOR include technologies reg-
ulating oil extraction from porous media at nanoscale. Therefore, NTMIOR include T-, PH-, B-technologies. G-
and CH-technologies occupy intermediate positions between nano- and macro-technologies depending on ap-
plied reagents and the mechanism of their interaction with oil reservoir.
Undoubtedly, NTMIOR include technologies that use nanoscale materials, methods based on management of
charge interactions (technologies regulating wettability, the state of clay, interfacial mass exchange), as well the
technologies of regulation of thickness of fluid films on rock surface, chemical content of agents pumped into
wells, thermotechnologies, biotechnologies, technologies on the basis of application of physical fields. NTMIOR
also include such interesting gas-chemical technology as application of foams based on a nanophenomenon of
wettability regulated on nanoscale by special nanoadditives.
It is the magnitude of capillary hysteresis in the system "oil-water-rock", what defines macroparameters of oil
displacement. The magnitude of capillary hysteresis depends on wetting properties of rock surface defined by
charge interactions. Charge interactions determine distribution of phases in a pore space in cases of different
component and ionic structure of phases, special features of filtration of water, oil and gas, behavior of clay,
formation of gas hydrates and asphaltene-pitch-paraffin deposits.
The technologies of waterflooding with application of surface-active substances are based on an improvement
of oil-displacement properties of water by activation of capillary and diffusive processes of oil displacement
with the lowered interfacial tension.
Management of molecular structure of underground fluids is the basis of several microbiological technologies
of increasing oil recovery. So, for example, aerobic hydrocarbon-oxidizing bacteria mobilize molecules of par-
affin hydrocarbons of oil.
Growing interest to impact of wave technologies on oil stratums using radiation of different nature, frequency
and intensity is currently observed as well.
Nowadays, the term «nanofluid» is used primarily for description of suspensions (colloidal systems with solid
disperse phase). However, there is a tendency to widening its meaning, i.e., nanoparticles of any nature can be
treated as a disperse phase of nanofluids. Results of research allow drawing a conclusion that crude oil represents
so-called «associative nanofluid». In this connection, many traditional technologies of oil-field development are
subjects for revision and should be developed taking into account complex phase diagrams of oil nano-colloids
formed basically by asphaltenes.
In fact, the majority of tertiary methods of influence on oil stratums are NTMIOR.

5. Examples of Oil and Gas Nanotechnologies Based On Nanomaterial

Application
Hydrophobic nanofluid for borehole operations. One of the main problems of oil and gas production industry is
maintenance of collecting properties of the bottom-hole area after technological operations (pump replacement,
bottom-hole treatment, well control for a specified period, etc.): losses of well productivity at any operation can
reach 20-30%.
A hydrophobic emulsion stabilized by nanoparticles is developed; it allows increasing density due to change of
percentage of weighting additives in a water phase in a range of 1050-1500 kg/m3, is very stable during long
time (more than 40 days), heat-resistant up to +80°С, thermostable during more than 50 h; has low setting point
(< -8 °С).
Improvement of quality of cement grouts. Leakage in a cement ring leads to early inflow of bottom waters into
well production, to gas-water-oil-cross-flow, to pollution of fresh water horizons, etc. Physical-mechanical prop-
erties of the cement stone made of a cement grout treated in laboratory conditions with application of specific
magnetic devices have been changed as follows: density of a cement stone increased by 5%, breaking strength -
in 2.3 times, compression strength - by 3%, stability - by 5%, flowing was decreased by 11%. We must notice
that breaking strength increased in 2.3 times determines stability of a cement stone at perforation, fracturing,
deformation of columns.
Addition of nanodisperse modifiers to cement allows increasing strength of concretes and foam concretes in 1.5-
2 times. Advantages of nano-concretes can be explained by their special structure formed due to self-organization

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

of cement stone at a nanoscale level. Presence of fulleroids possessing significant dipole moment leads to rear-
rangement of cement stone grains in the presence of water in chains from a fulleroid along vectors of dipoles.
Astralenes have circular three-dimensional multipolar orientation. As a result, cement stone organizes around
astralene radially penetrating into the mass of additives as an additional nano-reinforcing multipolar binding
agent. A combination of magnetic treatment and addition of fulleroids improves quality of nanoconcretes in extra
1.5-2 times.
Prevention of accumulation of asphaltene-pitch-paraffin deposits (APPD). Experiments have demonstrated that
addition of nanopowder to producing well bottomhole decreases rate of growth of APPD almost in five times in
comparison with APPD accumulation without nanopowder addition.
Application of foam barriers at oil fields. The foam systems stabilized by nanoparticles are high-efficiency di-
rection of lowering of a share of water in extracted product both for oil and gas fields.
This technology was applied at a series of Russian oil fields and has demonstrated high efficiency: decrease of
well stream watering by 15-20%, increase of oil output in 1.5-1.7 times, technological effect - 0.5-10 thousands
of tons of additional extracted oil per 1 treated well.
At a gas field «Urengojskoe», this technique was applied at 5 wells for prevention of sand appearance because
of their early flooding. The technological effect has made 16 million m3 per 1 well.
Application of nanoparticles for thermal effect on a stratum. Heat-generating systems are applied for thermo-
chemical effect on a bottomhole formation zone. Exothermal reactions of particles of a metal and an alkali or an
acid take place with release of heat (4000 kcal/kg of a metal). For injection of these systems inside an oil stratum,
dimensions of metal particles must be less than 50 nm, what is achieved by their special encapsulation.
"Smart nanofluids" can be created also by adding nanoparticles into technological fluids. Nanoparticles can be
components of «smart fluids», such as fluids changing wetting ability of nano-emulsions with size 30-80 nm and
less, and fracturing fluids. Fluids with nanomarkers used for indication of leakage of injected agents may be
referred to as "smart nanofluids" as well.
It is possible to expect that areas of application of "smart nanofluids" in oil and gas production industry will be
significantly extended in the future.
Wide prospects of efficiency increase in oil and gas production industry are connected with nanocoatings: for
hydrophobization of surfaces; for creation of thin protective antifriction coatings on various materials and tools;
for impregnation of fabrics, wood, asbestos, cement, building brick and facing materials, metal and pottery prod-
ucts and other things for the purpose of giving them chemical resistance, water-repellent and antifriction, anti-
wear properties; for separation of mixed gases with the help of fluoropolymer membranes with high permeability
for one of the components and high selectivity in the process of gas separation; for fluoropolymer insulating
coating of electric cables used in drilling and analysis of the current state of boreholes or oil-field equipment for
the purpose of corrosion prevention; for inspection of fuel quality, etc. Fluoropolymers (polymers, in which
hydrogen is partially or completely substituted by fluorine) can be used as a basis of such nanocoatings.
In petrochemical, chemical industries, polymeric membranes treated by fluorine can be used for cheapening of
СО2 scrubbing processes of natural gas, correction of H2/CO ratio in synthetic gas, separation of H2 and He from
natural gas, separation of H2 from waste gases of petrochemical plants and in the process of ethylene synthesis,
for CO scrubbing of H2 (application of hydrogen in fuel cells), for separation of biogas components. Such treat-
ment can be implemented by direct fluorination of hydrocarbon membranes.
Significant problems arise at transportation of hydrocarbons, especially oil products. Heavy hydrocarbons accu-
mulate on internal surface of pipelines; this process leads to the formation of clots with corresponding conse-
quences. Such problems can be solved by creation of antiadhesive fluoropolymer coatings possessing the best
antiadhesive characteristics among all materials. The external fluoropolymer coating of pipelines provides them
corrosion resistance, hydrophobicity, significantly increases their lifespan and prevents failures.
For quality control of petrol, it was necessary to learn fast quantification of metals in a hydrocarbon phase. A
new material on the basis of polymeric fabric and nanoscale impregnated sorbent was have created for this
purpose. This composite material meets all requirements: presence of metals changes color of this material.
Electron microscopy confirms increase of iron content in the composite after contact with petrol containing iron
compounds (test-strips darken). The developed methodology allows creating test-systems for identification of
other substances in different mediums: diesel fuel, drilling agents, etc.

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

6. Examples of Oil and Gas Nanotechnologies

Based On Nanoprocess Management
Regulation of ion-exchange activity of injected water. The majority of oil fields with low-permeable reservoirs
are developed with application of waterflooding, however, selection of water for influence on a stratum not
always was correlated with mineral structure of reservoir rock. It was related to some circumstances including
absence of both analysis of influence of mineralization of pumped water on efficiency of oil displacement and
techniques allowing calculation of oil displacement efficiency taking into account mineral structure of reservoir
rock. Clay minerals can make a considerable (up to 20-50%) share in terrigenous reservoirs. In the late 1960s,
in the USA, works with experimental evidences of possibility of increase of oil displacement coefficient from
clay-containing reservoirs by swelling of their clay components induced by pumping of fresh water were pub-
lished.
Ion exchange of water and clay minerals leads to adsorption of water from pore space by clays (water adsorption)
and transformation of minerals, and also to change of structure of the porous medium. Decrease of permeability
of a reservoir in tens times can take place in this case; this process is activated with decrease of mineralization
of water filtered in the reservoir and is determined by the type of clay minerals.
ак
For description of the process of swelling, depending on a coefficient of active shaliness K гл , the following
analytical dependence has been derived:

k  k0  C C0  
A.K sak
 B
(6)
where k and C are current values of permeability and concentration of pumped water, k0 and С0 - their initial
values, A and B - constants.
On the basis of the developed model of the process of oil displacement (extraction), taking into account ion-
exchange phenomena between pumped water and clay minerals, possibilities of regulation of properties of
pumped water for increase of flooding efficiency have been analyzed. It has been demonstrated that in a homo-
geneous oil stratum pumping of water less mineralized than oil-field water leads to increase of a coefficient of
oil displacement (displacement efficiency) from a zone washed by water and increase of sweep efficiency. In
non-uniform stratums, the result of this procedure depends on ratio of filtration parameters of stratums. There-
fore, nanotechnologies regulating properties of clay minerals are of great importance for increase of efficiency
of oil recovery.
Regulation of nanoscale features of pore surfaces. Oil hydrodynamics was developed as a natural extension of
pipe hydraulics, and the porous medium during very long time was treated as a system of capillaries with smooth
walls. But nanomineral phases (Figs. 2-4) have different form. Analysis of a defining role of a capillary hysteresis
in oil displacement proves that ORF depends on form of nanomineral complexes of a stratum-collector, defining
a total magnitude of capillary hysteresis. Moreover, change of forms of nanoscale mineral phases of a collector
at flooding leads to the change of a total magnitude of capillary hysteresis. Hence, purposefully changing struc-
ture of nanoscale mineral phases of a collector, it is possible to decrease a total magnitude of capillary hysteresis
and to increase ORF.
Taking into account a defining role of geological parameters of a collector at substantiation of technologies of
increase of ORF, capillary hysteresis of systems "oil-gas-water-rock" must be calculated for concrete porous
mediums as an important hydrodynamic parameter of nanoscale geological features of collectors of oil and gas.
Consideration of ion exchange in oil displacement by polymeric solutions. One of the methods of ORF increase
is an application of polymers as water thickening agents. However, viscosity of a polymeric solution decreases
with increase of water mineralization, and polymer sorption grows that makes estimating efficiency of polymeric
effect on an oil stratum ambiguous. Therefore, high mineralization of oil-field waters complicates application of
this method.
For increase of efficiency of this process, it was suggested to manage stratum ion exchange by injection of a pre-
bank of fresh water before a polymeric bank. Calculations revealed that pumping (injection) of a pre-bank of
fresh water before a polymeric bank when using low-sorbed polymer is undesirable, but, when using high-sorbed
polymer, it provides significant increase of ORF.

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

Pumping of solutions of polymers with a pre-bank of fresh water was implemented in Russia (Tatarstan) at
Romashkinskoe, Sokolkino-Sarapalinskoe, Novo-Elkhovskoe and Sabanchinskoe oil-fields. On all experimental
sites, positive results are achieved. Usually, decrease or stabilization of water cuttings of well production is
observed in 4-8 months after injection of such polymer solution, and daily average output of well grows. The
technological effect equals to 400-1100 ton (on the average 590 ton) per 1 ton of injected polymer. This technol-
ogy is one of the most efficient physical-chemical methods of ORF increase successfully applied in Tatarstan in
1980s. Additional oil recovery for this period has exceeded 450 000 ton. Further development of this technology
at oil-fields of Tatarstan takes place nowadays.
Clay stabilization. Action of clay stabilizers is based on the fact that it is adsorbed on clay surface and thereby
hinders ion-exchange. Treatment of a well model with permeability decrease to 30-50% of the initial value by a
clay stabilizer has allowed restoring it up to 80-85%. Oil-field trials of this technology at 7 injection wells have
demonstrated that this operation was successful in up to 85% of cases, and the injectivity index was increased
by 7-48% (with the average value of 27%). Application of clay stabilizers for improvement of pumped water
allows increasing ORF by 0.05-0.08.
Clay dispersion is based on application of reagents destroying clay minerals in a bottomhole formation zone.
Analysis shows that, to prevent the reverse (at extraction of dispersed clay) stratum blockage, dispersed particles
should have size up to 100 nm.
Injection of low-concentration (weak) polymeric solutions is founded on the fact that viscosity of a low-concen-
tration (weak) solution in pores with small radius significantly exceeds viscosity of a bulk solution with the same
density. Limitations of application of polymeric solutions in low-permeable collectors are connected with the
fact that high-molecular polymers in a high-concentration (strong) solution block porous medium impeding even
subsequent water flow. Experiments have demonstrated that application of polymeric systems with sizes of ag-
gregate less than 100 nm allows increasing ORF in low-permeable collectors by 0.2-0.25.
Magnetochemical effect. The scientific substantiation of this technology is based on special features of behavior
of ferromagnetic nanoparticles in injected water. Oil-field trials have displayed that capacity of low-permeable
oil stratums due to this technology increases in 2-2.5 times.
Thermopolymeric technologies. Thermal technologies, as it has been marked out above, change structure of oil
systems and are nanotechnologies in fact. Oil-field trials of thermopolymeric technologies have demonstrated
possibility of significant (by 0.2-0.3) increase of ORF at oil-fields with extra-heavy crude oil.
Increase of heat capacity of steam. According to research, addition of nanoparticles to the injected steam allows
increasing its heat capacity, raising efficiency of thermal-steam treatment of oil stratums with extra-heavy crude
oil.
Regulation of biostructure of injected water. Researchers mark out that about 80% of corrosion damage of wells
including casing pipes and other equipment is connected with activity of sulfate-reducing and other bacteria. There-
fore, regulation of biological composition of water used for oil and gas recovery is a kind of nanotechnology,
which increase efficiency of development of oil and gas fields.
Destruction of armor sheaths of water-oil emulsion. Nowadays, many oil-fields are at the last stage of their
development; this stage is characterized by significant well stream watering. Use of hydrodynamic effects and
magnetic devices in processes of water-oil treatment for destruction of armor sheaths in emulsions allows provid-
ing high-quality processing of product with 1.5-2-fold lowering of specific consumption of a demulsifying agent
and decrease of the process temperature by 10-15оС.
Regulation of a nanophenomenon of interphase ion-exchange. According to calculations, during water-oil dis-
placement, transition of components of oil (such as CO2, H2S, etc.) into the water phase can take place. Exchange
of components at flooding being a result of dissolution of light oil components in injected water undersaturated
with them increases output of some components by 3-4%. So, for example, in the oil-field «Tengiz», where
content of H2S equals to 20%, such increase of H2S output required either increasing processing power of the
plant by 3.5% or decreasing by 3.5% the oil recovery level at the set processing power. Therefore, improvement
of injected water by additives regulating the nanophenomenon of interphase ion-exchange is very important from
a practical point of view.
Regulation of properties of nano-colloids in oil systems. Modern research has demonstrated that the hydrody-
namic laws of movement of a fluid in a stratum vary significantly enough due to a multicomponent character of

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

structure of filtered water-gas-oil mixture. It was demonstrated that grad P = А·Q0,5. Such a dependence corre-
sponds to known rheological laws for oil disperse systems. Therefore, management of properties of nano-colloids
in oil systems is one of the most significant oil and gas nanotechnologies.
Electroimpact on oil stratums. Difference of speed of filtration of electrically charged particles and speed of
movement of the main fluid in a low-permeable collector leads to appearance of electrically charged areas with
volumes of several hundreds of cubic meters. Volume charges create alternating electric field, which, in its turn,
changes dispersion and charges of colloid particles, and also induces electrophoresis effects strengthening
change of movement speed of colloid particles. At the same time, laboratory experiments demonstrate that sig-
nificant gradients of potential (up to several thousands of V/m) can take place in the porous medium. They
significantly influence an electrochemical picture of interaction of a fluid with a surface.
Water drops in oil have negative electric charge, and oil drops in water have positive electric charge. Difference of
phase permeability of water and oil and presence of corresponding electric charges of microdrops leads to situation
when volume positive electric charge appears in the area of an emulsion «oil in water», and in the area of an emulsion
«water in oil» - volume negative electric charge appears.
Typical measured lengths of original waves of charge, potential, pressure and content (according to real information)
were equal to 50-100 m, depending on speed of flow. The jump of pressure was equal to 0.1 MPa, of potential -
1-2 V, of temperature - 2-3оС.
The analysis shows that such gradients of pressure (0.001-0.05 MPa/m) can appear due to spontaneously arising
volume charges and corresponding electric fields. Hence, even for characteristic dimensions of areas of volume
charges more than 1 m, the magnitude of electrostatic pressure will exceed 0.001-0.05 MPa that is comparable
to the magnitude of capillary hysteresis keeping oil ganglia.
Technogenic stimulation of volume electric charges due to using electric fields with intensity of hundreds of
V/m is a very efficient technological solution for improvement of oil filtration including filtration in wellbottom
zones.
In general, there is a wide spectrum of physical and chemical technologies allowing increasing efficiency of oil
recovery.

Conclusion
Research of nanophenomena is in active progress, and it is impossible to predict all new directions of application
of nanotechnologies. But even the just known results demonstrate the appearance of a series of new technologies
of development of oil and gas fields and reduction of expenditures for transformation of hydrocarbons into their
marketable state.
Nanotechnologies can help in development of new methods of measurement, too. Tiny sensors can be placed in
any equipment including underground. Thereby, it is possible to increase sharply volume of information about
oil-gas-fields and improve its quality.
Modern state of oil and gas science, created scientific foundations of development of oil and gas fields, already
created and verified tertiary methods of oil and gas recovery will allow increasing magnitude of ORF from the
present 0.3-0.4 up to 0.45-0.50.
However, summarizing the above mentioned information, it is necessary to note that nanotechnologies managing
nanoprocesses in oil and gas stratums will provide future growth of efficiency of oil and gas recovery guaran-
teeing ORF at a level of 0.5-0.6. The spectrum of revealed nanophenomena in oil and gas stratums constantly
extends. And new nanotechnologies appear and allow using different nanophenomena for increase of efficiency
of oil and gas recovery.
Possibility of practical increase of ORF up to a level of 0.6 is experimentally proved by the following information
from Romashkinskoye oil-field (Russia) represented in Figure 2.

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F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

Figure 2. Dependence of ORF from well stream watering F on sites 1-4 of Romashkinskoe oil-field with
different Kgl: 2.4 % (1), 3.6 % (2), 4.2 % (3), 5.6 % (4)

Comparing dynamics of oil recovery on these sites with different volume content of clays in a stratum (Кgl), we
see that with growth of Kgl from 2% to 6% the magnitude of ORF falls down from 0.6 to 0.2. It means that
development of nanotechnology of clay stabilization will allow reducing clay activity and achieving the magni-
tude of ORF up to 0.6 in stratums with 5% bed shaliness.
Nanotechnologies can be used for improvement of a process of drilling and oil and gas separation in beds, for
decrease of weight of drilling platforms and for control of equipment operation, for decrease of corrosion of
equipment at high pressures and temperatures. Nanotechnologies will allow improving operating characteristics
of oil-field equipment and technological fluids. Monitoring of research in the area of nanoindustry is necessary
for optimization of use of nanotechnologies in oil and gas industry.
More over, the company "Chevron" through its branch «Molecular Diamond Technologies» together with sci-
entists of the Stanford University has developed special technology and has started to produce a new class of
materials – nanodiamonds, named «diamondoids», for the first time made in 1933. They represent themselves
carbon molecules of many subsorts, different by their shape and size and made of tens of atoms, located similar
to a crystalline lattice of diamond. In several liters of oil there is only one such molecule. Dimension of diamon-
doids is approximately equal to 1 nm, they can be used for hardening of surface of drilling equipment.
The company "ВР" finances research in the area of ultra- and nanofiltration. Nanocomposites are developed both by
«ВР» and «Shell». Company "Halliburton" pays special attention to use of nanocatalysis for oil refining and petro-
chemistry. The other company from the USA («Engelhard») has developed methods of filtration of carbon from nat-
ural gas and production of automobile catalysts. The specially developed «molecular gate» allows to select molecules
of dioxide of carbon from its mixture with methane. One more company from the USA («NxCattm») has developed
a method of catching of flying organic residues from exhaust automobile gases. The Chinese company «Shenua
Group» on the basis of technology of the company from the USA «Hydrocarbon Technologies» started to produce
and apply artificial non-polluting fuel from coal for the purpose of black oil substitution.
According to a point of view of the company "Shell", oil and gas nanotechnologies will allow to increase up to
the maximum value of existing natural resources, to provide possibility of development of new resources, to
create specific conditions for integration of different technologies and business directions, to increase ORF.
Nanotechnologies allow to develop manufacturing of multipurpose coatings with specific properties: self-clean-
ing/curing of defects, anti-pollution/antimicrobial, scratch-resisting, coatings with increased ability of ultra-vio-
let rays absorption, with improved isolation properties, heat-insulating, active/adaptive coatings, etc.
We should notice that ecological progress is based on technological success. So, fro example, lowering of well
stream watering decreases amount of injected water and water, extracted with oil. Positive influence on na-
nopores of coal significantly decreases accident risk in coal mining. Stabilization of unstable collectors reduces
accident risk at oil and gas recovery. Gas delivery in its GH state will reduce danger of explosions of domestic
gas vessels. Management of the state of permafrost rocks will decrease accident risk at oil-fields in the North.
Regulation of the depth of oil refining will decrease necessary volume of crude oil. Petrol quality control will

© World Petroleum Council

F22 – The role of innovation and technology in shaping the oil and gas industry
21st World Petroleum Congress, Moscow 2014

diminish its negative influence on health of people. Improvement of quality of well cementing will decrease
probability of penetration of working fluids into water-bearing stratums. Significant electric energy saving al-
lows to use free energy for improvement of quality of life of people.
For implementation of the mentioned procedures specialists have created base scientific foundations, which re-
quire further development. Field trials of developed technologies have been conducted yet. But it is necessary
to create many new types of specific technical means and materials, to verify new nanotechnologies, and it will
require consolidation of efforts of workers from all branches of economy. As a result, application of nanotech-
nologies of management of nanoprocesses in oil-field systems "oil-gas-water-rock" will allow to increase ORF
and GRR. All these factors will satisfy the world demand for hydrocarbon resources for many centuries.
It is possible to see the following directions of development of oil&gas nanotechnologies:
1) increase of oil recovery factor (ORF, coefficient of oil recovery – COR);
2) lowering of well stream watering (watercut);
3) influence on a clay component of rock;
4) regulation of wetting of rock;
5) influence on nanocollectors;
6) decrease of power consumption for water injection and oil recovery;
7) development of GH deposits and utilization and trade of gas in its GH state;
8) utilization of low-pressure gas;
9) stabilization of unstable collectors;
10) application of nanocomposite materials, including nanoconcretes;
11) hydrophobic nanofluids, nanoreagents, nanopowders;
12) regulation of a state of nanoclusters of heavy hydrocarbons;
13) extraction of methane from coal beds;
14) deeper oil refinement;
15) ecological compatibility of functioning of oil and gas industry in whole.

References
1. Khavkin A.Ya. (2010). Nanophenomena and nanotechnologies in oil and gas recovery, 692 pp., Moscow-
Izevsk, Russia, IIKI.
2. Khavkin A.Ya. (2009). Prospects of oil and gas nanoindustry. Nanomaterials yearbook – 2009. From
nanostructures, nanomaterials and nanotechnologies to nanoindustry, pp.125-143, Nova Science Publishers, Inc.,
N.Y.
3. Khavkin A.Ya. (1992). Multiphase filtration model in terms of state-of-the art knowledge of oil reservoir
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discoveries for 1998, p.53-54, Moscow-N.Novgorod, RAEN (RANS).
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