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Portugal

Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (in Portuguese, República Portuguesa; pron. IPA [??'pußlik? pu?tu'?ez?]) is located in southwestern Europe,
west parts of the Iberian Peninsula, and is the westernmost country in continental Europe. Portugal is bordered by Spain to the north and east and by the
Atlantic Ocean to the west and south. In addition, Portugal includes two archipelagos in the Atlantic, Azores (Açores) and Madeira Islands.

Portugal has witnessed a constant flow of different civilizations during the past 3,100 years. Iberian, Tartessian, Celtic, Phoenician and Carthaginian, Greek,
Roman, Germanic (Suevi and Visigoth), Semitic (Arabic, Jewish, etc.), Moorish and other cultures have all made an imprint on the country's culture, history,
language and ethnic make up. The naming of Portugal itself reveals most of the country's early history, stemming from the Roman name Portus Cale, possibly a
Latin name mixed with other influences, meaning "Beautiful Port". During the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal was a major economic, political, and cultural
power, its empire stretching from Brazil to the Indies.

History

Lusitania
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In the early first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with local peoples, the Iberians, forming the
Celt-Iberians. Early Greek explorers named the region "Ophiussa" (Greek for "land of serpents") because the natives worshipped serpents. In 238 BC, the
Carthaginians occupied the Iberian coasts. In this period several small tribes occupied the territory, the main tribes were the Lusitanians, who lived between the
Douro and Tagus rivers, and the Callaeci who lived north of the Douro river among some other tribes. The Cynetes or Conii, influenced by Tartessos, were long
established in Algarve. The Celtici, a later wave of Celts, settled in Alentejo.

In 219 BC, the first Roman troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula, driving the Carthaginians out in the Punic Wars. The Roman conquest of Portugal started from
the south, where they found friendly natives, the Conii. Over decades, the Romans increased their sphere of control. But in 194 BC a rebellion began in the
north, the Lusitanians successfully held off the Romans, took back land and ransacked Conistorgis, the Conii capital, because of their alliance with Rome.
Viriathus, the Lusitanian leader, drove the Roman forces out. Viriathus was born in Lorica, todays Loriga, in Portugal. Rome sent numerous legions, but success
was only achieved by bribing Lusitanian officials to kill their own leader. During this period, a process of Romanization was carried out.

The kingdom
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The 10th-century Castle of Guimarães, a national symbol, is known as the "Cradle of Portugal". The Battle of São Mamede took place nearby in 1128.

In the 5th century, Germanic tribes, most notably the Suevi and the Visigoths, invaded the Iberian peninsula, set up kingdoms, and became assimilated in the
Roman culture of the peninsula.

An Islamic invasion took place in 711. Many of the ousted nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Asturian highlands. From there they aimed to reconquer
their lands from the Moors. In 868, Count Vímara Peres reconquered and governed the region between the Minho and Douro rivers. The county became
known as Portucale (i.e. Portugal), due to its most important city, Portucale (today's Porto) and founded a villa with his name - Vimaranes (today's Guimarães)
where he chose to live.

While a dependency of the Kingdom of León, Portugal occasionally gained de facto independence during weak Leonese reigns, but it lost its autonomy in 1071
due to one of these attempts, ending the rule of the counts of the House of Vímara Peres. Then 20 years later, Count Henry from Burgundy was appointed
Count of Portugal as a reward for military services to León, and with the purpose of expanding the territory southwards. The Portuguese territory included only
what is now northern Portugal, with its capital in Guimarães.

Henry died and his son, Afonso Henriques (Afonso I) took control of the county. The city of Braga, the Catholic centre of the Iberian Peninsula, faced new
competition from other regions. The lords of the cities of Coimbra and Porto, along with the clergy of Braga, demanded the independence of the county.

Portugal traces its emergence as a nation to 24 June 1128, by the hand of Afonso Henriques, of the House of Burgundy, who emerged victorious from the
Battle of São Mamede. On 5 October 1143 Alfonso VII, king of León and Castile, recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. Only in 1179 would
pope Alexander III formally award Afonso I the Holy See's recognition, through the Manifestis Probatum bull. Afonso and his immediate successors (Sancho I,
Afonso II, Sancho II and Afonso III), aided by several military monastic Orders, such as the Templar Knights, the Order of Santiago and the Knights
Hospitaller, pushed southward to wrest more land from the Moors. In 1249 the Portuguese Reconquista ended when it reached the southern coast of the
Algarve.
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In an era of several wars when Portugal and Castile tried to control one another, King Ferdinand died with no male heirs. His only child, a daughter, had married
King John I of Castile who would therefore be the King of Portugal after Fernando's death. However, the prospect of losing independence to Castile was not
acceptable to the majority of the Portuguese, which led to the 1383-1385 Crisis. A faction of petty noblemen and common folk, led by John of Aviz (later John
I), with the help of Nuno Álvares Pereira, defeated the Castilians and their Portuguese supporters in the most celebrated battle of Portugal, the Battle of
Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385. John of Aviz, who had been made king at the Coimbra Cortes in April 1385, continued the war, intermittently, until the final
peace treaty of Medina del Campo (1431).

In 1386 Portugal made alliance with England through the Treaty of Windsor with the marriage of King John I with Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of
Gaunt, which still stands to this very day, making Portugal the oldest ally of England.

The Portuguese discoveries

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"Padrão dos Descobrimentos", Sculpture on the Discoveries Age and Portuguese Navigators in Lisbon, Portugal

In the following decades, conditions arose that would make Portugal spearhead the exploration of the world. The Portuguese bourgeoisie, who had supported
and helped the victorious King, had quickly risen up through the social ranks of Portugal, creating a new, dynamic generation which allowed the discoveries to
proceed. On 25 July 1415, the Portuguese Empire began when a Portuguese fleet led by King John I departed to besiege and conquer Ceuta in North Africa, a
rich Islamic trade centre. On 21 August the city fell.

In 1418 two captains of Prince Henry the Navigator were driven by a storm to an island which they called Porto Santo, or Holy Port, thankful that they had
been spared from shipwreck. Also in the early 15th century, Madeira Island and the Azorean islands were discovered. Henry the Navigator's interest in
exploration, along with some technological developments in navigation, made Portugal's expansion possible and led to great advances in geographic knowledge.

In 1434, Gil Eanes sailed past Cape Bojador, south of Morocco. The trip marked the beginning of the Portuguese exploration of Africa. At the end of the 13th
and the beginning of the 14th centuries, those who tried to venture there became lost, giving birth to legends of sea monsters. Fourteen years later, on a small
island known as Arguim, off the coast of Mauritania a castle was built, functioning as a trading outpost for commerce with inland Africa. Some time later, using
caravels, a kind of ship the Portuguese invented to help with the explorations, the Gulf of Guinea was explored, leading to the discovery of several uninhabited
islands. The Congo River was reached during one such foray.

After the Portuguese reached India, in 1498, they made many discoveries, leading to economic prosperity. However, the Portuguese population in the entire
kingdom numbered only about one million. Hence, new territory was being both charted and acquired, but there were not enough people to settle the colonies.
So, to protect them and the trade routes, Portugal kept a high level of secrecy. This policy has proven frustrating for historians, as some areas may have been
discovered before the commonly held dates. It has even been alleged that the Portuguese may have known of the Americas before the voyage of Columbus.
Some experts claim that Colombus was in fact Portuguese, while others forward the hypothesis that he was not only Portuguese but a "double agent" trying to
keep the Spanish out of the Indian trade routes.

A remarkable achievement was the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias in 1487. By then the spices of India were nearby, hence the name
of the cape. In the last decade of the 15th century, Pêro de Barcelos and João Fernandes Lavrador explored North America , Pêro da Covilhã reached
Ethiopia, searching for the mythical kingdom of Prester John, and Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498. In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on the
Brazilian coast. Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa, in India, Ormuz in the Persian Straight, and Malacca in modern day Malaysia as to
ensure Portuguese dominion of the commerce in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese kings eventually adopted the title of Rei de Portugal e dos Algarves
d'Aquém e d'Além-mar em África, Senhor da Guiné, e da Conquista, Navegação e Comércio da Etiópia, Arábia, Pérsia e Índia - King of Portugal and
of the Algarves, on this side and overseas in Africa, Lord of Guinea, and of the Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and of India.

In 1578, the young King Sebastian decided to enlarge Portuguese possessions in northern Africa and, despite having no son and heir to the throne, decided to
go into battle personally, where he is said to have been slain. Because Philip II of Spain was the son of a Portuguese princess, he became Philip I of Portugal in
1581. Portugal formally maintained its independent law, currency, colonies, and government, under a personal union between Portugal and Spain. New empires
had emerged and started to harass the Portuguese Empire. The third Habsburg king, Philip III tried to further enforce integration, openly attacking the
Portuguese nobility that was not in his favour. In 1 December 1640, the Duke of Bragança, of the Portuguese Royal Family, John IV, was hailed as king after a
rebellious uprising backed by disgruntled Portuguese nobles, and a Restoration War was fought for 28 years in Europe, Brazil and Africa.

Bragança Dynasty
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The 1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami, which killed more than a third of capital's population and devastated the Algarve as well, had a profound effect on
domestic politics and on European philosophical thought. In 1807, the Portuguese Court fled to Brazil, while the country was occupied during the Napoleonic
Wars. Shortly after, Brazil proclaimed its independence, under the rule of the Portuguese King Pedro IV (Emperor Pedro I of Brazil), who abdicated from the
Portuguese Crown and left his daughter D. Maria II as Queen in a liberal regime.

The Portuguese 19th Century is marked by Liberalism. The divisions between king Pedro IV - liberal - and his brother, King Miguel, a conservative who
overthrew Queen Maria II, led to the civil war between 1832 and 1834 and the signing of the new constitution in 1838. The political and social evolution of the
late 19th century was marked by instability.
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The republics
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In 1910 a republican revolution deposed the Portuguese monarchy, starting the First Republic. Political chaos, strikes, a deteriorated relationship with the
Catholic Church, and considerable economic problems aggravated by a disastrous military intervention in the First World War led to a military coup d'état on
May 28 of 1926, later, the military administration gave way to the New State in 1933, led by António de Oliveira Salazar. This New State was a right-wing,
Catholic dictatorship. The regime dominated the country during the following decades, helped by a strong political police, the PIDE. In the early 1960s,
independence movements became active in the colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Portuguese Guinea, starting the colonial wars.

The burden of the many colonial overseas wars and the lack of political and civil liberties led to the end of the regime after the Carnation Revolution in April 25
of 1974, a bloodless left-wing military coup that instated a democratic regime. In 1975, Portugal had its first free elections since 1926 and granted independence
to its colonies in Africa. During the post-revolutionary period, the left-wing promoted several changes, such as the nationalisation of the key sectors of the
economy and the creation of a social welfare network. In 1976, a democratic Constitution, still in force today, was approved.

Immediately after the revolution, membership in the EEC became an objective of the new government. This was achieved in 1986; since then Portugal has been
engaged in a process of economic convergence. However, the country remains one of the least developed in the EU.

In 1999 the Asian dependency of Macau was returned to Chinese sovereignty, a process considered a success by China and Portugal, signaling the end of the
Portuguese colonial rule.

Government and politics

More information on politics and government of Portugal can be found at the Politics and government of Portugal series. Portugal is a democratic
republic. The four main organs of Portuguese politics are the President of the Republic, the Assembly of the Republic, the Government, and the Courts. The
Constitution grants the complete separation between these powers.

The President of the Republic, elected to a 5-year term by universal suffrage is also commander in chief of the armed forces. Presidential powers include
appointing the Prime Minister, as advised by the Parliament which elects the Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers, named by the Prime Minister. Some
other major powers include dismissing the Government, dissolving the Parliament, and declaring war or peace. These have several constitutional restrictions,
namely the need to consult the presidential advisory body. This is the Council of State, composed of six senior civilian officers, all former presidents elected
since 1976, and ten citizens, five chosen by the President and the other five by the Parliament. The most commonly used power is that of approving or vetoing
any legislation.

The Parliament, or Assembly of the Republic (Assembleia da República in Portuguese) is a unicameral body composed of 230 deputies. It is elected by
universal suffrage, and the seats are allocated using the d'Hondt method in 22 constituencies that elect a number of deputies proportional to the respective
population, 18 for each District, 1 for Madeira, 1 for Azores and 2 for the diaspora, on Europe and outside Europe. Deputies serve terms of office of 4 years.

The Assembly of the Republic, along with the government, holds the legislative power and the government support lies upon it. The General Budget and the
Program of the Government must be approved by a majority of the deputies, otherwise the government falls. The Assembly may also let the government fall by
approving a motion of no confidence. The President of Parliament substitutes for the President of the Republic in the event of his absence.

The Government is headed by the Prime Minister, who names the Council of Ministers.

The Courts have several categories, including judicial, administrative and fiscal. The national Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. A nine-member
Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of legislation.

The national and regional governments are dominated by two political parties, the PS, a Social Democratic party, that resembles the British Labour or the
German SPD, and the PSD, a conservative party, member of the European People's Party, both with similar base politics: pro-European, and focusing on
market economy. Other parties with seats in the parliament are the Portuguese Communist Party, the People's Party, the Leftwing Bloc and the Green Party.
The Communists and the Greens are in coalition as the Unitarian Democratic Coalition. As of 2005, José Sócrates is the prime minister for the Socialists, and
the party also has an absolute majority in the parliament with 121 MPs, the Social Democratic Party holds 75 MPs, the Communist Party 12 MPs, the People's
Party 12 MPs, the Leftwing Bloc 8 MPs and the Green party 2 MPs.

Portuguese public opinion and media tend to be Europhile. In the EuroBarometer's 2004 Spring survey, 60% of the Portuguese said they trusted the European
Union.

Abortion law is restrictive, allowing for legal abortion under some circumstances, such as rape or a life-threatening situation for the mother or the fetus. In a
referendum held in 1998 proposing almost free abortion until 12 weeks of gestation, the results were 51% against, 49% in favour. However, the turnout of this
election was a scant 31% of the population. A new referendum is promised to be held soon. In July 2006, four womem were condemned to six month in jail
under the abortion law. Possessing small doses of drugs for personal use is not a crime in Portugal, but it can be seen as a cause for civil disorder. Handing out
or producing drugs is considered a crime. Gay rights are also upcoming as the sexual orientation is now protected by the Portuguese Constitution following EU's
directives, and gay couples can form civil unions.

Foreign relations and military

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Foreign relations are essential to Portugal. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, an alliance dating from 1373, has been retained throughout its history, making it the
oldest alliance still in force in the world. This English–Portuguese alliance was renewed in 1386 with the Treaty of Windsor. The treaty established a pact of
mutual support between the countries. This alliance was used in the successive expulsion of the Spanish kings and broke England's isolation from continental
Europe during Napoleon's era. The alliance is kept through NATO, a military organization in which both countries are founders along with 10 other countries
including the United States of America. Beyond the EU, the country has established a community with its former colonies, the CPLP, and today has very close
and prosperous relations with all of them, including close relations with Cape Verde and East Timor. It has a friendship alliance and a dual citizenship treaty with
Brazil. The new government has also prioritized relations with neighbouring Spain. It also has very good relations with China, due to Macau, a meeting-point of
both nations, and century-old diplomatic ties with Morocco.
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Portugal considers Olivença (Olivenza in Spanish, administrated by Spain) Portuguese territory de jure, based on agreements of both nations in the Vienna
Treaty of 1815 , but there are not strong diplomatic actions to take it back. Yet, this issue has been discussed at the Portuguese Parliament as recently as 2004.

The Portuguese Armed Forces are divided into three branches: Army, Navy, and Air Force. In the 20th century, Portugal engaged in two major military
interventions, namely the 1st World War and the colonial wars between 1961 and 1974. This colonial war was harsh and led to even more dislike of the Estado
Novo, in fact, the discontent with this war can be traced as one of the major causes of the regime´s fall in 1974 with the Carnation Revolution, initiated by the
military. Portugal has participated in several peacekeeping missions abroad, namely in East Timor, Bosnia, and Kosovo. During the Durão Barroso government
the Armed Forces were fully professionalized and obligatory military service was abolished in 2003. There were and still are small elite units of Portuguese
armed forces involved in the Afghanistan and Iraq conflicts. Involvement in the war in Iraq is not seen positively by many Portuguese.

Subdivisions

Map of the Portuguese islands

Portugal has an administrative structure based on 308 municipalities (concelho - singular, concelhos - plural), which are subdivided into more than 4,000
parishes (freguesias, singular - freguesia). Municipalities are grouped for administrative purposes into superior units, the most significant being the classification
since 1976, into either mainland (Portugal continental) or insular (Portugal insular) territory. The later enjoy a specific administrative and fiscal framework as
Autonomous Regions (regiões autónomas, singular - região autónoma), the Azores and Madeira Islands.

There are five regions (regiões, singular - região) in mainland Portugal, and 28 subregions (subregiões, singular - subregião). These are the modern official
territorial units in accordance with the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), in use today by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística and Eurostat,
and officially recognised by the European Union. The regions are:
• Alentejo
• Algarve
• Centro
• Lisboa, Region
• Norte
The districts (distritos, singular - distrito), are obsolescent administrative subdivisions that however remain in use for very many purposes, from electoral circles
to public education and health care, welfare and even league sports.

A referendum held in 1997 to institute higher-level regional administrative units failed to achieve the needed majority. Notwithstanding, larger territorial units have
been created by the initiative of groups of municipalities to answer the need for supra-municipal coordination especially in heavily urbanised areas.

There are three types of Urban areas:

• Grandes Áreas Metropolitanas - Greater Metropolitan Areas (more than 350,000 inhabitants)
• * Lisbon - 2,547,665
• * Porto - 1,509,958
• * Braga, Minho - 754,830
• * Aveiro - 460,157
• * Coimbra - 430,845
• * Faro, Algarve - 391,819
• * Viseu - 354,162
• Comunidades Urbanas - Urban Communities (more than 150,000 inhabitants)
• * Oeste, Vale do Sousa, Leiria, Lezíria do Tejo, Baixo Alentejo, Trás-os-Montes, Centro Alentejo, Baixo Tâmega, Douro, Médio Tejo, Beiras, Beira
Interior Sul, and Alto Alentejo;
• Comunidades Intermunicipais - Intermunicipal Communities (less than 150,000 inhabitants)
• * Pinhal and Vale do Minho.
Ad hoc geographic amalgamations also exist to answer the needs of specific economic sectors (e.g. tourist regions) or branches of the state (e.g. judicial areas),
while historical or cultural subdivisions continue to be informally referenced such as the provinces (províncias, singular - província): Alentejo, Algarve, Beira,
Douro Litoral, Estremadura, Minho, Ribatejo, and Trás-os-Montes.

Geography and climate

Continental Portugal is split in two by its main river, the Tagus (Tejo). Northern landscape is mountainous in the interior areas with plateaus, cut by four
breaking lines that allow the development of relevant agricultural areas. The South area between the Tejo and the Algarve (the Alentejo) features mostly rolling
plains with a climate somewhat warmer and drier than the cooler and rainier north. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo by mountains, enjoys a
Mediterranean climate comparable with Morocco or Southern Spain, and is the southwesternmost tip of Europe (Sagres). Other major rivers include the Douro,
the Minho and the Guadiana, similar to the Tagus in that all originate in Spain. Another important river, the Mondego, originates in the Serra da Estrela (the
highest mountains in mainland Portugal - 1,993 m / 6,532 ft).
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Mount Pico in Pico Island as viewed from Faial Island

The islands of the Azores and Madeira are located in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Some of these islands have had recent volcanic activity. Originally two islands,
São Miguel Island was joined by a volcanic eruption in 1563. The last volcano to erupt was the Vulcão dos Capelinhos (Capelinhos Volcano) in 1957, in the
Western part of Faial Island, increasing the size of that island. Dom João de Castro Bank is a large submarine volcano that lies midway between the islands of
Terceira and São Miguel and rises to 14 metres (46 ft) under the sea surface. It last erupted in 1720 and formed an island that remained over the water for
several years. A new island may be formed in a not so distant future. Portugal's highest point is Mount Pico in Pico Island, an ancient volcano, at 2,351 metres
(7,713 ft).

The Portuguese coast is extensive, it has 943 kilometres (586 mi) for continental Portugal, 667 kilometres (414 mi) for the Azores, 250 kilometres (155 mi) for
Madeira and the Savage Islands . The coast has fine beaches, the Algarve ones being world famous. In Porto Santo Island, a dune formation appeals to many
tourists. An important feature on its coast is the Ria de Aveiro (near Aveiro), a delta 45 kilometres (28 mi) in length and a maximum of 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) in
width, rich in fish and sea birds. There are four main channels, between them several islands and islets, and it is where four rivers meet the ocean. A sort of
narrow headlands formed a lagoon, seen as one of the most remarkable hydrographic features of the Portuguese coast. Portugal possesses one of the largest
exclusive economic zones (EEZ) in Europe, covering 1,727,408 square kilometres (666,956 sq mi).

Portugal is one of the warmest European countries. In mainland Portugal, yearly temperature averages are about 15ºC (55°F) in the north and 18ºC (64°F) in
the south. Madeira and Azores have a narrower temperature range as expected given their insularity, with the former having low precipitation in most of the
archipelago and the latter being wet and rainy. Spring and Summer months are usually sunny and temperature maximum are very high during July and August,
with maximums averaging between 35°C and 40°C (86°F - 95°F) in the interior of the country, 30ºC and 35ºC in the north, and occasionally reaching 45°C
(113°F) in the south. Autumn and Winter are typically rainy and windy, yet sunny days are not rare either. Temperatures rarely fall below 5°C (41°F) nearer to
the sea, averaging 10°C (50°F), but can reach several degrees below 0°C (32°F) further inland. Snow is common in the mountainous areas of the north,
especially in Serra da Estrela. Portugal's climate can be classified as Mediterranean (particularly the Algarve and Alentejo, though technically on Atlantic shore).

Flora and fauna

Typical landscape of Alentejo

Human activity, diversity of climate, and geographical diversity have shaped the Portuguese flora. There are almost 2,800 autochthonous species. For economic
reasons, pine trees (especially the Pinus pinaster and Pinus pinea species), the chestnut tree and the eucalyptus are very widespread.

The Peneda-Gerês National Park (mostly known as Gerês) is located in the extreme north-west of Portugal. The park has a wide variety of oaken and mixed
forests, groves, peat bogs, and diverse bushes, including autochthonous and rare species. It is one of the last Iberian harbours of wolves, garranos, golden eagle
s, vultures and honey buzzards amongst many others. The iberian lynx, an endemic specie, once common is almost extinct in Portuguese terrority and only few
survive in Spain. Boars are common in Alentejo and Trás-os-Montes. The Natural parks of Serra da Estrela, with its broad valleys and turf soils and the
Arrábida with its Mediterranean character and the sand varieties of its beaches unveil the ecological variety of Portugal.

The Serra da Estrela mountain range is situated in central-east Portugal and a large part of the mountain lies within the limits of the Serra da Estrela Natural Park.
The Park covers around 100,000 ha and is administered by six municipalities: Seia, Gouveia, Celorico da Beira, Guarda, Manteigas and Covilhã. These are
included in two districts: in the north the Guarda district and in the south the Castelo Branco district.

The Tapada Nacional de Mafra is conspicuous, due to its rich flora and fauna. The Tapada was created in the reign of King John V for royal delight, in an area
of 8 square kilometres with deer, wild boars, foxes, birds of prey and several other species. Today, the Tapada is classified as an area of national hunting (Zona
de Caça Nacional).

A large part of Portugal is covered by forest. In the last years, during the hot and dry Summer months, large areas of forest were destroyed by fires, many of
which (an estimated 40% in 2004) caused by arson. In 2005 this problem was aggravated by a severe drought affecting Mainland Portugal. In the year to
September 2005, three quarters of Mainland Portugal saw less than half the normal rainfall, and the remaining quarter less than 60%.

Mixing of cold and warm ocean streams has attracted a wide variety of fish, also allowing development of a great number of seaweeds. These were a focus of
famous research by French phycologist Françoise Ardré.

Economy
Since 1985, the country started its modernization in a very stable environment (1985 - to the present day) and it joined the European Economic Community in
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1986. Successive governments have implemented various reforms and privatised many state-controlled firms and liberalised key areas of the economy, including
the financial and telecommunications sectors. Portugal developed an increasingly service-based economy and it was one of the eleven founding countries of the €
in 1999 and began circulating the new currency on January 1, 2002 along with eleven other EU members.

The major industries are the textile, footwear, leather, furniture, ceramics, and cork. Modern industries have developed significantly, including: oil refineries,
petrochemistry, cement production, automotive and ship industries, electrical and electronics industries, machinery and paper industries. Portugal has an
ambitious and well-planned complex of petrochemical industries in Sines where the biggest oil refinery of the Iberian peninsula will be built. Automotive and
other mechanical industries are located in Setúbal, Porto, Aveiro, Braga, Santarém, and Azambuja.

A considerable part of continental Portugal is dedicated to agriculture, although it does not represent most of the economy. The south has developed an
extensive monoculture of cereals and olive trees and the Douro Valley in vineyards. Olive trees (4,000 km²; 1,545 sq mi), vineyards (3,750 km²; 1,450 sq mi),
wheat (3,000 km²; 1,160 sq mi) and maize (2,680 km²; 1,035 sq mi) are produced in vast areas. Portuguese wine and olive oil are especially praised by
nationals for their quality, thus external competition (even at much lower prices) has had little effect on consumer demand, a situation that does not occur with
other products. Portugal is a traditional wine grower, and has exported its wines since the dawn of western civilization; Port Wine and Vinho Verde (Green
Wine) are the leading exporters. Portugal is also a quality producer of fruits, namely the Algarve oranges and Oeste region's Pera Rocha (a type of pear). Other
exports are horticulture, floriculture, beet sugar, sunflower oil, and tobacco.

Natural resources such as copses cover about 34% of the country, namely pine trees (13,500 km²; 5,200 sq mi), cork oak (6,800 km²; 2,625 sq mi), holm oak
(5,340 km²; 2,060 sq mi), and eucalyptus (2,430 km²; 940 sq mi). The large-scale growing of eucalyptus for the paper and woodchip industries has been
controversial, as eucalyptus trees have very deep roots, and lead to a lowering of the water table. This has been a contributory factor in the high rate of arson, as
failing farmers vent their frustrations. Cork is a major export, Portugal produces half of the world's cork. Significant mining resources are tungsten, tin, and
uranium.

Portugal's balance of trade is negative. It buys mostly in the European Union from: Spain, Germany, France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. It also sells most of
its products within the union to: Germany, Spain, and France mostly.

Portugal is trying to develop a cultural and rustic tourism, rather than only beach tourism, in order to attract more affluent tourists often concerned in getting to
know the real Portugal. The interior of the nation has a decreasing population, but exceptional touristic potential. The Algarve, with its different beaches has been
the primary attraction for decades, but it has suffered from mass tourism, and the authorities have been working to recover the 1960's Algarve, namely
recovering the coast and demolishing illegal urbanizations. Mass tourism has caused some ecological damage in the Algarve, for example water shortages. The
Lisbon area has recently become a very popular destination, mostly due to the city of Lisbon urban historical attractions, but also due to Sintra's fabled palaces
and castles located in very romantic and exotic scenery. The island territories of Madeira and the Azores also have a growing potential.

Energy, transportation and communications

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As of 2006, 55% of Portuguese energy production is made by coal and fuel powerplants. The other 40% is produced by hydroelectrics and 5% by wind
energy (an increasing focus over the last few years). Portugal is still highly dependent on oil production and it´s inconstant prices. Debate on nuclear energy use
has recently been brought to the public but has brought little enthusiasm. Although, like other EU countries Portugal is involved in the Joint European Torus
project. Recently, the construction of a new high-capacity oil refinery has also been announced.

Transportation was seen as a priority in the 1990s, pushed by the growing use of automobiles and industrialization. The country has a 68,732 kilometres
(42,708 mi) network of highways. Almost 2,000 kilometres (1,240 mi) is the total length of 44 freeways that connect most of the country.

Seaports are important due to Portugal's large coastline, and its strategic position in Europe and in the Atlantic ocean. The main seaports are Lisbon in the
centre, Leixões (Porto) in the North, Setúbal and Sines in the south, Funchal and Ponta Delgada in the Atlantic. The most important airports are those of
Lisbon, Faro and Porto, these last two had extensive development recently. There are also important airports in the islands, such as the intercontinental airport
of Madeira (Funchal, Madeira Island), Porto Santo (Porto Santo Island), and Ponta Delgada (Azores).

The two principal metropolitan areas have subway systems: Lisbon Metro and Porto Metro, both with more than 35 kilometres (22 mi) of commercial lines.
Both systems are linked by sharing stations with High-speed Pendolino trains, known as Alfa Pendular, that link both cities. The South Tagus Metro system is in
construction and will connect the urban areas south of Lisbon. Another metro system for Coimbra is intended.

The Pendolino lines (Alfa pendular) of Comboios de Portugal (CP) links Braga, Porto, Coimbra, Lisbon and Faro, linking the country in a vertical way.
Intercity and regional trains link these cities with many other cities throughout the country. Construction of a high-speed TGV line connecting Porto and Lisbon,
and Lisbon with Madrid will begin in 2008. The line between Porto and Lisbon will have five stations (Porto, Aveiro, Coimbra, Leiria, Ota New Airport and
Lisbon), but the trains in rarely stop in the intermediary stations. The New Airport for Lisbon will be built at the same time in Ota.

In the technology area, Portugal has one of the highest mobile phone possession rates in the world. There have been more mobile phone subscribers than main
line subscribers for several years now. Nowadays, there are more than 11 million mobile subscribers. Third generation mobile phones, UMTS, have been
largely commercialized by operators since early 2004. The main telecom company is Portugal Telecom (PT), a telecommunications multinational, it dominates
some markets, among them the national one. In the mobile section, the market is split between three operators: TMN (PT group), Vodafone, and Optimus (
SONAE group).

As of March 2006, about 30% of the Portuguese homes had high-speed internet services, a service that can be used at every town of the nation as it is one of
the few European country totally covered by high-speed internet services. In the first quarter of 2004, 78% of companies with more than 10 employees had
Internet access. Competition of the major broadband Internet providers, sapoadsl and Netcabo (Portugal Telecom group) with Clix/Novis (SONAE group),
has caused large increases in the bandwidth provided to home users in 2005 (from 512Kbit/s and 1Mbit/s to 2 and 4Mbit/s). As of june 2006, average
consumer speed is 4Mbit/s, and can go up to 20Mbit/s in Novis' infrastructure. PT group is the leader of the market. Main television broadcasters are the
state-run RTP1 and "a 2:" (meaning "the 2:" in port) and the privately owned SIC and TVI. Most Portuguese see television through cable (by June 2004: 73.6%
of households), where the major broadcasters have thematic channels. The main cable company TV Cabo (PT group) is trying to shift all of its customer's
services to digital after an unsuccessful experience with Interactive TV.
 -7-

Demographics

Pre-Roman tribes in Portugal and their main migrations: Turduli in red, Celtic in brown and Lusitanian in blue. Names are in Latin.

Portugal is a fairly homogeneous country linguistically and religiously. Ethnically, the Portuguese people are a combination of several ethnicities: pre-Roman
Iberian and Celtic tribes with Romans and Germanic tribes. Moors became a reduced influence, as essentially they were expelled during the Reconquista. Jews
comprised 10% of the population in the 16th Century until they were forced to move abroad or convert to Catholicism.

Between 1960 and 1970, more than one million Portuguese emigrated, mostly to other European countries, resulting in a negative population growth. Previously,
Brazil had been the destination of many, especially since the 18th century. Since mid 1970s major changes started to influence the country's demographics, the
life expectancy went up, the infant mortality rate and the fertility rate broadly declined and, with the decolonisation, many Portuguese returned from Africa.

In the 2001 Census, Portugal had 10,356,117 inhabitants (51.7% female). Currently, there are almost 10.6 million inhabitants. By the end of 2003, legal
immigrants represented 4.2% of the population, and the largest communities were: Ukrainians (15%), Brazilians (14.8%), Cape Verdeans (14.4%), and Angola
ns (7.9%). There are also a significant number of illegal immigrants, the treatment of those being now becoming increasingly problematic. Portugal still has 5
million emigrants abroad.

The great majority of the Portuguese population adheres to the Roman Catholic Church. Religious minorities include a little over 300,000 Protestants. There are
also about 50,000 Muslims and 10,000 Hindus (most of whom came from Goa, a former Portuguese colony). There are also about 1,000 Jews. There are
upwards of 34,000 members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and Atheists and agnostics are increasing in number.

Portugal's biggest metropolitan cities are Lisbon, Porto, Braga, Coimbra and Aveiro. The country is characterized by municipal cultural differentiation and there
is little to no regional differentiation, unlike what happens in other European countries, resulting from the Roman municipalism, but mainly from the concelho de
vizinhos created possibly during the Moorish rule as the lands were freed from the Visigothic nobles, leading the people of a land to organize itself in concelhos.
Portuguese is spoken throughout the country, some of Terra de Miranda's Mirandese speaking villages being the only linguistic minority.

Education

The tower of the University of Coimbra

Portugal's education system is divided into Pré-Escolar (children less than 6 years old), Ensino Básico (three phases in a total of 9 years), Ensino Secundário
(secondary education - three years, several areas) and Ensino Superior (higher education - Universities and Polytechnical Institutes). Education is free and
compulsory for 9 years of study. A newly undertaken scheme will make education compulsory until the student becomes an adult (18 years old). The country
still has a 6.7% illiteracy rate, almost exclusively among the elderly.

The first Portuguese university – The Estudo Geral (General studies, today's University of Coimbra) - was created on March 1st, 1290 in Lisbon with the
document Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis by King Denis. The university was transferred to Coimbra in 1308, though the university moved several times between
the two cities until 1537. In 1559, the University of Évora was founded in Portugal by Cardinal Henry, future king of Portugal and Pope Paul IV and it was
delivered to the Society of Jesus. In the 18th century Sebastião de Melo, Marquis of Pombal, closed the University of Évora, because he wanted to eliminate
the Jesuit power in Portugal and in its empire. He also reformed the University of Coimbra. In 1837 two new higher learning schools were founded, the Escola
Politécnica (Polytechnic School) in Lisbon and the Academia Politécnica in Porto. In the 19th century the industrialization created the need for new education
institutions in the country, the "industrial studies". The prime-minister of the Kingdom, Fontes Pereira de Melo, founded in 1852 the Instituto Industrial de Lisboa
(Institute of Industry, today's IST and ISEL) in Lisbon and the Escola Industral (School of Industry, today's ISEP) in Porto. In 1825, the Lisbon Royal School
 -8-

of Surgery and Porto Royal School of Surgery had also opened.

With the advent of the republic, the polytechnic and surgery schools were incorporated as faculties into the newly created University of Lisbon and the
University of Porto, that were both founded in 1911. The Lisbon Institute of Industry led to the creation of IST which was grouped with other existing
institutions to constitute the Technical University of Lisbon in the 1930s. In the 1960s the first non-governmental institution opened, the Portuguese Catholic
University.

The 1970s marked a new era in Portugal's higher education with many universities and polytechnics opening in many cities, such as the University of Aveiro and
the University of Minho in the university subsector, and the Polytechnical Institute of Lisbon and Polytechnical Institute of Porto in the polytechnic subsector.
Subsequently, several private institutions opened across the country.

The Bologna process is being adopted to become effective before 2011.

Law
The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law or continental family of legal systems. Up to the end of the 19th century French law was the main influence,
but since then the major influence has been German law. The main laws include the Constitution (1976, as amended) the Civil Code (1966, as amended) and
the Penal Code (1982, as amended). Portuguese law applied in the former colonies and territories and continues to be the major influence. This includes for
example the legal system of Macau.

Culture

A typical aspect of Portugal is its architecture, influenced by several early civilizations.

Portugal is an ancient nation and through more than 1000 years it has developed a specific culture while being influenced by the various civilizations that crossed
the Mediterranean world. Thus, it has absorbed traditions from early civilizations and from regions discovered throughout the world during the 500 year long
Portuguese empire.

An explicit instance of this absorption and adaptation of previous culture is seen in the countless festivals to pagan local and Roman deities which were
transformed into festivals to Christian saints; only some pagan festivals have changed little over 2,000 years, due the religious passion of the Middle Ages and
the inquisition.

Portuguese music has a wide variety of genres. The most renowned Portuguese music is Fado, a melancholic urban music. Fado is usually associated to the
Portuguese guitar and to saudade, a feeling that occurs when one is in love with someone or something yet apart from him, her, or it. The style conveys a distinct
mixture of sadness, pain, nostalgia, happiness and love. Though dilettanti claim that Fado origins are a mixture of African slave rhythms, traditional music of
Portuguese sailors and Arabic influence, the early written records about fado connect it to Brazilian modinha in the 19th century. Some of its most internationally
notable performers are Amália Rodrigues, Mariza, Ana Moura, Mísia, Dulce Pontes, Madredeus, and Cristina Branco.

Currently, mainstream music in Portugal is in a rural and urban duality where the Portuguese pop-rock and Portuguese hip hop are popular with the younger and
urban population, while pimba (a simple and cheery variety of pop music) and folklore are more popular in the rural areas.

Portuguese literature is one of the earliest Western literatures, and it developed as the 13th century arrived, through texts and songs. Until 1350, the
Portuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula . King Dinis favoured Occitan-inspired cantigas. Gil Vicente was
the author to some transition theatrical pieces known as autos and is considered as one of the main founders of both Portuguese and Spanish dramatic
traditions. Bernardim Ribeiro and Sá de Miranda rank among the most eminent Renaissance writers. Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (c.1524 - 1580)
wrote the epic poem The Lusiads, a work that he developed during his journeys in Africa and Asia and that has Virgil's Aeneid as main model. According to his
own account, he was shipwrecked in Cambodia, and saved himself and his work by floating on a board. Modern Portuguese poetry, since the 19th century, is
essentially rooted in a handful of relevant poets, ranging from neo-classicism to contemporary styles. One such famous poet is Fernando Pessoa (1888 – 1935),
who wrote poetry in the voice, style and manner of many fictional poets under a large number of heteronyms. Modern literature also became internationally
known, mostly through the works of Almeida Garrett, Alexandre Herculano, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queirós, Fernando Pessoa, Ferreira de Castro,
Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, Herberto Helder, António Lobo Antunes and the 1998 Nobel Prize for literature winner, José Saramago.

Portuguese traditional architecture is distinct precisely due to the variety of influences it features, with several examples throughout the world, some of which are
classified as world heritage sites. Modern Portugal has one of the best architecture schools in the world, known as "Escola do Porto" or School of Porto,
renowned by the names of Souto Moura and Alvaro Siza. Prominent figures in visual arts, known internationally are the painters Vieira da Silva and Paula Rego
.

Since the 90´s Portugal increased the number of cultural facitilies where art and culture can be apreciatted by a wider public. These include the Centro Cultural
de Belém (CCB) in Lisbon, Fundação Serralves (Serralves Foundation) and Casa da Música (House of Music) both in Porto. Recently the announcement
that Portuguese state will take care and exhibit permanently one of the greatest modern and contemporary art collections in Europe owned by Joe Berardo,a
tycoon natural from Madeira, was received with enthusiasm by artists and cultural agents.
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Cuisine
1. redirect [[Template:Main articles]]

Cozido à portuguesa

Pastéis de nata (cream custards)

Portuguese cuisine is particularly diverse; various recipes of rice, potatoes, bread, meat, sea-food, and fish are the staple foods in the country. The Portuguese
have a reputation for loving cod dishes (bacalhau in Portuguese), for which it is said that there are 365 ways (one for each day of the year) of cooking it: Pastéis
de Bacalhau, Bacalhau à Brás and Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá are some of the most popular ones. The art of pastry, having its origins in old and rich conventual
pastry recipes, is very popular across the entire country. Desserts and cakes, such as Lisbon's Pastéis de Nata (best eaten with a strong coffee), Aveiro's
Ovos-Moles, and many other, are very appreciated. Portugal has its own adaptation of fast-food; one of the most popular is Porto's Francesinha. Other recipes
include the Feijoada, made with pieces of meat, sausages and beans served with white and dry rice, the Cozido à Portuguesa, made with various kinds of meat,
rice, potatoes and other vegetables, all boiled, and the Espetadas.

Portuguese wines have been exported since Roman times. The Romans associated Portugal with Bacchus, their god of Winery and Feast. Today the country is
known by wine lovers, and its wines had won several international prizes. Many famous Portuguese wines are known as some of the world's best: Vinho Verde,
Vinho Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairrada and the sweet: Port Wine, Madeira wine and the Moscatels of
Setúbal and Favaios (Douro). Porto Wine is widely exported, followed by Vinho Verde. Exports of Vinho Verde are increasing rapidly, in response to the
growing international demand.

Sports and games

Football is the most popular and practised sport in Portugal. As of May 2006, the Portuguese national team was ranked 7th out of 205 countries by FIFA. The
legendary Eusébio is still a symbol of Portuguese football. Luís Figo was voted 2001 Player of the Year by FIFA, after finishing 2nd in 2000. Rui Costa and
Cristiano Ronaldo are also noteworthy and Vítor Baía is the player in history with most titles won, including all European club cups. Moreover, José Mourinho is
regarded as one of the most successful and well-paid football managers in football's history. The main domestic football competition is the Superliga where the
dominating teams are SL Benfica, FC Porto and Sporting CP. Portugal hosted and nearly won EURO 2004, getting defeated in the final by surprise winner
Greece. The Portuguese national team also reached the semi-finals of the FIFA World Cup twice, in 1966, when Eusebio was the top scorer, with 9 goals, and
2006. Many other professional and well organized sport competitions take place every season in Portugal, including basketball, futsal, rink hockey, team
handball, volleyball, and rugby championships. Cycling, with Volta a Portugal being the most important race, and athletics competitions are also popular. In rink
hockey Portugal is the country with most world titles: 15 World Championships and 20 European Championships, and in rugby sevens the Portuguese team has
won many international trophies, having as of July 2006 five European Championship titles. Golf is also worth mentioning, since its greatest players play in the
sunny region of the Algarve during the "Algarve Open". The Autódromo Fernanda Pires da Silva in the Estoril, near Lisbon, is the main Portuguese race track
where many motorsport competitions are held, including the World Motorcycling Championship and A1 Grand Prix. Rallying (with the Rally of Portugal and
Rally Madeira) and off-road (with the Baja Portugal 1000) events also have international recognition.

The country has an ancient martial art known as "Jogo do Pau" (Portuguese Stick Fencing), used for self-protection and for duels between young men in
disputes over young women. Having its origin in the Middle Ages, Jogo do Pau uses wooden staves as a combat weapon. Other sports are the "Jogos
Populares", a wide variety of traditional sports played for fun.

Festivals and holidays

A street in Lisbon's old quarters.

Festivals play a major role in Portugal's summers. Every city and town has its own festivals. The June Festivities are very popular. These festivities are dedicated
to three saints known as Santos Populares (popular saints) and take place all over Portugal. Why the populace associated the saints with these pagan festivities
is not known. The practice is possibly related to Roman or local deities before Christianity spread into the region. The three saints are Saint Anthony, Saint John
and Saint Peter. A common denominator in these festivities are the wine and água-pé (a watered kind of wine), traditional bread along with sardines, marriages,
traditional street dances, fire, fireworks and celebration.

Saint Anthony is celebrated on the 13th, mainly in Lisbon and Saint John on the 24th, especially in Porto and Braga, where the sardines, Caldo Verde
 - 10 -

(traditional soup in entire Portugal) and plastic hammers to hammer on other peoples' heads for luck are indispensable. The final saint is Saint Peter, celebrated
on the nights of 28th and 29th, especially in Póvoa de Varzim and Barcelos, festivities are similar to the others, but mostly dedicated to the sea and extensive use
of fire (fogueiras). In Póvoa de Varzim, there is the Rusgas in the night, another sort of street carnival. Each festivity is a municipal holiday in the cities and
towns where it occurs.

Carnival is also widely celebrated in Portugal, some traditional carnivals date back several centuries. Loulé, Alcobaça, Mealhada and above all Ovar hold
several days of festivities, with parades where social and political criticism abound, music, dancing in an environment of euphorya. On January 6, Epiphany is
celebrated by some families, especially in the North, where the family gathers to eat "Bolo-Rei" (literally, King Cake, a cake made with crystalized fruits); this is
also the time for the traditional street songs - "As Janeiras" (The January ones). Saint Martin Day, is celebrated on November 11. This day is the peak of three
days, often with very good weather, it is known as Verão de São Martinho ("Saint Martin summer"), the Portuguese celebrate it with jerupiga (a sweet liqueur
wine) and roasted Portuguese chestnuts (castanhas assadas), and it is called Magusto.

National Holidays
Date Name Remarks
New Year's Day. Beginning of the year, marks the
January 1 Ano Novo
traditional end of "holiday season."
Carnival. (Also called Mardi Gras). Not an official
holiday, but declared by the government as a
non-working day. Very ancient festival celebrating
Tuesday, date varies Carnaval the end of the winter. It gained Christian
connotations, and now marks the first day of a
period of 40 days before Easter Week (Semana
Santa, Holy Week), thus also known as Entrudo.
Friday, date varies Sexta-Feira Santa Good Friday.
Easter. Used for family gathering to eat Pão-de-Ló
(an Easter cake) and Easter eggs. In the North, a
sort of church members processions (compasso)
visits and blesses every home with an open door,
thus meaning they are Catholics. Traditionally, this is
Sunday, date varies Páscoa
the second visit of children and non-married
youngsters to their godparents, receiving an Easter
gift. The first visit is on Palm Sunday, 7 days before,
where children give flowers and palms to their
godparents.
Literally, "Freedom Day". Celebrates the Carnation
April 25 Dia da Liberdade Revolution, marking the end of the dictatorial
regime. Event of 1974.
May 1 Dia do Trabalhador Labour Day.
Corpus Christi. Christian feast celebrating the
Thursday, date varies Corpo de Deus
Eucharist.
Portugal Day. Marks the date of Camões death.
June 10 Dia de Portugal Camões wrote The Lusiad, Portugal's national epic.
Event of 1580
August 15 Assunção Assumption of Mary.
Implantation of the Republic, or Republic Day.
October 5 Implantação da República
Event of 1910.
All Saints Day. Day used for visiting deceased
November 1 Todos os Santos
relatives.
December 1 Restauração da Independência Restoration of Independence. Event of 1640.
Immaculate Conception. Patron Saint of Portugal
December 8 Imaculada Conceição
since 1646.
Christmas Day. Celebrated in the 24th to the 25th
as a family gathering to eat codfish with potatoes
December 25 Natal and cabbage, roasted kid and turkey; seasonal
sweets and dry fruits; drink Port wine; and share
gifts.
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