ECE 3620

Lecture 6 – The zero-state response, the impulse response,

and convolution
Objective: To compute the zero-state response by convolution. To practice con-
volution. To meet the delta function, and learn how it is defined. To meet the
impulse response of a LTI system and see a formula for computing it.

Reading: pp. 115–139

The zero-state response; sums of inputs

Let us now find the response to an input f (t) when the initial conditions are set to
0; this is the zero-state response.
Important idea: Suppose we can decompose the input function f (t) into a bunch
of functions:
m
X
f (t) = f1 (t) + f2 (t) + · · · + fm (t) = fi (t).
i=1

Then, by linearity, the output of the system will be the sum of the responses due
to these component functions:
m
X
y(t) = y1 (t) + y2 (t) + · · · + ym (t) = yi (t)
i=1

If we do the decomposition of f (t) in a smart way, each of the components will be

easier to compute, where yi is the response to fi (t).
Think of writing f (t) as a set of very narrow rectangles of width ∆τ , with
amplitude f (n∆τ ) for the nth rectangle. Then f (t) is the sum of all the slices.
Then we want to find the response for each slice, and add them up.
Let us introduce some notation to describe this idea. Let δ∆τ (t) be a pulse
starting at t = 0, with width ∆τ and height 1/∆τ , so that δ∆τ (0)∆τ is equal to 1.
(Note that δ∆τ (t) has area 1 for any ∆τ .) Then

f (t) ≈ f (n∆τ )δ∆τ (t − n∆τ )∆τ, for n∆t ≤ t < (n + 1)∆t

and X
f (t) ≈ f (n∆τ )δ∆τ (t − n∆τ )∆τ
n

Now, in the limit, δ∆τ (t) → δ(t), and we obtain

Z ∞
f (t) = f (τ )δ(t − τ ) dτ.
−∞

This thus describes our input function, as a sum of “simpler” functions.

Now let us describe the output function. Let h∆τ (t) be the output response
to the input δ∆τ (t). Then, by time-invariance, h∆τ (t − n∆τ ) is the response to
δ∆τ (t − n∆τ ). Then we add up the results:
X
y(t) ≈ f (n∆τ )h∆τ (t − n∆τ )∆τ.
n

Now take the limit: let h(t) be the response to δ(t). The function h(t), again, is the
response of the system when a δ function is input (when all the initial conditions
of the system are zero). We call it the impulse response.
ECE 3620: Lecture 6 – The zero-state response, the impulse response, and convolution2

Then we get
Z ∞
y(t) = f (τ )h(t − τ ) dτ
−∞

So, for an arbitrary input f (t), we can find the output using this integral. The key
is that we need to know h(t), which is only a function of the system.
This integral comes up often enough (since it arises for any LTI system) that
it has been given a name: This is the convolution integral. Often we denote the
operation using a ∗:
Z ∞
f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) = f1 (τ )f2 (t − τ )dτ
−∞

The ∗ does not denote multiplication: it denotes convolution. Note location of t in

the integral.
Properties of convolution:
Commutative f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) = f2 (t) ∗ f1 (t). (Proof: let x = t − τ .)
Distributive f1 (t) ∗ [f2 (t) + f3 (t)] = f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) + f1 (t) ∗ f3 (t). (Follows from
linearity of integral.)
Associative f1 (t) ∗ [f2 (t) ∗ f3 (t)] = [f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t)] ∗ f3 (t).
Shift If f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) = c(t) then

f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t − T ) = c(t − T )

f1 (t − T ) ∗ f2 (t) = c(t − T )
f1 (t − T1 ) ∗ f2 (t − T2 ) = c(t − T1 − T2 )

Convolution with delta f (t) ∗ δ(t) = f (t).

Width If f1 (t) has duration W1 and f2 (t) has duration W2 , then f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) has
duration W1 + W2 . (We will see the demonstration (proof?) of this later.)
Causal signal: f (t) = 0 for t < 0. Causal system: output cannot begin before
the input begins. If f (t) is causal,
Z ∞
y(t) = f (τ )h(t − τ )dτ
0

If the system is causal, then for t < 0 we must have h(t) = 0. Then
Z t
y(t) = f (τ )h(t − τ )dτ, t ≥ 0
0−

(the 0− picks up the delta function at the origin, if any).

Example 1 f (t) = e−t u(t) and h(t) = e−2t u(t) (causal functions). Then
Z t
y(t) = e−τ e−2(t−τ ) dτ = (e−t − e−2t )u(t).
0
2

Note that there is a table (which will save a lot of work). As an example from
the table,
1
eλ1 t u(t) ∗ eλ2 t u(t) = (eλ1 t − eλ2 t )u(t)
λ1 − λ2
ECE 3620: Lecture 6 – The zero-state response, the impulse response, and convolution3

(Observe: no exponential terms come out that were not there in the first place.)
The total response of the system is given by

y(t) =zero-input response + zero-state response

Xn
= cj eλj t + f (t) ∗ h(t)
j=1

The impulse response function h(t)

Given that the impulse response function is so important to the zero-state solution,
how can we find it? The unit impulse response function is the response of a system
with zero initial conditions to an impulse input: imagine the effect of a sledge
hammer hitting the bumper of a car, or a short pulse into a circuit. The impulse
response function is, to some ways of thinking, merely a mathematical artifice, but
it provides us a powerful tool for finding the output of a system with an arbitrary
input function. The unit impulse response function consists of the characteristic
mode terms of the system, for all t ≥ 0+ . If there is a direct connection from
the input to the output (by some path), there may also be a delta function in the
impulse response function at time t = 0:

h(t) = A0 δ(t) + characteristic mode terms, t ≥ 0.

For a system
Q(D)y(t) = P (D)f (t)
which may be written in expanded form as

(Dn + an−1 Dn−1 + · · · + a1 D + a0 )y(t) = (bn Dn + bn−1 Dn−1 + · · · + b1 D + b0 )f (t)

the unit impulse response function for the system may be found as follows:
1. Find the zero-input response y0 (t),

Q(D)y0 (t) = 0

subject to the initial conditions

(n−1)
y0 =1

y0 (0) = ẏ0 (0) = ÿ0 (0) = · · · = y (n−2) (0) = 0.

2. Then
h(t) = bn δ(t) + [P (D)y0 (t)]u(t)
where n is the order of Q(D). If the order of P (D) is less than the order of
Q(D), then bn = 0, and the impulses term bn δ(t) in h(t) is zero. (This is
usually the case.)
We will not prove this (although the book does). For now take on faith this pre-
scription.
Example 2 Find the impulse response function for the system specified by the
equation (D2 + 3D + 2)y(t) = Df (t).

y0 (t) = c1 e−t + c2 e−2t

ẏ0 (t) = −c1 e−t − 2c2 e−2t

ECE 3620: Lecture 6 – The zero-state response, the impulse response, and convolution4

Initial condition:
y0 (0) = 0 ẏ0 (0) = 1
Leads to
c1 + c2 = 0
−1c1 − 2c2 = 1
c1 = 1 c2 = −1
So
y0 (t) = e−t − e−2t
To find the impulse response, need

P (D)y0 (t) = Dy0 (t) = −e−t + 2e−2t

h(t) = (−e−t + 2e−2t )u(t)

2

Example 3 RLC circuit (in lecture 5), f (t) = 10e−3t u(t), y(0) = 0, vC (0) = 5.
Zero input current is
y0 (t) = −5e−t + 5e−2t
(D2 + 3D + 2)y(t) = Df (t)
Impulse response (from before): h(t) = (2e−2t − e−t )u(t). Output:

y(t) = f (t)∗h(t) = 10e−3t u(t)∗(2e−2t −e−t )u(t) = 10e−3t u(t)∗2e−2t u(t)−10e−3t u(t)∗e−t u(t)

Using the table,

y(t) = (−5e−t + 20e−2t − 15e−3t )u(t)
Then the total response is

ytot (t) = −5e−t + 5e−2t + (−5e−t + 20e−2t − 15e−3t ) t ≥ 0

Now there is another way of looking at this: Observe that some of the output
terms are due to the natural modes of the system, while others are due strictly to
the input. The terms due to the natural modes of the system are referred to as the
natural response, while the terms due to the input are referred to as the forced
response.

ytot = natural response + forced response

= (−10e−t + 25e−2t ) + (−15e−3t )

Graphical convolution. What is happening in the convolution integral? Can

we understand it better? Look at
Z
c(t) = f (t) ∗ g(t) = f (τ )g(t − τ )dτ

First, flip g(τ ). Then shift this by t. Take the product and integrate. Show some
pictures. Do the pulse with the pulse. Do e−t u(t) with e−2t u(t).
Observe where the width property comes from.
Now comment on where this thing comes from again: the initial signals goes
through first, then the next, and so forth. Because of the way we draw things, we
have to flip the input around.