INTERUNIVERSITY PROGRAMME

IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

K.U.Leuven - V.U.B.

HYDRAULICS OF PIPE AND

CANAL NETWORKS

PART ii

LECTDRER : E. TOORMAN
INTERUNIVERSITY PROGRAMME
IN WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
K.U.Leuven - V.U.B.

HYDRAULICS OF PIPE AND

CANAL NETWORKS

PART ii

LECTURER : E. TOORMAN
 l.

GRADUALLY VARIED OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

1 . Definí tions

WA T ER - S UR F AC E PROF ILE { w11 .sr;

OR F L OW PROF I L E
O R BA C K W AT ER C UR V E

So = s i n O' X

B ·top width u Q/A mean velocity

h water depth IR A/P hydraulic radius
A wetted section H A/B hydraulic depth
P wetted perimeter

Froude number Fr =
u :,:
u-
lg H cose lgH

U IR
Reynolds number Re 4 :,: U H
V 4 V

2. Assumptions I

- steady flow
- the channel is prismatic
l::::
l clh dH

- uniform velocity distribution

- hydrostatic pressure distribution (streamlines are parallel)
 2.

3. Specific energy E (assume cose 1)

T O TA L _P_
H E AD pg
h

·-·--

z
z

( c os e- 1)

Analogy between flow in pipes & open channel flow

Energy line Energy line
Hydraulic grade line Water surface profile
Pipe Streamtube
Total head Total head H
e

If in a section the datum z O coincides with the channel bottom then

Piezometric head h Waterdepth h

u2
H E h- +
e 2g

The specific energy E is the energy per unit weight of water at any
section of a channel measured with respect to the channel bottom.
 3.

4. Specific energy curve

E = h +
u2 Q2
= h + ---
2g 2
2g A

E O

E as a function of h and Q Q as a function of h and E

+ for a given value of Q

E has a mi.ni.rnum for ddEh = O for h he

. 3A B
or 1 o and since ah =

u2 /
or 1 - _e =O (*)
g h t
e

h is called the critical depth

e

at h h
e
u
e
F = --- =
r
 4.

+ It foliows from (*)that at the critical state of flow, the

velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth

+ For a given specific energy E, there are two possible depths

the low stage h and the high stage h . h and h are
1 2 1 2
ALTERNATE DEPTHS.
+ For a given value of E
Q has a maximum for : o + Q ax
for h h h
max e (
Qma)

Q
 5.

5. Continuity equation (steady flow)

Q UA et

6. Equation of motion

Apply Bernoulli' s equation to a streamline 1 - 2

(conservation of momentum or conservation of mechanical energy)

s 2
2 [ v2 av ds]
+ z + 2g + + 6 F o
6
1 pg g
f at 1
o

2
/j F
1

2
6 F
1
S = -- 1.s the energy- or friction slope
f 6 s

Assuming
1 hydrostatic sections z' =
1

or d ( z + L) d z' d(Z + h cose)

pg
2 uniform velocity distribution
3 velocities are parallel to the channel bottom
 6.

one obtains, after multiplying with 1s ad taking s + O

dZ dh U dU 1
- + cose -+ - - + -:;/-- + S =. O (*)
ds ds g ds P at f . •

Since the flow is assumed steady : la!!t. = O

the bed is pn..sma tº1.c ddAs = aahA ddhs = B ddhs

2 2
_
1 dU = _
1 Q2 d (1-). = _ .9_ ;dA = _ Q2B dh
2g ds 2g ds·· A2 g A3 ds gA3 ds

and because dZ =-S

ds · o
s -s
dh o f
(*) becomes ds =

This is the DYNAMIC EQ, OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW

or the GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW EQUA::ION
or EQ. BY BRESSE.

· IF := O the flow is said to be UNIFORM

- The depth, A, P and U are constant at every section of the channel

- The energy-line, water surface and channel bottom are all parallel
their slopes are equal : Sf = S ,
0

J GJ e - Jj
ds ds
'2..
L
¡;::-
==-
z + h(p1 ]L
ZJ
cl't d.l 7

::- f JfL &,..G f i Q -d J._ clf f jJ 9 + (-di Q ">. fi dh

ds Js de, /¡ 'ds IJ a. d- ,,l 3' ¡¡3 Ts
5,
-)1;
---

,1. ' fs -
 7.

7 . Fn.ct:j.on los.sea. in '" .e11 cbamiels

One assumes that the head loss at a section is the same as for a
uniform flow having the velocity and hydraulic radius of the
section.

Thus, the uniform- flow formula may be used to evaluate the energy-
slope of a gradually varied flow at a given channel-station, and
the corresponding coefficient of roughness (
developed primarily
for uniform flow) is applicable to ·the varied flow.

f u2 f P. 2 1 P 2
-- - = · -Q = - Q
8g IR 8g A3 C2 A3

[ f ] = 1 ; [ e] = m 1 /2 s-1 [ b] = s 2 m-1

Chézy-formula C is a constant

2 1 1 2 1
1
30 m 's- < C < 100 a 1 20 m 's-

smooth rough

C = et is only true if Re is large enough

For UNIFORM FLOW sf = so AND lu = e

Manni.Q.g..;.formul

-1/3
0.010 m-l /3 s < n < 0.05 a 0.07 m s
smooth very rough
 8.

m-J /3 s)
Values of the Manning coefficient n (

- Canal lined with concrete .slabs, having 0.012

smooth cement joints and very smooth surface

- Concrete canal poured behind screeding 0.014

and smoothing platform

- Earth canal, with deposits of sand and mud 0.018

- Very rough concrete 0.020

- Straight canal in hand packed sand 0.020

- Cobble-bottom channel · 0.028

canal with large-cobble stone bed 0.030

- Natural channel, irregular side slopes, 0.035

clean and regular bottom constant section

1 6
It was suggested that n = 0.04 (d0 )/
9
in which d90 is _ the 90 % diameter of the granular
soil material (bottom and side slopes).

White-Colebrook-Thijsse forula ,

With slightly modified coefficients by Thijsse, the

White-Colebrook formula for open channels is :

· u lR
in which Re 4 -
\)

ks the equivalent sand-roughness

for rough boundaries (

most practica cases) the above equation
reduces to :

l
-=
/f

"
1
 9.

or, using the Chézy-notation :

e = ¡¡;;_ = 1 8 log (12·

20 IR)
/ 10 ks

for very smooth channels (concrete lining) ks 5.01 -4 m

-1
a sandy river-bed (bed transport) O . 1 to 1 •1 O m
-2
gravel to 5 10 m
rocks and stones (
diameter d) k
s
d

It is quite di. ffic. ult to obtain a good estímate of ks .

Therefore, and because of the lack of accuracy of other data
(A, So , •••)it is often advisable and more practica to use
the (empirical )Manning-formula .
 10.

The nominator of the gradually varied flow equation

N = s - sf
o
The flow is said to be uniform if dh = o 1.e. N = O,·s sf
ds o.
pn
so f Q2 (*) Q ,[_; /i ,,.t. 2
Sr
'.l
" ;r'
8g A3
--
('
p ré p'J Q
n
(L
(i
p ·¡e
-
The value of h for which N = O is h : the NORMAL DEPTH.
n
THE DEPTH OF A UNIFORM FLOW IS CALLEO "NORMAL DEPTH".
h is obtained by solving eq. (•)
n
f ·P 2
It can be shown that Sg ""3° Q is a decreasing function of h for
a given value of Q, tendfng to infinity for h + O, and to O for
h + infinity.
í E.. o2
8 g A3

\
\
\
O' > Q

' h

N
t

From the figure, it can be seen that :

- there is only 1 value of the normal depth for a given Q

- h increases with increasing Q
n
- h increases with increasing f
n
- hn decreases with increasing s
o
 11

Note
With the Manning formula for uniform flow

1
Q _- - An IRn2/3 so 1/2
n
Q 1 1 A 5/3 1 Anl,66
-- = - An 1Rn2/3 = - _n_. _ - = ---
Sol/2 n n Pn2/3 n Pn0,66

is sometimes called the "conveyance" of the channel.

It is an increasing function of depth.
According to the Darcy Weissbach equation the conveyance would be defined as
Q - j!i An3/2 - j!i Anl ,5
Sol/2 - f Pnl/2 - f Pn0,5
 1 2.

At the critical depth

- the denominator of the eq. by Bresse vdnishes

dh
= 00

- is the specific energy mínimum

Q2 B c
h is abtained fram D 1 - o
c
7
g c

It can be shown that B is a decreasing function af h, far a

3
A
given value af Q, tending tawards infinity far h -+ O, and to
O far h -+ infinity.

he

From the figure, it can be seen that :

- there is anly 1 value af the critical depth far a given Q

hc increases with increasing

Q
-
- hc is practically independent of s ( in fact h 1' when s 1)
o c a
- h can be defined if s = O and even if s < o
c a a
- hc is independent af the frictian factor f.

Far a given shape af the crass-section af the channel, the critical

depth is far practical purposes a function of Q alone.

"
¡
 13.

t o. r1tica s ope s

Since h is a decreasing function of S (from oo to O) and h is

n o e
a (slowly) increasing function of 8 ,
0
a critical slope Se exists for which (
for a given Q and a given
shape of the cross-section)h h .
n e

hn he

hn = he

·O Se So

In a channel at "critical slope", the critical state of flow

exists throughout the entire length of the channel. Se is
the slope of the channel that sustains a given discharge at
a uniform and critical depth (Fr = 1).

A slope of the channel LESS than the critical slope wille cause
a slower flow of subcritical state for the given discharge, and,
5vv 'Jl
hence, is called a MILD or SUBCRITICAL slope.
A slope greater than the critical slope will result in a faster
r· ·.p, r 9 dJ
flow of supercritical state, and is called a STEEP or SUPERCRITICAL
slope.

Note Whether a certain channel-slope is mild or steep depends

upon Q ! (see fig.)
 14.

The general shape of the flow profiles can be predicted by

studying the dynamic equation of gradually varied flow.

For the given discharge and channel conditions the normal-

depth and critical depth lines divide the space in a chanriel
into three zones

Zone the space above the upper line

Zone 2 the space between the two lines
Zone 3 the space below the lower line

As can be seen from the figure on p. 1 O <{ 8) the nominator

of the gradually varied flow equation N.

->F
( N < o h <h
' /O n
N = o h =h
n
N > o h > h
n

From p. 1 2 <1 9) it can be seen that the denominator D

D <O h < hc

D O h = hc
D > O h > hc

From this, it follows that

dh
in Zone 1 (h > h and h ) = N > o-----" fil)() = !:.!_ 1o
e n ds D o) o o
Zone 3 (h < he and hn) > O --- f)-:o
o<o " uo )Cl
Zone 2 (h < h < h
n e dh N
or hc < h < hn)ds
-= -
D < o
Thus, the flow-profiles may be classified into thirteen different
types according to the nature of the channel slope and the zone in
which the flow surface líes :
 15 .

adverse (A2, A3)

horizontal (H2, H3)
mild (MI, M2, M3)
critica! (
CJ 'C2, C3)
steep (
81 , 82, 83)

The letter is descriptive of the slope, the numeral represents

the zone number.
The flow profile represents a BACKWATER curve if the depth of
flow increases in the direction of flow (dh/dx > O) and a
DRAWDOWN curveº1f d
dhx < o•

IYPES OF FLOW PROFILES IN PRISMATIC CHANNELS

1 Relation of h to hn and h e
1 Ckmnel '"''"'''00 r;eneral type Type of f low
slo¡,e of curve
.' 1 Zonc 2 Zone 3 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3
1
,....-'----

N nne h > hn > h e None None

Horizontal
so - o 1 H2 h > h > he Dr..wdown Subcriticul
n
H3 hn > he > h Backwater Supercritical ·
1 1 1
' h > h h p-i)D'>oo ,t-
l
MI > Ba,okwater Subcriücal
I Hild
o s < < se
1 M2 hn > h > hc
n
fN..-0 J
!;! <
---f-Drawdown Subcri ticnl
I o h > h > h 0)0 Supercr it.ical
1
1 M3 )....Backwater
n e 4 .(o '¡f) 1
Qt'U o I
1 Cl h > h e - hn Backwater Subcritical
Cri ti cal
C2 h •h •h Parallel to Uniformr.ritical
e
o s s > o ' e n cnannel botom
" C3 h.e - h > h Backwater Supercritical
1 n

Is
Sttce¡;
> se > o
I
1
S!
52
h >
h > h > h
e n
he > hn Backwater
Orawdown
Subcritical
Suparcr::.ci.cal
e;;
S3 h > h > h Backwater Supercritical
e n
1
I None h > h > h None None

I
n e
Adver se Drawdown Subcritical
A2 h > h > h
n e
so < o h > h > h Backwater Supercritical 1
n e
 16.

Taking into account, the sign of !in the different zones

dh o WHEN h +h
(ucrrJ o .\,er,dt O !a (i;írrl10,j ==> porolJ t( t (iJ 1rf) s,J -oitro
and ds + n

dh
-+ 00 WHEN h +h
ds e

The flow-profiles may be classified into 13 different types

{_ _ _ -------
None
,
__ _ _ _y_

,1------·-
Wdl/////l//l///lll//ff/J!/t W/////)))//) )J))/)))),?J!J},

oo oo H2 ClC)
,/ -.,.:L
1
I None I
Yn

Ic=IC ¡
'*li \1:: - -- -

--· .
E:: e, .g -

,--- -
-
5-,--:
- '=
---
'\..
11..
_ ¿

-
-- -- - -- -

--

The profiles near he (and near the channel bottom) can not be
accurately defined by the gradually varied flow theory because
the basic assumptions are not fulfilled.
 17 .

1) adverse slope

_....
--
,.. o.\.·--· .
..-'-' :..- --
2) very mild slope

he--
--- - --- -f - O L.

3) miJ d slope

M1

-- -- -- -- --
he--

¡-
x : dh/ ds = So
 18.

4) critical slope

5) steep slope

c.o.L./

6) very steep slope

51
C.D.L.
..........
'

·I

hn
X Point of inflection
on flow profile
 19 .

1 2. Upstream and downstream boundar conditions : control sections

-+ Flow profiles BELDW he (Fr > 1 : supercritical flow : A3, H3,

M3, C3, 82, S3) are controlled by the upstream boundary
condition (at the first channel section).
This is most likely to occur when the slope in hydraulically
steep.

-+ Flow profiles ABOVE h e (Fr < l : subcritical flow : A2, H2,

MI , M2, Cl , SI) are controlled by the downstream bouwndary
condition (at the last channel section).
This is most likely to occur when the slope is hydraulically
mild.

JEAGER'S THEOREM (
sligh tly modified)

For the flow in open channels the CRITICAL DEPTH will occur
at the first chanµel section, for supercritical flow, or
at the last channel section, for subcritical flow
IF the upstream, resp. the downstream boundary condition do
NOT impose a lower, resp -. a higher water level.

From the classification of flow profiles it follows that

the only supercritical flow profile starting at h , is a

e
S2 profile (steep slope)
- the only subcritical flow profile starting at he , is a M2
(H2, A2)profile (mild, horizontal or adverse slope).

From the above, it follows that, if NO particular boundary

conditions are imposed,

- in channels with a stéep slope

the flow profile will be a S2-profile, starting at h at the
e
upstream end; the flow being supercritical
- in channels with a mild (horizontal ot advetse)slope
the flow profile will be a M2 (H2 or A2)-profile, starting
at he at the downstream end; the flow being subcritical.

Supercritical flow can occur w <:h flm·1-profiles starting at

the upstream end at a lower stage than h both in channels with
e
steep or mild slopes, if a lower stage than h e is imposed at the
first channel section. _
 20.

e.g. - by a sluice gate

- by a supercritical flow, controlled by its upstream
condition, in an upstream channel reach.

st e ep st ee p s t eep

m i ld

1 4=-

so) D "D'1
'({'J)(í!M/
 21.

5
1
) r 'l

Subcritical flow can occur with flow-profiles starting at the

downstream end at a higher stage than hc , both in channels with IC). 2 .if ' '- J
'

horizontal, adverse) slopes, if a higher stage

steep or, mild ( l A - ---
than h is imposed at the last channel section
c
e.g. by a high downstream pool-level
- by a high downstream water-level, caused by a weir,
a dam or a sluice gate, at which the control depth is
known, or can be determined
- by a subcritical flow, controlled by its downstream
condition, in a downstream channel reach.

- -- - -
s teep

- - ) ·\º , l. (-t\
';"..,

-:--- -- --
m ild
" fr ee over f o ll"

·· dr op "

---- 51
-
-- -•
st eep
 22 .

13.

A conflicting situation may occur, when the upstream B.C.

imposes a supercritical flow profile, whilst the downstream
B.C. imposes a subcritical flow profile. This happens when
the downstream water level is too high i.e. when the channel
is "flooded" by the downstream reservoir.

In such a case, the flow is supercritical in the upstream

portian of the channel reach but subcritical in the downstream
protion controlled by the upstream B.C.

Somewhere along the channel reach, the flow profile has to

pass the critical depth : there a hydraulic jump occurs.

In crossing the critical depth line, a hydraulic jump is created,

raising the water surface from a lower, "initial" (
supercritical)
depth, to its "sequnt" depth (
this is a higher, subcritical depth).

In the following section the relation between the initial and the
sequent will be discussed; the location of the hydraulic jump will
be determined.

In applying the MOMENTUM-principle to a short (approx. horizontal)

reach of a prismatic channel, the external forces of weight and
friction may be ignored; then

,r
!':!. mV !':!. F
, -I s
l:!.t s
/
é ff\
' 1
V t,

(pQ) 02 - (p Q) 01 p g n
1
A
1
- p g n
2
A
2 j]_ - (J !),
change in linear force acting on ') t>¡
I
moment turn of the flow between
the flow sections 1 en 2 Q U , + , !11 -
c..
!
Q Q, () ¡.,,
d /1,
+ LN :
,,
n fl, F
 23.

n. is the distance of the centroid of the water area A. below

L L

the water-surface .. Also u1 = Q/A 1 and u2 = Q/A • Then, the

2
above mornentum equation may be written

Q2 2
-- + = -Q- +
g A
. . 1. g Az

The two sides of eq. ()are analogous, and, hence, may be

expressed for any channel 'section by a general function F

(*)becomes I F1 = F2 I· (•)

The function F consists of two terms

Q2
gA = the momentum of the flow passing through the channel
section per unit time and per unit weight of water.

An = the force per unit weight of water. Therefore :

F is the "specific force" ,or "specific momentum"

(*) means that the specific forces in two sections are equal
provided that the externa forces of friction and weight of
water in the reach between the two sections can be ignored.

By plotting the depth against the specific force F for a given

channel section and discharge, a SPECIFIC-FORCE-curve is obtained.
 24.

SUPERC R IT IC A L • I • SUBCRI TIC A L

For a given value of the specific force, the curve has two
possible depths. The two depths constitute the INITIAL
(
supercri tical) and SEQUENT or CONSUCATE (
subcritical) <le!'ths
cff a HY])nAULIC JUMP.

It can be shown that the depth at the mínimum value of the

specific force is equal to the critical depth.

OR : At the critica state of flow the specific force is a

mínimum for the given discharge.

Compare the specific-force curve with the specific-energy curve < 4).

Both curves are mínimum at the critical depth.

- For a given specific energy E, two possible depths exist : a low

stage in the supercritical flow region, and a high stage in the
subcritical region.
- For a given value of the specific force F also two possible depths
exist, namely an initial depth in the supercritical region, and a
sequent depth in the subcritical flow region.
 í

25 .

h h

1
h2
- -f -- - - -
1

F =lJA +
-2
Q_
gA
s

It is seen that the energy-content for the depth hz (sequent depth

of h )is LESS than the energy-content for the depth h 1 •
1
Therefore, in order to maintain a constant value of F, the depth
of flow may be changed from h tot h2 AT THE PRICE OF LOSING A
1
CERTAIN AMOUNT OF ENERGY.
óE is the energy loss caused by the hydraulic jump.

Determination of the location of a hydraulic jump

- START always by computing a POSSIBLE supercritical flow profile

(determined by the upstream B.C.) if ANY;
- if a supercritical flow-profile MAY exist, check if the water
level in the last channel section is LOWER than the sequent depth
of the last water-level. In the latter case, the supercritical
flow-profile exists throughout the channel.
 26.

--
S . D.L.
51

-- - - -- -
- - _f_OL.

HY DR AUL IC J UMP

-+ In the other case, the downstream B.C. imposes a subcritical

flow profile. The location of the hydraulic jump is found
by calculating the sequent depths of all the points of the
supercritical flow-profile (sequent-depth-line : S.D.L.).
The hydraulic jump occurs at the intersection of the subcritical
flow-profile and the sequent-depth-line.

-+ It may occur that no intersection exists; then the subcritical

flow exists throughout the channel : the channel then is
"flooded" by the downstream reservoir.
 27.

Numerical calculation of hn and h e

Computation of the flow profile
Calculation of the sequent depth

·
14.L. Computation .of- h .., (
normal depth)
n
dh
- hn is the water depth for uniform flow -= O i.e. the nominator
ds
of Bresse's equation :

N =O
or

in which
f 1:.. Q2
sf = (f = cte -+ Chézy) (*)
8g A3

or

2 p4/3 2
sf n (Manning's Law)
AI0/3 Q

- for a trapezoidal section

p b +
cose

h
A (
b + (
b + 2 h tge)
)2
=h (b + h tge)

* definition of P and A see p. l.

 28.

- the complete nominator becomes

(b +·) Q2
cose ( -n
1 , cJ.Je ( hcz ,

or

2 ( g + cose)4/3 r
so = n
h!0/3 (
b + h tg6)1 0/3 ( ¡J,4 n 1r.'r 's f NJ)

both expressions are not explicitly soluble to h, so an iteration

procedure must be tised to find h
n

f 1/ 3
h (--'----) Q2/3 (14.1)
n,new
8g . So b + h n,p • tg6)
(

or

h0.6
(
b + 2 6)0.4 o 6
h n cos • Q • (14.2)
n,new = S O .3 . (b + .h tg6)
o n,p

in which h is "the previóus value of h ".

n,p n

- for a wide rectangular section b >> h

p
"' B =b
A "' B.h = b.h
so
f
s = f . _b_ Q2 =
1 Q2
8g
o h3 .b3 8g h3 .b2

or

s· 2 b413 2 2 2
o n hl0/3 • bl 0/3 Q =n -1.0,.. /.,..3- .-b-=6,./.., 3 Q
n-
 29.

and

h (14 .3)
n

or

h
n
= (n
2
• (14 .4)

- to start the iteration procedure for a trapezoidal section,

the initial value h can be calculated from equations (14.3)
n,p
or (14.4)by assuming a large rectangular section .

- the iteration can be stopped if lh - h 1 < requested

n,new n,prev accuracy

14.2. Computation of hc,(

critical depth)

- h . is the water depth for which the denominator of Bresse's

c
equation

D = O
or 2
ii - s .....
2
-
_g ¿
o - g A3

in most cases /'1-s 2 is assumed to be l.

'
o
- for a trapezoidal section

2
= Q (
S 2' b + 2 h tg6)
o g h 3 (b + h tg6)3
 30.

again an iteration must be used

Q2/3 (
b + 2h tgB)l /3
h c,p (14 .5)
c,new
(
b + h tgB)
c,p

in which h is "the previous value of h "

c,p c

- for a wide section (approximation )or a rectangular section

(exact solution)

so

1 /3
h (14.6)
c
- so
2>

- to start the iteration procedure for a trapezoidal section, the

initial value h can be calculated from equation (
1 4.6) by
c,p
assuming a wide section.

- the iteration can be stopped if

l hc,new - h . 1 < requested accuracy
c,previous

14.3. ComEutation_of_the_flo w_Erofile

2 p4/3 2
So - n 3Q
Bresse dh = '{) (h)
ds = J z'q2 B
I- s
I --
o g A3

using Manning' s law and with P, A and B function of the water depth.
 31.

This is a boundary-value problem in which ip(h)can vary

O IP (h ) oo

or

Two finite difference schemes may be used

(considering the boundary values s = s , h = h ).
o o
Distance from depth
14 .3.1 . Constant Lrh , calculate 6.s
............ .............. THE DIRECT STEP METHOD
dh = ip (h) "' _._6_.h
ds si+l - si

dh
In the interval i + i+l the value of ds can be considered as the
mean value of

dh)
( and (dh)
ds i+l ds i

so 6.h

or

= 2 6.h
s . + --- ---- (14 .7)
i (
hi+l) + (
hi)
 32.

Depth from distance

1 4.3.2. Constant 6s, calculate 6h
STANDARD STEP METHOD
As hi+l is not known (hi+l) can't be calculated.

Assum1.ng d
dh
s i.s constant 1.n th e 1.nterva 1 i+ i+l

dh = (h) (h.)
ds 1

ar

so

(14.8)

14.3.3. Example
.. .. .. .
Method I SI flow profile
s 0.01
o
-1/3
n = 0.02 sm
3
Q 25 ro /s

b
2 m J trapezoidal
e 45°

/t / 3
O .O J - O • 2. 5 /i O/3

? (h) -- -- ..---·-·---·-·--
..._
p
A
b + 2 ñh
(i) + h) h
1 - 62 .5 !?3
_
A
B b + 2h
 33 .

14.4. Coutation_of_the_segu ent_de th

For a given water depth the specific force is

2
F = g.A+ n . A

and n is the distance of the centroid of the water area A below

the water surface :

ne =
;; - s 2
o
 34.

- Solution-scheme :

given depth : h·(supercritical)

1
+·
calculate F = F(h1 )
1
+
far the sequent depth F =:_ F 1
+
calculate sequent depth h2 so that F(h2) = F (h1 )

2
with F = F(
h ) = _Q., +
2 2
g.A(h )
2

- Far a trapezoidal section

h 3b + 2 h tg8
Ye = 6 · b + h tg8

A = (b + h tg8) h

so
3b + 2h2 tg8
+ b
+ .,.2 tge • (b + h 2 t ge ) h 2

and

2 h 2 -
----..
F (h )
1
= Q
_, + 2- • (3b + 2 h
2
tg8) li- S
2

g(b + h2 tg8) h2 6 o

6[
F(h l ) - g (b + h\ge ) hJ

/Í - so2 ' (3b + 2 h2 tg8)

 35.

Or :

Q2
6[
h = . F(
hl) - g (b + h2,E tg8)
h2,;J (14.9)
2,new
!i - s 2
o ( 3 b + 2 h2 ,P • tg8)

- for a wide section·:

[- ! + (14.10)

- the iteration for a trapezoidal section can be started with an

initial value . h calculated from equation (
1 4 10).
2,P
 36.
1

15.1. General classification

In the most upward canal section, the waterlevel may be either controlled (or imposed)
by a gate (Fig. 1) or another canal in which the flow is supercritical (Fig. 2), or free
(Fig. 3). .

I /
1 1
1 1
f )
v

2 3

Orifice flow may be free (Fig. 1) or submerged (Fig. 4)

,
4

Therefore four different flow types are a priori possible in the upward canal section :
= HS (HS
l. (free) orifice flow : the first waterdepth is imposed by the gate : h(o)
is the gate elevation). This is a priori possible either with supercritical or
with subcritical flow
 37.
2

Fr 1

2. Submerged (orífice) flow or 3. False hydraulic jumo

-----

h(O) > HS h(O) > HS

HS > he HS <
Fr < 1 ,::A c ,,{ ru} Fr <

4. Inflection : the watersurface is free (natural boundary condition)

h(O)=h c h(O) > he

Fr > 1 Fr < 1

complete (maximum) inflection incomplete inflection

 38.
3

15.2. Relation between the discharge. t he waterlevel in the upstream reservoir

(Ho). and the waterdepth in the first channel section (h(o))

I I
J ¡ h(O)
---r--c.=
- - --- +- -+ -
- I)

HO

---- q q q

HS= h(O)
a. inf lection b. orifice flow c. submerged flow

Applying the Bernoulli theorem to a streamline AB between a point A, situated far

enough in the upst ream reservoir, where hydrostatic conditions prevail, and a point B in
the first channel section (like a.U other channel sections assumed to be hydrostatic), one
finds

PB V B
HO = (zB + -) + -+ E
pg 2g A
(1)
u2
HO = h(O) cose + -
2g
B
if the velocity distribution in the first channel section is assumed to be uniform and E
A
negligible.
Since U = Q/ A 0 , in which
A0 is the cross sectional area in the first channel section
Ao : A(h(o)) in the case of inflexion (Fig. a) or orifice flow (Fig. b)
Ao : A(HS) in the case of submerged orifice flow h(o) > HS (Fig. c).

IQ Ao J 2g {DO - h{O ) j 1 - s5 I (2)

In the case of submerged orifice flow (fig. c), Ao is a constant, independent of

h(o). Consequently Q is a monotonous and decreasing parabolic function of h(o) (h(o)
> HS
J-
If however the flow type is "inflection" or (free or un-submerged) "orífice or gate flow ',
Ao is a function of h(o) and a particular value of h(o) exists for which Q is maximum.
From eq. 2
 39.
4

8Q 8Ao j (-2g )
-= - 2g (HO - a) + Ao =O (3)
Ba Ba 2 j 2g( HO - a)

in which a = h(o) j 1- 85
8A0 8A 0 1 B
Since -= - -
- --
---
8a 8h 1- j 85 j 1- 85
Eq. 3 reduces to

A
= ( ) am ·j 1 - 82 (4)
B o

am is the value of a for which Q .= Qmax

am/HO depends solely on the geometry of the channel cross section.

For a rectangular section am/HO = 0.66

triangular 0.80
parbolic O.75
am/HO is given in table 1 for trapezoidal sections with bottom width b, and side slope O
with the vertical

tgO
b/HO 1 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
o 0.80 0.80 0.80 o.so 0.80
0.25 0.78 0.78 0.79 0.79 0.79
0.50 0.76 0.77 0.78 0.78 0.78
0.75 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.77 0.78
1.0 0.74 0.75 0.76 0.77 0.77
2.0 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.75 0.75
4.0 0.70 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.73
(X) 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.66

Table 1
It can easily be shown that the maximum is unique.
Therefore both the left hand side and the right hand side of eq. 4 are represented
graphically.
 40.
1
5

a a
Ao J1-s2
8 o
HO - ------- - -:...:_.-------- e

------------- am
.......
2(c-a)
...................................
Q
o ----- ----------- o ------
HO 2HO Q max

Clearly Q = O for a = O and for a = HO

When a > am ,

u2
or -= p2 >1
gH r

The upperpart of the curve Q(a) thus corresponds to subcritical flow. The lower part
corresponds to supercritical flow.

15.3. Variation of he with HS in the case of orifice flow or

inflection When a = am, Q = Qmax, am = he (Qmax)-
From eqs 2 and 4 it follows indeed that :

Q ax A j
2(HO - am) =--= ( -) 1- S5
A2 g B

r- --- Qfüax A 3
or j 1 802 ----- = O
g B
which is the equation for he.

Since he is an increasing function of Q, am/ j 1 - So is the maximum value of he. To

study the variation of he with Q, the curves Q(a), Q2/g and j l-S5 are represented.
Table 2

a Q ' he lllustrotion

a < ªm Q < O max

a
ho = < he (he eorrespondi ng with Q)
\/ 1 -S O Fr > 1
possible with supercritical flow profiles ---

a < ªm Q < O max

a ª m
he (Q max )
)1-s &
ho =
J1-s &
only possible with S2 profile
I ºEl
11
. . . . ---------1---- he
Fr > 1
o
Fr = 1 at X = O

o > ªm Q < O max

o
ho < )1-s (he eorrespondi ng with Q)

------------ ---
possible with suberitical flow profiles o
:e, o, E Fr < 1
o

N
 43.
8

15.4. Inflection

am
H8 < ---
j l-85 uo2
E 2g

u2
2g

Q < O max Q < O max Q max O max

a b e d
orifice flow (complete) inflection

Consider a canal connected to an upstream constant head reservoir via a gate. When
the gate is lifted gradually, the following occurs on steep slopes without backwater effect
(supercritical flow at the gate).

1. HS j 1 - S5 = a < arn : Q < Qmax; orífice flow, possible with S2, SU en 83 profiles.
When the water passes under the gate, potential energy is transformed into kinetic
energy (fig. b).
2. When H8 (or a) increases, Q increases

3. When H8 j 1 - S5 = arn; Q = Qmax : 82 flow profile

4. When H8 j 1 - S5 > arn; nothing changes with respect to the previous situation :
Q = Qrnax; 82 profile.

This flowtype is a "complete" inflection. Incomplete inflection can occur with

subcritical flow; then Q < Qrnax·
 44.
9

l6. The gow11stream oounda.ry condition

16.1. Classification

In the last channel section, the waterlevel may be controlled (or imposed) by a weir
(Fig. 1), a gate (Fig. 2), an other canal in which the flow is subcritical (Fig. 3), or a
constant head reservoir (Fig. 4), or be free (Fig. 5).

2 3

Therefore four different flow types are a priori possible in the last channel section
l. free overfall : possible with both subcritical and supercritical flow profiles when
the downstream waterlevel is lower than h(L).

--
---
he --

/h
 45.
10

2. controlled waterlevel : subcritical flow profiles start at a waterdept h imposed by

the downstream boundary condition.
3. With supercritical flow a hydraulic jump may occur in the reservoir when
SD (x = L) > HD or in the last channel section when SD (x = L) = HD.

16.2. The free overfall

p
--.......=- --- ---- - - ------- - -

For a free overfall with a subcritical flowprofile the waterdepth decreases steadily : the
mean velocity increases in the flow direction and the slope of the energy line increases;
E, the specific energy decreases. The state of mínimum energy E is attained in the last
channel section where the critica! waterdepth he occurs. So, the "first" waterdepth for a
subcritical WASP with free overfall is he, the WASP is of the type M2.
 46.
11

n Gener al metliodology for W ASP calculatio

H the upstream boundary condition is schematized as a constant head reservoir (HO)

eventually provided with a gate (elevation HS), and the downstream reservoir is

------ --------- ------------ --

schematized as a constant head reservoir (HD), the problem can be outlined as follows.

1 X

L
ev. control
of first
waterdepth 1
ev. control
of lost
woterdepth

upstreom downstreom
B.C. B.C.

The difference in potential energy between the two reseroirs (H) ·s used to transport a
discharge Q through the canal with a given slope and length, cross sectional shape and
roughness. Clearly two different questions can be asked (when HD is considered to be
constant)
1) given the waterlevel in the upstream reservoir HO (i.e. the amount of
energy available : H), determine the discharge that can be conveyed through
the canal (with its own properties of length, roughness, slope and cross section) and
under the gate
2) Which amount of energy (i.e. H ) is required to carry a given discharge Q through
a canal with given properties ( ...)?
1) If t he discharge Q is given, hn and he can be calculated. Using Boudin and
Tison's theorem, first the a priori possibilitf of supercritical flow is
considered. By comparing the position of the gate ( H S ) with he and hn, and
taking into account the hydraulical nature of the channel slope, one can
determine which (if any) supercritical WASP is a priori possible. By
considering the downstream B.C. eventually the subcritical flow profile (and the
hydraulic jump) can be computed. Once the waterdept h in the first channel
section is known, Bernoulli 's equation can be applied to calculate HO.
 47.
12

2) If the waterlevel in t he upst ream reservoir H is given, the procedure is

more complicated. First am is calculated, and compared with a
a) 1a < am 1 : a supercritical flow profile with h(o) = H8 = a/j 1 - 85 is a
priori possible. Compute

and the corresponding h 0 and he, If

hn > he : the possible supercritical WA8P is M3
hn < he : either 82, SU or 83 are possible, depending on whether
HS S hn,
If the supercritical WA8P matches the downstream B.C., eventually vía a
hydraulic jump and part of a subcriticalWASP, the solution is found. In the
opposite case, a subcritical WASP is computed by trial and error :
a- assume a discharge Q < Qo (submerged flow condition at the gate)
b- compute the appropriate subcritical WASP starting from the
downstream B.C.
c- compute a new approximation for the discharge by

Q1 = A0 2g (HO - h(o) j 1 - S5 )

d- return to b) until the discharge corresponding to h(o) equals the

discharge with which the WASP has been computed.

b) 1 a am I Supercritical flow is only possible on a hydraulically steep slope

(82 with complete inflexion). Compute Qmax and the corresponding hn and he.
If h 0 < he one proceeds as in the previous case. If hn > he the flow will be
subcritical. The WASP should be computed by trial and error, starting at the
downst ram B.C.
 48.

1 8. Examp les
1 8 .1 . Computation of h and h
n
------- -----------------e

Q 25 m3 s-1
n 0.02 sm-1 /3
so O.O! /

b 2m
e 45°

h (m) form. h (m) form.

n e

Initial value l.73 (14.4) 2.52 (14.6)

Successive 1.52 (14.2) 1.69 (14.5)

approxima- 1.56 I.90
tions 1.55 I.84
1.55 1.86
1.85
1.85

18-.2.Comeutation .of the_seguent_d :eth

Q = 50 m 3 , s-l /

n = 0.02sm-I/3

so = 0.0009
b 1 2 m, rectangular section
hl 0.825 m
h = 1 .210 m
e
 49.

Initial value (14.10) : h2 "' l.701

Q2 h 2
+ _l_ b
F(h1 ) g b . hl 2

= 29.825

Successive approximations (14.9)

With With random

calculated initial value
initial value
h (m)
2
hz (m)

l. 701 2.000
1 .700 l.798
1.700 l. 730
l. 710
1 .703
l.701
1 .700
1 .700

Note Computation procedures for h , h , water surface profiles •••

e n
are given in "Hydrologic and Hydraulic Computations on Small,
Programrnable Calculator" . Th. E . Croley, 1977.
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research.

18 .3. ExamE les_of WAS _ calculations,

18 •3.l . Examp le

DATA
3 -1
Q 60 m s
so 0.005
Rectangular section b = 10 m
HS 0.80 m
n = 0.01 sm-l/
3
Assumption : /1 s 2 "'
o
 so.

¡\''...... . .,
, ...... ... '
"' .,....,... ,..... ,........ ,, .,,,,,.,,,. ,, .....,....,,
..... ............ ,, ...........
,,
50 m

Determine the water surface profile for

HD = o.so m
1.60 m
2.70 m
3.80 m respectively

SOLUTION :

1) Normal depth

According to (14.4)the initial value is

h "' O .906 m
n
Successive approximations (1 4.2)
h
n
0.906
0.968
0.973
0.973 m

2) Critical depth

For rectangular section he is calculated according to (

1 4.6)
he = 1.542 m
 51.

3)Slope

Since hn < he :hydraulically steen slo!)e

S3 profile is possible a priori (HS < h )with h (O)
n
HS = 0.80 m

--- -- -E' · D.L. ,"

-------- N. O. L..
--53-

4)
1 Case 1 : HD = O.SO m

According to § 1 4.3
4/3
o 005 - (1 0 + 2h)

dh
ds
= l¡?(h) . 5984.5 h 1 º 13
- 3.670
Numerical integration with constant h 0.005

8
+ 2 h
i 1P (h . l ) + ? (h .)
l.+ l.
 52.

1
h (
m) !: ,. s (
m) s (
m)
"'(
h)

0.800 1 457.6 0.000

7.366 7.366
0.805 1 489.3
7.530 1 4.896
0.810 1 523.0
0.815 1 558.9 7.704 22.600
7.889 30.489 ,
0.820 1 597 .1
0.825 1 638.0 8.086 38.575
0.830 8.298 46.873
1 681 .7
0.835 1 728.6 8.524 55.397

The waterdepth 1.n the last section is found by interpolation

h (50) h (46.873)+ [h(55.397 - h (46.873 - 50 - 46.873 73

)]55 .397 _ 46.8

so : h(50)= 0.832 ID

This value is compatible with the downstream reservoir level (HD

= 0.50) : the flow will be completely (S3)supercritical with
free overall in the last section.

- - - -- -CN.C.L..
.0. L .
.
 53.

The upstream reservoir level 1.s

I Q2
3.667 m
2g • (b X h (0) ) 2 + h ( 0)

5)
1 Case 2 : HD = l .60 m

Again the water surface profiel is S3 (see 4).

As h(
L) = 0.832 m < HD free overfall is impossible.
So the sequent depth of. h (
L)must be calculated : 1

Q2 hl
F (h )
1
F (0.832) g b • h¡ + 2 • b • hl

47.568

According to O 4 . 1 O) the initial value for h 1.s 2.582 m.

2
Successive approximatíons (
1 4.9)

h : 2.582
2
2.583
2.583 m

As the sequent depth = 2.583 > HD = 1 ,60 m,

the hydraulic jump is in the reservoir
the flow is supercritical (S3)
the level in the upstream reservoir 1.s 3.667 m (see 4).

6)1 Case 3 : HD 2 .70 m \

Again the water surface profile is S3 (see A)

As the sequent depth = 2.583 < downstream level HD 2.70 m,
the flow must be at least partly subcrítical.
The subcritical flow (
Sl-profile) is calculated from downstream
L)= 2.70 m (
to upstream with h'( imposed level downstream) , and
llh = - 0.05 m
 54.

h (m) l . !J.s (
rn) s (m)
1/1 (h)
-
2.700 1 70.6 50.000
- 8.l187
2.650 1 68.9 41 .513
- 8.395
2.600 1 66.9 33 .1 1 8
- 8.292
2.550 1 64.8 24.826
- 8.182
2.500 1 62.5 16.644
- 8.062
2.450 1 60.0 8.582
- 7.929
2.400 157.2 0.652
- 7.784
2.350 1 54.2 -7.1 32

');he waterdepth in the first section is found by interpolation

h ' (O)
so :
h'(O) = 2.396 rn

Considering h'(O) there are 2 possibilities

(!) h 1 (0) sequent depth of h (O)

t t
subcritical supercri tical

-+,the flow is cornpletely subcritical (the upstrearn flow type

is : subrnerged jurnp)

(2) h'(O) < sequent depth of h(O)

-+the flow is partly supercritical and partly subcritical

(with jump in the channel)

Calculation of the sequent depth S.D. (

h(O)) = h 2

h(
O)= 0.80 rnQ2 2
h (0) 2
F (0.80) g b h (O) 2 • b /¡ - S
o
49.072
+

Initial value (14.J O) : h 2.654 rn

2
 55.

Succcssieve approximation

h2 = 2.654
2.655
2.655 m

Since h'(O) = 2.396 m < h2 = 2.655 m

we are in casa (2) : the jump has to be located (at the

intersection of subcritical flow profile and sequent depth
line)

e hl F (hl) Sequent h'

depth h2 subcritical (m)
(m) supercritical (m)
(m)

o. 0.800 49.072 2.655 2.396

0.652 2.400
7.366 0.805 48.827 2.644
8.582 2.450
1 4.896 0.810 48.586 2.632
16.644 2.500
22.600 0.815 48.348 2.621
24.826 2.550
30.489 0.820 48.1 15 2.610
33 .1 18 (2.600\
38.575 0.825 47.885 2.599
41 .513 2.650
46.873 0.830 47.658 2.588
50.000 0.832 47.568 2.583 2.700
 56.

So the jump occurs between

s = 30.489 m and s = 38.575 m

s1
1
-
:J .6-to
,,,..._

- ,5
1
I

1
'
1

Linear approximation of Sl

h - 2.60 s - 33.1 18
2.65 - 2.60 41 .513 -
33.48
3
h. = 2.60 + 5.956 10- (s - 33.1 18)

Linear approximation of sequent depth line (S.D.L.)

h - 2.610 s - 30.484
2.599 - 2.610 38.575 - 30.484
3
h = 2.61 - 1 .360 10- (s - ·30.489)

Intersection of Sl and S.D.L.

h = 2.61 1.360 10-3 (s 30.489)

l
h =
3
2.60 + 5.956 10- (s - 33.1 1 8)

gives
h 2.6052 m
s = 34 ro
 57.

51

-- --- - -- - C .'C . L.
N - 0.1... .
/

53
1
/'-' .,,,,,, .,.,, ''
\.::-",/ .,.,,, ,
// '',,...,''- .,.,..... ,
,,--:- _ 1 A

As the flow is supercritical in the first section the

level in the upst'.ream reservoir is 3.667 m (
see 4)_.

7)1 Case 4 HD = 3.80 m I

Again the 83 is calculated (see 4)

h (L)= 0.832 m (see 4)

S.D (0.832)= 2.583 m (see 5)
HD = 3.80 m

As the S.D. = 2.583 m < HD 3.80 m the flow must be at

least partly subcritical.
The Sl-profile is calculated with h'(L) 3.80 m and llh
- O.OS m.

1
h (m) ip (h )
!:,s (m) s (m)

3.80 1 90.0 50.000

-9.490
3.75 1 89.6 40.510
-9.467
3.70 1 89.l 31 .043
-9.445
3.65 188.7 21 .598
-9.422
3.60 188.2 1 2.1 75
-9.395
3.55 1 87.6 -9.367 2.780
3.50 187.1 -6.587
 58.

By interpolation

h ' (O) 3.55 + (3.50 - 3.55) - O - 2.780 0

6.587 _ 2.78

so :
h ' (O) 3.535 m

Since the sequent depth S.D. (h(O))= 2.655 m (sec. 6), the
flow is subcritical (
SI) with submerged flow in the first
section ''(
false hydraulic jump) .

51

-- -·
-
C.. t, .L. .

N.O .k .

The level in the upstream reservoir is :

1 q2
HO - - + h ' (O) 6.402 m
- Zg • (b • HS) 2
 59.

18 .3.2. Example 2

DATA :
t.
'1(,/, cz 3 -1
Q = 50 m s
S = 0.0009
o
Rec�anguldsd section b 12 m
,,,...--------------
�@- = 2_�00 1!1.--::::i
n =0.02 s m-l/r
3
2
assumption : /i1--�s�-
o

Determine the water surface profile for

HS = 0.50 m
2.50 m respectively

SOLUTION :

1) Normal_depth

According to (14.4) the initial value is

h "' 1.846 m
n
Successive approximations (14.2)
h 1.846
n
2.055
2.077
2.079
2.079
 -
--
- - ·- -

60.

2)Critical_deEth

For rectangular section he is calculated according to (14.6)

h
e
= 1.210 m

3) ª.!.2E
Since hn > he : mild slope

Supercritical flow (M3) is a priori possible if HS < he 1 .210 m

4)1 Case HS 0 .50 m

M3-prof ile is possible with h (O) HS 0 .50 m

r----- N. D.L .
- -C. . D.L. .

Numerical interation with constant Ah 0.05 m

s.l. + --2-i':lh ---

lf? (hi+ l ) + lf? (h)

with
413
(12 + 2 h)
O .0009 - -'-
- ---,..;..--
dh (12 h) l O / 3
lf? (h) = ds =
l _ l.770
h3
 61.

1 s <)
h (m) l.{) (h) . 6s(m)

0.500 1 70.9
8.549
o
0.550 171 .o 8.549
8.520
0.600 1 69.8 1 7.069
8.422
0.650 167.1 8.254 25.491
o .700 163.1 33.745

The water depth in the last section :

30 - 25.491
30) = 0·
h( 65 + (O.lO - O.GS) 33.745 - 25.491

h (30) 0.677 .m

Since h(L) = 0.677 m < HD 2.00 m, the sequent depth S.D (h(L))
has to be calculated
Q2 h(L)
F (0.677) + -- • b • h(L) 34 . 1 19
g • b • h (L) 2

According to (
1 4.10) the initial value for h is 2.025 m
2

Successive approximations (14.9)

h2 : 2.025
1 .985
1.976
1 .974
1.973
1 .973 m

As the sequent depth = 1 .973 m < downstream level HD 2.00 m,

the flow is at least partly subcritical.
 62

The subcritical flow (H2 since h < h ' (L) = HD < h ) 1.s
e n
calculated from downstream to urstrearn w:í th h'(
L) 2.00 m
.
(imposed level downstream) , and 6h = 0.001 m.
-
l
h (m) Í':,,S (m) s (m)
IP (h )

2.000 -7001.6 30.000

-7.051
2.001 -7101 .3 22.949
-7.152
2.002 -7203.6 -7.256 15.797
2.003 -7308.6 8.541
-7.362
2.004 -7416.3 -7.471 1 .1 79
2.005 -7527.0 -6.292

The water depth in the first section :

O
O) = 2.004 + (
h' ( 2.005 - 2.004)_ _ - 1 .1 79
_ ,
6 292 1 279

so

h ' (O) 2.004 m

Considering h' (O) and the sequent depth of h(O) there are
2 possibilities : (see example 1 , case 3).

Calculation of S.D. (
h(O)) = h 2
h (O) = O.SO m
Q2 2
F(0.50)= ..,.....,.. h (0
., + 2) • b •
43.974
g .b • h (O)

Initial value (14.10) h ;,. 2.422 m

2

Iteration (14.9)
h2 : 2.422 - -
2.422 m
 63.

Since

h r (O) = 2.004 m < h

2 = 2.422 m

there must be a jump in the channel (at the intersection of

subcritical flow profile and sequent depth line)

s hl F Sequent h'
depth (hz)
supercritical (hl) subcritical
(m) (m) (m) (m)

o 0.500 43.974 2.422 2.004

1 .179 2.004
8.541 2.003
8.549 0.550 40.427 2.277
15.797 2.002
1 7.069 0.600 37.555 2.147
22.949 2.001
25.491 0.650 35.207 2.031
30.000 0.677 34.1 19 1 .973 2.000

So there is a jump between s = 25.491 m and s = 30 m.

A computation procedure is explained in example 1 , case 3
(see 1 6.3.2) : approximation : s = 28 m

The level in the upstream reservoir :

 64.

Q2
HO ---'----- + HS 4.39 ro
2g (b • HS/

5)1 Case 2 HS 2.50 m I

Supercritical flow is impossib le ! !

The water surface profile must be M2, with h'(L)= HD = 2.00 m.

The water depth in the first section : h'(O) = 2.004 (see 4).

So there is inflexion.

The level in the upstream reservoir

2
HO = -
1 ---Q'------:- + h ' (O) = 2. 224 m
2
2g (b • h ' (O) )

/ ·.
l!: 1 E_ l_
_-_ _ JSJJ_ !_H8 _=_ ]Q - _ _ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ ]
¡
i
1
HD...'5. 67 M i
i

!
1

1
j
HC l. 54 M
12
i

-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-· 1
1
l
HS... . BO M ?--------------------------------------
. HN• • 97 M . · =·, · · \ .
l¡
1
uh.50 M
·· --·
r--------·-
--·---
1
1
If.,J?'OSEO LEVEL UPSTREAM -
---- ---· - -----·- . ... ..·- ·· °'
·L ( '
\J1
LENGTH = 50.00M FREE OVE.HFALL
C1 nnc
.J;.L,._
:
'
nuson
'1 , • -- ·---------------------·----··---·---·-' l
 66.

+ o
f
f
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 67.

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 "

EXAWLE 1 ,

CASE4 :HA=3.80 M
- - - - - - - - - - -- ---------- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·
H0•6. '40 M

1s 1 HC•3. ª'!., "!.

:'.C=l. 54 M ·
r--·
---·--·---·
---·
--·
--·
---· ·---·
---·
---·
---·---·
---·--· ---·---·---·
---·
---·-·
---·
---·
--·
--·---·
---·
--·
---·
---·
--·
HS• • eo M r---------------------------------------------------
HN= • 97 M
1
O\

LENGTH = 50.00 M I'1POSED LEVEL DO>...TAC .

00

SLOPE. = • 00500
 69.

..,..
.(.

f o
+ o .
{

+
a•
ru
:e
f

f 1 .J

+f 1
11 UJ
...1
+
f
1 i a
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 '-

EXAMlE
- 2 CASE 2 LHJ _=_ )Q t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
... ... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... ... .... ..... ... ...
H0•2.22 M
HN==2.OB M

-Mr-
· ---------------------------·---------
- H:J..2. OC M
--

-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·--·-·-·-·-·--·-·-·-·-·--·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·--·-·-..
HC=l. 21 M

.....,
LENGTH = 30.00 M o
'
rHE GATE l5 OUT OF THE PICTUFiE) SUlflE = _JDJJ90

-
.-....-·--·-·--·" ................_ ----··----··-··- ..,..-........ -····..
....--··· ···-.·---- . ....
 1

THE DESIGN OF CHANNELS

l. Design of lined (non erodible) cha.nnels for uniform flow

1. The best hydraulic section

The "best hydraulic section" is the cross section which conveys the largest discharge for
a given cross sectional area or, inversely, for which the cross sectional area and thus the
excavations are minimum for a given discharge.
It follows from the uniform flow equation that for a given set of Q, So and f, A is
minimum when IR is maximum and P is minimum;
U is then maximum :
r · P \. r u2 ?
So = - ( -) Q 2 - -
- Q - U A
8g A 3\. 8g IR ? ? \.

Similarly , it can be shown that for given values 3of So,1 f and A, Q is maximum when 4 is
maximum, P is minimum and·the conveyance A /2¡ p /2 is ma.ximum; U is maximum :
r P \. r u2 ? ? A
So = - ( -) q2 - --- Q U A ; IR = -\.
8g A 3 ? 8g IR ? ? ? p .
( ,J
Since among all sections with the same area, the circle has the least wetted perimeter,
the semicircle is hydraulically the most efficient of all sections. Therefore sewer pipes,
culverts and tunnels most often have a circular (or nearly circular) section. For open
channels a circular cross section is not easy or even impossible to construct. Therefore it
is most often replaced by a trapezoidal section. The trapezoidal section closest to the
circle is half a hexagon ( a = 30º ). Stability and geotechnical reasons often do not allow
such steep bank slopes. Therefore in the next section the best hydraulic section with
given bank slopes is determined.

¡
...._ __ _....
 2

2. The best hydraulic trapezoidal sectioni

The mínimum excavation is obtained if, at fixed area A, P is minimum {IR maximum) .
dA
Fixed A : -= 0 --+ hn db + (2 hn tgo + b) dh = o
dh
(1)
dP
mínimum P : -= 0 --+ coso db + 2 dh = o
dh
••· s • - -B --
/ since A = hn (b + hn tga)

"""
1 .. b
V
...1
2 hn
P = b +-
-
cos a

In order to fulfill the two equations (1) together :

b 1
det = 0 --+ - = 2 (-- ta ) (2)
cosa 2 hn cosa

It can easily be shown that then IR = hn/2. From (2), together with the equation of
uniform flow (e.g. Manning), Q =
3
º·:º
s/2 (co;a -tga) h!/a ' both the bottom
width b and the waterdepth hn can be calculated to discharge Q at minimum excavation
costs.

The geometric elements of best hydraulic sections are given in the table

Wetted Hydraulic Top Hydraulic

Area perimeter radius width depth
Cross section A p R T D
Trapezoid : l.73h2 3.46h 0.500h 2.31h 0.750h
half of a hexagon

Rectangle : 2h2 4h 0.500h 2h h

half of a square

Triangle : h2 2.83h 0.354h 2h 0.500h

half a square
Semicircle 0.50011h2 1rh 0.500h 2h 0.2501rh
 3

It should be noted that from the point of view of applications, the best hydraulic section
is not necessarily the most economic section. In practice the following factors must be
considered :
l. The best hydraulic section minimizes the area required to convey a specified flow;
however, the area which must be excavated to achieve the flow area required by the
best hydraulic section may be significantly larger if the overburden which must be
removed is considered.
2. It may not be possible to construct a stable best hydraulic section in the available
natural material. If the channel must be lined, the cost of the lining may be
comparable with the cost of excavation.
3. The cost of excavation depends not only on the amount of material which must be
removed, but also on the ease of access to the site and the cost of disposing of the
material removed.
4. The slope of the channel in many cases must also be considered a variable since it is
not necessarily completely defined by topographic considerations. For example,
while a reduced channel slope may require a larger channel flow area to convey the
specified flow, the cost of excavating the overburden may be reduced.
This emphasises the fact that estimates based on eq. (2) represent an optimum section
shape only from a very restricted viewpoint. Therefore many empirical rules have been
proposed e.g. by the U .S. Bureau of Reclamation

b
- = 4 - t ga (3)
hn

Formula (3) gives values of the order of 3, whilst (2) yields va.lues of about 0.3 to l.
French (Reí. ) propases a generalised version of eq. t2) to be used in case that the cost
per unit area of lining is different on the base of the channel and on the sides, because
the material used or the layer thickness is different :

(4)

in which : K 1 = 20 (z2 + 1) - [ 1 + 4 ( ) ] 4z j z2 + 1

K 2 = ( 1- ) 6 j z2 + 1- lOz ( )

K 3 = -5 ( )
 4

n•ie:4 1«,• •ri:o

B = cost of base lining material far specified thickness per unit area
k = cost of comer materials per unit length
r= cost of side lining material far specified thickness per unit area
z = side slope (z = tga)
Eq. (4) reduces to (2) when B = r.

3. Velocit y reguirements
The flow velocity in an irrigation canal should be neither too low nor too high. If the
velocity is lower than, say O. 7 ms-1 sedimentation and vegetative growth may occur.
Both phenomena reduce the discharge capacity of the canal. If the design velocity is too
low the canal design understandingly will be uneconomical. lf on the countrary, the
velocity is too high, say tn excess of 2.5 to 3 ms-1 (1.5 ms-1 far asphaltic concrete) the
lining material may become eroded.

4. Design procedure far given O and So

1- estimate Manning's n and the side slope tg ,, taking into account the type of lining
material.
2- assume an initial value fot design depth hn.
3- determine the bed width of the canal using an equation far b/hn (either (2), (3), (4)
or other).
4- computer Q with the uniform flow formula (V).
5- Compare the calculated discharge with the given discha.rge.· lf the two values are
different, repeat steps 3 through 5 with an other value of the flow depth, until the
calculated and given discharges are equal.
Note : This design procedure is carried out automa.tically by the program
CANAL.NET developed by K.P.P. PATHIRANA in the Center far Irrigation
Engineering K.U.Leuven.

!
 5

l. Erosion and sedimentation criteria

Where unlined channels run through fine-grained (more or less cohesive) soils, in which
irrigation may be vital, it is also vital to avoid excessive erosion of the precious topsoil.
A channel which does not exhibit long term changes in geometry or alignment, and in
which neither objectionable scour nor deposition occurs, is said to be stable (or "in
regime").
It is obvious that there should be a relationship betwen the hydraulic parameters (flow
rate, average velocity, ...), the geometric parameters of the channel cross section, the
properties of the material composing the bed and sides of the channel (grain size
distribution, density, ...) and the stability of the channel.
Intuitively one can understand that for each bed material there should exist sorne
"critical velocity" Ve : as long as V < Ve, no erosion occurs. When V Ve the bed
material will be eroded; on the other hand, if the water carries suspended sediments,
those sediments will precipitate if the flow velocity drops below a critica! value, and
sedimentation will occur.
Based on experiments, HjülstrPm proposed a relation between the grainsize d and the
critica! flow velocity (Fig. ). For a given grain size the critica! velocity for
sedimentation is lower than the critical velocity for erosion. This means that a higher
flow velocity is needed to erode particles of a given size, than to keep them moving in
suspension. The high critical erosion velocities for the very fine bed materials are due to
the cohesion of these sediments.
Many other empirical data are mentioned in literature, e.g. the critical velocities for
erosion (i.e. maximum permissible velocities in stable channels) mentioned by Fortier
and Scobey. For water depths over 1 m the critical velocity may be increased by 0.15
ms-1. In canals with sinuous aligment a reduction of 25 % is recommended.

,,......
Ul

........
10

""
""'-...
erosion
i;:

.o..
qj
".,,,,'
-
.---:
-

..E... ......... .!:: ./

a,
Ro . .V// Ul

o
!
qj
>
0.1 -
- e
.!:! ;
,il:
o trans port .o..V
Q)
sedimen ation
¡¡:::
e 0.01
/
o
Q)

/"
E

0.001
/
0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 1000
diameter (mm)
 6

A more rational approach consists in examining the forces which cause scour. Scour on
the perimeter of a channel occurs when the particles on the perimeter are subjected to
forces of sufficient magnitude to cause particle movement. When a particle rests on the
level bottom of a channel, the force acting to cause movement is the result of the flow of
water past the particle : i.e. the "Tractive force" (drag force). It is easy to show that in
uniform flow the unit tractive force (i.e. tractive force per unit of wetted area), or the
bed shear stress, ro = pg IRS or pg hn S in wide channels.

Clear water Water transporting

colloidal silts
Material n2 U(m/s) ro(N/m2) U(m/s) ro( N/m2)
Fine sand, 0.020 0.457 1.29 0.762 3.59
noncolloidal
Sandy loam, 0.020 0.533 1.77 0.762 3.59
noncolloidal
Silt loam, 0.020 0.610 2.30 0.914 5.27
noncolloidal
Alluvial silts, 0.020 0.610 2.30 1.07 7.18
noncolloidal
Ordinary firm 0.020 0.762 3.59 1.07 7.18
loam
Volcanic ash 0.020 0.762 3.59 1.07 7.18
Stiff clay, 0.025 1.14 12.4 1.52 22.0
very colloidal
Alluvial silts, 0.025 1.14 12.4 1.52 22.0
colloidal
Shales and 0.025 1.83 32.1 1.83 32.1
hardpans
Fine gravel 0.020 0.762 3.59 1.52 15.3
Graded loam to 0.030 1.14 18.2 1.52 31.6
cobbles when
noncolloidal
Graded silts to 0.030 1.22 20.6 1.68 38.3
cobbles when colloidal
Coarse gravel 0.025 1.22 14.4 1.83 32.1
noncolloidal
Cobbles and 0.035 1.52 43.6 1.68 52.7
shingles

Since the flow is neither accelerated nor decelerated, the force equilibrium in the flow
direction indeed requires that the axial component of the weight of a volume (A "s) of
water, equals the tangential resisting force exerted by the bed and the banks on the
wetted perimeter :
( pg A b.s) So = ro (P &)
from which : ro = pg IR So
 !FD
pion ew

rp 42
(degrees) ¡,...., ¡,,..
... :s
40 .,,. .ti' - Very angular

/V
'.,/'
V ,,. ;)
....
.,,}
.. "'
o
.....,, 36
38
/ V,: / ....
K - Slightly angular

V <[',!"----
"'
/,/;:/ ll.A ' I'
Moderately angular

o ,l I' I'
Slightly rounded

o
34
V/1 v¡:
r¡V J
' "'--- Moderately rounded

V/1"
N
·¡: I Very rounded
o
..e 32
..e
30
)
" IJ

V/1
;r:
;
i
en
&. 28 I
V ,i/ i/
I
!
..o.. 26
//
G>
- ¡;,
J
"I /
< 24
e
i/
22 -

V 11 '
20

18
5 10 20 50 100
Particle size (mm)
 '-

"
''" " ..
0
-
,::,

1
?--
0.1
....
r-,.f'I..
.......
motion
\

" '-..... '-- ...

11

no motion
\ ---
0.01 1 1 1 1
1
0.1 100 1000

N/m2
100

,
V
V
10
k?
'

,
V
/
/
1
1
a.."...'. 1

/ / 1
1

0.1
Shield1 /</
_./ -- - 1- 1
1

0.01 0.1 10 100

d(mm)
........ 100
N
E
'-.. ..
z.._.., ,
G) ,
....eo lh
V

o
G)

...,..
e 10
-
l,I
I 4

e ,,,, ,
G) ,, ¡,....,,""" / J
j5
·¡¡; //

·a.g
U)

G)
... ..... V
0.1 10 100 1000
Average particle diameter (mm)

Recommended value for canaIs with high content of fine sediment

in the water
2 Recommended value for canaIs with low content of fine sediment
in the water
3 Recommended value for canaIs with clear water
4 Recommended value for canals in coarse noncohensive material,
d>25

50

20
"
' '-
........
N
........
E
' r,.. "
"
z._., 10
Q)

..e..
o
' ,
... "
I'\
\.
· /
Sandy clays {sand<50)
Heovy clayey soils

>
G)
:jj
5
' . /,,V
''\!\,.
Clays
o

- ...
;!=
e
::,
2 , ,V Lean clayey soils

0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0

Void ratio
 8

_¿j1 K -
Ys
z vb

1 0.45 0.67
2 0.67 0.82
3 0.77 0.88

rp = 30'

The critica! shear stress for erosion ( a = O), or the maximum permissible unit tractive
force as obtained by Shields (1936) are shown in dimensionless form in Fig. , and in
dimensional farm in Fig. . In Fig. and more recently obtained results (Lalye 1988)
are displayed together with the classical Shields results.
All these values refer to straight canals. They need to be lowered far sinuous canals.
Lane (1955) suggested a reduction with
10 % for slightly sinuous canals,
25 % far moderately sinuous canal, and
40 % far very sinuous canals.

2. Armouring (or "aging") of channels

Most erosion and sedimentation criteria refer to homogenous bed material. Sorne
artifacts (e.g. using d50, d80) are suggested by the authors to make them applicable to
mixt ures as well. Mixtures however may behave in a way completely different from
uniform material. Depending on the grain size distribution of the bed material
"armouring" may occur : the finer fraction of the bed material in the upper layer is
eroded , but the coarser material remains. After sorne time only the coarse material is
left and farms on "armour" which protects the underlayin?. sediments. From then on the
bed is stable. This phenomenon is also known as "aging '. Gessler proposed a method
which allows to calculate the probability that an amour layer is formed. See
lecture notes "Waterwegen", J. Berlamont, Wouters Leuven (in Dutch)
SETRA : a computerprogram developed by R. Mendez (Civi1 Engineering
department K.U.Leuven) te compute Sediment Transport.
J. Gessler : The beginning of Bed Load Movement of mixtures investigated as
Natural Armouring in channels, CALTEC, transl T-5, March 1971.
 9

3. Design methods
3.1. Method of maximum permissible velocity

The cross sectional shape, waterdepth and channel slope should be selected in such a way
that the mean flow velocity is not higher than the maximum permissible velocity. The
side slopes may not exceed the angle of repose of the soil.
This can be done by trial and error e.g. using simulation (cfr. ). A straightforward
design procedure could be as follows :
l. estimate the Manning coefficient n1 side slope Z and maximum permissible velocity V
based on the kind of material forming the canal bed. Assume S0.
3
2. Compute IR using Manning's formula IR = (n V) /z s// 4
3. Determine the wetted area A, necessary to carry the discharge Q at maximum
permissible velocity V
A = Q/V
4. Calculate P = A/IR
5. Knowing A and P, one can solve simultanously for b and hn. The bed width to flow
depth ratio b/ hn should be in accordance with the requirements (e.g. minimum
excavation eq. (2)). Often a value of 4 is recommended.
3.2. Method of maximum permissible unit tractive force
Again, the design can be done by trial and error, the geometric parameters being
adjusted in such a way that the maxium permissible unit tractive force (shear stress) is
not exceeded neither on the bed, nor on the sides. A straightforward design algorithm
could be as follows.
step 1 : Choose a value of the side slope based on the grain size distribution of the
material forming the canal body.
step 2 : Choose a value of Manning's coefficient and a ratio of bed width to flow
depth. For erodible canals the US Bureau of Reclamation recommends a
value close to 4.
step 3 : Estimate a value of the permissible tractive force on the bed (Bb) for
average particle size. Determine the tractive force ratio (K) for the selected
angle of repose and side slope. Determine the permissible tractive force on
the inclined slopes ( Ts) by Ts = K*Tb
step 4 : Determine the allowable channel slopes to avoid exceeding the permissible
unit tractive force. Assume a value of flow depth (h).
For side slopes : s = rs/(0.75 pg h)
For bottom : s = Tb/(pg h).
Select the minimum value as the allowable slope of the canal.
step 5 : Determine the bed width of the canal. Determine the discharge in the canal
by using Manning's formula.

lfor non cohesive bed materials and in the absence of "bedforms", i.e. for a flat bed n
may be estimated by n = 0.04(d90)1/ 6
 10

step 6 : Compare the calculated discharge with the given discharge.

If the two values are different repeat steps 4, 5 and 6 with another value of the
flow depth; until the calculated and given discharges are reasonably equal.

3.3. Regime approach

A lined channel has only one degree of freedom (waterdepth). For a given discharge the
system stabilizes rather rapidly : sorne distance away from the controlling boundary
condition the normal depth is installed (82, Sa, A1, A2 flow profiles). An unlined channel
however exhibits multiple degrees of freedom. It is subject to erosion and deposition,
which may change the bed slope and the channel cross section and alignment. An
artificially straight channel in an erodible bed is seldom stable. The flow will usually
compel the course to meander. Therefore the degrees of freedom of an erodible channel
are waterdepth, width, slope and alignment. Stabilization of such channel may take a
long time and, indeed, may in sorne cases never be attained.
Intuitively it is expected that a final equilibrium situation should exist for a channel
running through erodible land and carrying a given discharge. In this "regime" situation
there should be an equilibrium between the geometry of the channel cross section, the
channel slope (i.e. the thalweg length) and the discharge. This feeling is confirmed by
many in situ measurements and experiments. lt is however very difficult to formulate
these equilibrium conditions in a quantitative way. Many attempts have been made
e.g. Lacey (1929-1958), Blech (1950-1970), Kennedy (1890), Chitale (1965-), ...)
' Regime formulas" give the interrelations between geometric and hydraulic parameters
in stable channels, e.g. Lacey formula
1
P ¡::j B = 4.836 Q /2 (MKS)
1
IR ¡::j h = 0.392 Q /a
1
So = 0,00077 Q /6
A selection of Simons & Albertson's equations (in metric units) is given below, (a
complete list may be found in Henderson l1966) :
1
B = 0.9P P = K1Q /2
1 V 1¡
So = -( -) n
R2 Ka
l.21R , R < 2.lm
hn = { 0.61 + 0.93R, R > 2.lm
The values for the various constants depend on the channel type. For example, a Type 2
channel (sandy bed and cohesive banks) would use.
K1 = 4.71 K 2 = 0.484 Ka = 10.81 n = 0.33
 11

The "regime approach" consists in adjusting the channel parameters to the hydraulic
parameters in such a way that the "regime equations" are met. The method, which is
purely empirical, has many protagonists but is also strongly criticised by many.
The Kennedy method is presented here as an example. It may be useful only for a
preliminary design. According to the US Bureau of Reclamation the final design should
be based on the tractive fore method.
The Kennedy formula was developed to determine the non silting and non eroding
velocity for silt-laden water flowing in a canal having a boundary of similar material.

V6 = 0.55 Ch0·64 (S.I.)

Typical values of the Kennedy coefficient C for different ma.terials are indicated in the
table.
Values of Kennedy coefficient C
Soil type e
Extremely fine soil 0.56
Fine, light, sandy soil 0.84
Coarser, light, sandy soil 0.92
Sandy, loamy silt 1.01
Coarse silt or hard soil debris 1.09

The Kennedy formula has been modified by the US Bureau of Reclamation to suit the
canals which carry relatively clear water. The modified Kennedy formula is written as
follows;

Vs = 0.55 Ch0'5
Design procedure

,... b
-1

D = b/h
1
Vs = 0.55Ch /2
1
A = Q/Vs = Q/(0.55Ch /2)
A = h(b+Zh) ==}
3 b = A/h-Zh
b = Q/(0.55Ch /2) -Zh

-". .
,
 12

since b/h=D ;
solving for h ; h = -----------
2
[ (Z + D) * O .55 * C ] /5
b = D.h

III. Simulation
The different design methods discussed in the previous section ali assume a steady
uniform flow. Irrigation canals operate under steady flow oonditions, but the flow is
seldom uniform. Therefore the design of a channel should by checked by simulating its
real behaviour under non uniform flow conditions. The different flow profiles controlled
by the boundry conditions as there are weirs and gates, should be calculated. It should
be checked that the waterlevel <loes not exceed the maximum allowable level (terrain
level - required freeboard) and that the velocities are neither too high (erosion) nor to
low (sedimentation, poor efficiency).

Such simulations or flow profile calculations are done automatically by the program
CANALNET developed at .the Center of Irrigation of the K.U.Leuven by P.M. Choseni
(1989).

lt is clear that a channel design may also be carried out by trial and error using such
simulation model. The channel parameters are adjusted until all requirements of
waterlevel and velocity (and sediment transport ) are met.
In the case that one wants to study the effect of unsteady flow e.g. caused by the
operation of gates, an unsteady flow model should be used. Ex.amples are RIO (dept. of
Civil Engineering K.U.LeuvenJ and MIKE 11 (Danish Hydraulic Institnte).
Selected References

- "Open-channel hydraulics"; R.H. French; McGraw-Hill (1985); ISBN 0-07-022134-0.

- "Open Channel Hydraulics"; V.T. Chow; McGraw-Hill (1959).

- "Theorie van de verhanglijnen" (in Dutch); J. Berlamont; Wouters, Leuven (1980).

- "Civil Engineering Hydraulics"; R.E. Featherstone & Nalburi; Granada (19??);

ISBN 0-246-11483-5.

- "Hydraulics in Civil Engineering"; A. Chadwich & J. Morfett; Allen & Unwin (1986);
ISBN 0-04-627003-5.

- "Design and optimization of irrigation distribution networks"; FAO, irrigation and

drainage paper 44, Roi:ne 1988.