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SDH TRANSMISSION
Data Communications
Networks
SDH DCN Overview and Principles
Release 5 Standard May 2001
http://bbndhwww.europe.nortel.com/DCN/
Printed in England
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Publication history
May 2001
Standard issue
Contents
About this information xiii
Audience xiii
Scope xiii
SDH DCN status changes xiv
Product references xiv
Preside Application Platform xiv
OPTera xiv
Acronyms xiv
Associated information xiv
Introduction 1-1
What is a DCN? 1-1
Why is a DCN needed? 1-1
Internal and external DCN 1-1
OSI and IP in the DCN 1-2
OSI and IP role of SDH DCN components 1-3
SDH NEs 1-4
Element Controllers 1-4
High-level managers and xterms 1-5
Routers 1-5
Example network topology 1-5
Metrics/costs 5-7
IP routing 6-1
IP networks, addressing, and masks 6-1
Dotted decimal notation for IP addresses 6-2
Circuitless IP interface 6-3
IP routing protocols 6-4
ARP 6-4
RIP/RIP 2 6-5
OSPF 6-6
Interfacing OSPF networks with non-OSPF networks 6-7
Redistribution 6-7
Implementing OSPF in a network 6-7
Terms 6-7
Topology considerations 6-9
A comparison between OSPF and RIP 6-11
Route preference 6-12
Static and default routes 6-13
Subnetting and supernetting - IP addressing examples 6-14
IPv4 to IPv6 transition 6-21
Changes from IPv4 6-21
Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 6-22
Latency 8-10
Queue size 8-11
Index 14-1
Figures
Figure 1-1 Typical example of an SDH DCN 1-3
Figure 1-2 IP and OSI network terms 1-4
Figure 1-3 Example SDH management area 1-6
Figure 1-4 Example SDH NE area 1-7
Figure 1-5 Generic SDH DCN topology 1-8
Figure 2-1 Communication through the hierarchy of the OSI seven layers 2-1
Figure 3-1 Closed loop in a bridged network 3-4
Figure 3-2 Network topology before and after implementing the Spanning
Tree algorithm 3-5
Figure 3-3 Interconnecting two stations 3-11
Figure 3-4 Interconnecting multiple stations
3-11
Figure 4-1 Master-slave modem configuration 4-2
Figure 4-2 Typical network topologies 4-3
Figure 4-3 Typical network topology - dial backup 4-4
Figure 4-4 Typical network topology - dial-on-demand 4-6
Figure 4-5 CHAP authentication 4-7
Tables
Table 3-1 CSMA/CD frame structure 3-9
Table 3-2 Examples of physical implementations 3-10
Table 3-3 Fast Ethernet standards for Layer 1 implementations 3-12
Table 3-4 10BaseT cable types 3-13
Table 6-1 Possible address allocations 6-20
Table 9-1 Needed DCN components 9-20
Procedures
Procedure 7-1 Using ISO DCC format 7-11
Scope
http://bbndhwww.europe.nortel.com/DCN/
Product references
Preside Application Platform
The term ‘PAP (Preside Application Platform)’ is a direct replacement for the
entire portfolio of INM/NRM (Integrated Network Manager/Network
Resource Manager) functionality. Refer to the Release 5 handbook SDH DCN
Design for Transmission Products, 323-4061-100, for historical perspectives
of INM and NRM.
OPTera
For information regarding OPTera product rebranding, refer to
http://spc.us.nortel.com/products/optical/rebranding/index.html
Acronyms
To enhance the readability of this information, each acronym (upon first
reference in each chapter) is followed by its meaning in brackets. These
acronyms also appear in the List of Terms.
Associated information
1 SDH DCN Design for Transmission Products, 323-4061-100
2 SDH DCN Design Using Nortel Networks Routers, 323-4061-101
3 SDH DCN Design Using Cisco Routers, 323-4061-102
4 SDH DCN Design for Access Products, 323-4061-103
1-1
Introduction 1-
What is a DCN?
A DCN (Data Communications Network) is the set of processes, equipment,
or facilities used to transport signals from one data processing device at one
location to another data processing device at another location.
In small networks, it is possible for all managers and gateway (head-end) NEs
(that is, those NEs forming connectivity between the EC and other NEs) to be
close enough to each other to be connected by a DCN consisting of LANs
(Local Area Networks) only. However, in most networks, some NEs and
element controllers are located remotely from the other managers, and the
DCN is made up of several LANs connected by point-to-point WAN (Wide
Area Network) links.
The internal DCN is the part of the DCN which uses the SDH NE
infrastructure. Management data is transported between NEs in the DCC
(Data Communications Channel), which is part of the SDH traffic overhead
or an OSC. Two DCCs are defined: the 576 kbit/s MS (Multiplex Section)
DCC, and the 192 kbit/s RS (Regenerator Section) DCC. For optical-only
elements such as optical amplifiers, when there is no other route for data
communications, an OSC (Optical Service Channel) is used.
Two sets of networking protocols are used in the SDH DCN: OSI (Open
Systems Interconnect) CLNP (Connectionless-mode Network Layer
Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol). The SDH standards specify that the OSI
protocol suite is used for data communications; therefore, NE to NE
communications are OSI. (A few exceptions use IP for communications to
their NEs.) The high-level managers and xterms communicate use the IP set
of protocols. ECs usually run both IP and OSI protocol suites (that is, they
have both IP and OSI management interfaces) to communicate with both the
NEs and the high-level managers. There is no DCC through the ECs (that is,
there is no protocol translation); all OSI and IP data is terminated. A software
application, the MOA (Managed Object Agent), runs on the EC platforms to
interface the element controller to the high-level manager and allows the
manager access to information on the NEs. The IP and OSI components of the
DCN are shown in Figure 1-1.
Figure 1-1
Typical example of an SDH DCN
1
IP LAN/WAN
O
P
C
16 EC EC
S
D
H
D OSI LAN/WAN
C
N
1/4 1/4
16
SDH DCC
• IP hosts or OSI ESs (End Systems) are the source and destination of data
communications traffic but they cannot forward data.
Host/ES Host/ES
Network/
Subnetwork/
Router/ Area B Router/ Host/ES
IS IS
Network/ Network/
Subnetwork/ Subnetwork/
Area A Area C
Router/ Router/
IS IS
Network/
Subnetwork/
Area D
AS (Autonomous System)/Domain
SDH NEs
Most SDH NEs are OSI ISs, since they need to pass OSI data on to adjacent
NEs. They have L1 IS routing capabilities only, so only route within OSI
areas. A few NEs or other SDH devices (for example, the ATU
[Asynchronous Telemetry Unit]), which do not need to pass on OSI data, are
ESs. Packets not addressed to the device are discarded. Most NEs have a LAN
connection to enable them to connect to an OSI LAN or to another NE.
Note: New releases of SDH and optical devices will employ L2 routing
capabilities.
Element Controllers
ECs terminate both OSI data from NEs and IP data from higher level
managers so one EC is both an OSI ES and an IP host. They have two LAN
ports to enable connection to both an OSI and an IP LAN.
Routers
Routers support both OSI and IP protocols, and have WAN links to access
remote devices, as well as LAN interfaces. In addition to L1 routing
capabilities, routers provide the L2 IS routing functionality which is needed
on the 2 Mbit/s E1 links between OSI areas. They also provide IP routing
between management entities.
The number of OSI areas in the network depends on the number of SDH NEs,
since there is a limit of OSI devices in an area. Refer to SDH DCN Design for
Transmission Products, 323-4061-100, for further information. In large
networks, the managers are in their own OSI area, with SDH NEs allocated to
other areas. Small networks consist of one OSI area in total. An example
management area is shown in Figure 1-3. Note that the IP and OSI protocols
are separated on the LANs, but coexist on the WAN links. The management
location is duplicated to increase availability of the managers. The 2 Mbit/s
E1 links to the SDH NE area are L2 routing only, since they are between OSI
areas.
Figure 1-3
Example SDH management area
IP LAN IP LAN
EC EC
EC EC
E1
Router M M Router
IP/OSI
M M
E1 E1
OSI L2 and IP OSI L2 and IP
Figure 1-4 shows an OSI area containing SDH NEs and routers. The E1 links
provide connections back to the management area either directly, or via other
SDH NE OSI areas:
(a) For SDH NEs with an in-shelf EC (the TN-16Xs in this example), the
OSI communications which are carried over the DCC are localized
between the in-shelf controller and NEs, so they are not carried outside
the OSI area.
(d) Any links to SDH NEs in other OSI areas should have the DCC
disabled to ensure separation of the OSI areas.
Note: All information between the PAP and NEs is terminated at the EC,
with the EC providing a translation between the PAP and NEs different
1
instruction sets. The EC can also initiate instruction to the NEs it is
managing, allowing the NE to be reconfigured.
Routers are used at two NE locations to increase network availability.
Figure 1-4
Example SDH NE area
(c) (b)
OSI IP 1X IP OSI
DCC
OPC 16X OPC
DCC
4X
Figure 1-5 shows how SDH NE OSI areas such as that in Figure 1-4 are
connected together in a large network. All links shown carry both L2 OSI and
IP data. Each chain should contain no more than five SDH NE areas linked
back to the management area. The use of two links to the management areas
makes the network more resilient in the case of a network failure. The two
routers within each area should be located as far away from each other as
possible for resiliency, but DCN equipment in adjacent areas may in fact be
collocated.
Figure 1-5
Generic SDH DCN topology
When a computer sends data, each layer receives the data from the layer
above it, adds its own information (header) and sends it down to the layer
beneath it (that is, from the application layer to the physical layer). The
opposite occurs on the receiving computer—from the physical layer to the
application layer, the data is sent from each layer to the layer above it, the
headers are removed, and the destination computer receives the data in the
same format the data was sent.
Figure 2-1
Communication through the hierarchy of the OSI seven layers
7. Application Application
6. Presentation Presentation
5. Session Session
4. Transport Transport
3. N etw ork Network
2. Data Link
1. Physical
DCN Data Link
Physical
Layers 1 to 4 (physical, data link, network, and transport) are concerned with
data transport; layers 5 to 7 (session, presentation, and application) are mainly
used by applications.
data between layers 1 to 3. However, these layers can use upper layer
protocols (that is, layers 4 to 7) to communicate with management systems.
Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with moving data on to, across and off the
network medium. It defines how to access the medium, which involves the
physical topology of the network, the electrical and physical aspects, the
encoding and timing of bit transmission and reception.
Repeaters can have multiple ports, in which case they are called hubs.
Therefore, hubs are also physical layer devices (see “Hubs, bridges, and
switches” on page 3-1).
The ISO 8802/IEEE 802 set of standards define data link protocols for
different LAN (Local Area Network) protocols, dividing them into two
sublayers: the LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Media Access Control)
sublayers.
The LLC (ISO 8802-2) sublayer implements framing; it also manages flow
control and error correction between devices in simple networks. The LLC
sublayer also establishes and maintains a connection between devices (for
example, a workstation and a server), thus handling the network layer service
interface.
2
The MAC (ISO 8802-3) sublayer allows multiple devices to share the media
on the local network. It maintains physical device addresses for
communicating with other devices. These are referred to as MAC addresses,
which must be given to each device and must be unique.
Bridges and switches are data link layer devices, as they deal with addressing
on the local network (see “Bridges and switches” on page 3-2). In the same
section the Spanning Tree algorithm is described, which is used by bridges
and switches in order to overcome the problem of routing loops. An example
of data link layer protocol is PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), described in
“PPP” on page 4-11.
Normally, the data link layer provides two types of link service:
connectionless, which treats each information frame as a self-contained entity
that is transferred using a best-try approach. This means that if errors are
detected in a frame, the destination computer does not notify the source
and the frame is simply discarded.
Network layer
The network layer is concerned with determining the route that packets take
through a network in order to get to their destination. Routes can either be
static, or be determined dynamically by routing protocols. Since the network
layer must be able to route packets from a source host on one network
towards a destination host on another, the addressing used at this layer is
independent of the subnet technology.
Routers are devices operating at the network layer. Unlike bridges, routers
stop broadcast storms, as they only forward packets to a known address.
However, because routers process so much information, they tend to be
slower than bridges.
Transport layer
The transport layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery of data from its
source to its destination.
The transport layer deals with segment sequencing and error control. Segment
sequencing consists of receiving segments out of order and resequencing
them in the right order. Error control uses acknowledgements to manage the
data flow between devices. In order to overcome errors, some transport layer
protocols can require retransmission of recently sent segments.
For IP, the following transport layer protocols are commonly used:
UDP (User Datagram Protocol, defined in RFC 768): connectionless protocol
used unacknowledged data transport, with no delivery guarantees. UDP
relies on other protocols for error processing and retransmission handling.
Session layer
The session layer manages information exchange between computers in three
phases by establishing, managing, and terminating communication (a session)
between source and destination computers. In the first phase (establishment)
the network layer initiates the service by setting the communication rules. In
the second phase (data transfer), the computers communicate with one
another according to the rules set in the establishment phase. Finally, the
termination phase looks after the completion of the session in an orderly way.
The session layer utilizes three types of dialogue: simplex, half-duplex, and
full-duplex. Simplex dialogues allow data to flow in only one direction,
therefore information can be sent, but not responded to or even
acknowledged. Half-duplex dialogues allow data to flow in two directions,
but in only one direction at a time. Replies and acknowledgement are then
possible, but if an error is detected early on in transmission, the receiver must
wait for the sender to terminate its communication before any action can be
taken. Full-duplex dialogues allow data to flow in both directions
simultaneously. This is the most flexible and reliable type of dialogue, but it is
also the most complex and expensive.
Presentation layer
The presentation layer ensures that the data received from the application
layer is sent to the session layer in a standard format and vice versa, as
different types of computers can interpret identical data in different ways.
Therefore, when the presentation layer receives data from the application/
session layer that is not in the proper format for the session/application layer,
it converts the data into the proper format (for example, it performs a
character code translation).
Application layer
The application layer provides a consistent, neutral interface to the network
(for example, a consistent way for an application to save files to the network
file server or to a network printer). The application layer also advertises a
computer’s available resources to the rest of the network.
LANs are broadcast networks—that is, any number of devices (up to a limit
depending on the technology) share the same data communications medium
(for example, a piece of coax cable, or a hub backplane). Examples of LAN
technology are Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI. The SDH (Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy) DCN uses only Ethernet LANs.
Hubs
Hubs are simply multiport repeaters. A repeater is a device that regenerates
(amplifies) the data (that is, it regenerates the incoming digital signal, thus
extending the coverage of the physical LAN). On a hub, the regenerated
signal is simply forwarded out all ports except the port it was received from.
Hubs do not read the frames they receive. Note that some hubs do not
regenerate the signal but just forward it, and as such they are known as
passive hubs, whereas those that regenerate the signal are called active hubs.
All devices connected to a hub participate in the same collision domain (as
well as in the same broadcast domain), because they have to forward collision
fragments. Therefore, as the network grows in terms of both propagation
length and number of attached devices—so does the collision domain. This
problem can be greatly minimized by means of bridges and switches, as these
devices segment the network, thus breaking collision domains into smaller
ones.
A big advantage of bridges and switches is that each interface is in its own
collision domain. This implies that the devices connected to different
interfaces belong to different collision domains. This enhances the network
performance in terms of bandwidth utilization, as the number of collisions is
greatly reduced. In fact, where a device is connected directly to a switch or
bridge, the full bandwidth of a link is available (for example, with a 10BaseT
device, the link to/from the bridge switch can operate at 10 Mbit/s), whereas
with a hub the bandwidth utilization is generally limited to 30-40% (for
example, the link can work at up to 3-4 Mbit/s with a 10BaseT device,
because of collisions).
The SDH DCN portfolio does not include any bridges; however, routers may
be configured to bridge Ethernet traffic and as such behave as bridges.
Transparent bridging
Transparent bridging is the most commonly used bridging method. Bridges
and switches use transparent bridging to connect LANs that use the same data
link protocol. This bridging method is called ‘transparent’ as it is invisible to
users. When a bridge/switch is powered up, its filter table is empty, then the
device starts to build the table up as the frames are received from the attached
devices. Once the filter table is built, when receiving a frame the layer 2 device
checks the destination address against the filter table, then it takes one of the
following actions:
• If the address is found on a different port (LAN) from the port the frame
was received from, it forwards the frame on the appropriate port;
• If the address is found on the same port (LAN) the frame was received
from, it drops the frame; this occurs because all nodes on that LAN have
already received the frame;
• If the address is not found, it floods (that is, it forwards to all ports -
LANs) the frame except for the port the frame was received from.
router; a router does not forward layer-2 broadcast traffic, as routers are
located at the boundaries of the broadcast domain). A more recent
switch-based solution is to divide a physical LAN in VLANs). Individual
nodes on the LAN can be grouped into a VLAN, which forms a single
broadcast domain. However, a router is still needed to route traffic between
VLANs.
An even more catastrophic issue regarding bridge/switch loops is that the first
broadcast packet will be regenerated at each bridge, causing a broadcast
storm, which will quickly cause the LAN to be congested, thus making it
unusable.
Figure 3-1
Closed loop in a bridged network
Host 1
LAN 1
Bridge A Bridge B
LAN 2
Host 2
Figure 3-2 shows an example of network topology with physical loops before
and after the Spanning Tree algorithm is implemented. The implementation is
explained in the following section. By applying the Spanning Tree algorithm
to such a topology, traffic loops will be avoided, with no need to change the
physical topology.
Figure 3-2
Network topology before and after implementing the Spanning Tree algorithm
Physical network topology before implementing the Spanning Tree algorithm
Bridge 1
C =10 C =10
LAN 1 LAN 2
3
C=5 C=5
Bridge 5 Bridge 4
C=5 C=5
C=10 D
Bridge 3
C=10 C=10
Bridge 2
C=5 C=5
LAN 5
LAN 3 LAN 4
Logical network topology after having implemented the Spanning Tree algorithm
Bridge 1 RPC=0
C =10 C =10
D D
LAN 1 LAN 2
R R
C=5 C=5
Bridge 5 RPC=5 Bridge 4 RPC=5
C=5 R C=5
B C=10 D
R Bridge 3 RPC=10
C=10 RPC=10 C=10
Bridge 2
B LAN 5
C =5 C =5
D D B = ports in blocking mode
C = cost
D = designated port
LAN 3 LAN 4 R = root port
RPC = root-path cost
When a bridge receives a BPDU from another bridge with lower priority, it
stops sending BPDUs. At the end of the election process, only the root bridge
will keep on sending BPDUs. Therefore, the bridge with the lowest priority
will be elected as the root bridge. In case of more than one bridge having the
same lowest priority value, the bridge with the lowest MAC address will be
elected as the root bridge.
Breaking loops
Once the root bridge is elected and the root path is determined on each bridge,
the Spanning Tree algorithm will break loops by causing bridges to block
redundant ports.
Once the Spanning Tree algorithm has converged, there will be a single active
path between any two stations, so that a loop-free environment will be
provided. Non-designated bridges are blocked (bridges 3 and 5 in
Figure 3-2), but continue to receive BPDUs so that the Spanning Tree status
can be monitored. In this way an automatic reconfiguration of the Spanning
Tree topology is ensured in case of any type of failure.
The traffic always flows from the source toward the root, then backs out to the
destination. This is not necessarily the optimum path. For example, in
3
Figure 3-2 the optimum path between LANs 1 and 5 would be through
bridge 5 only. However, since bridge 5 is in blocking mode after the
implementation of the Spanning Tree algorithm, frames between LANs 1 and
5 will have to go through both bridges 1 and 4.
The Spanning Tree algorithm can take some time to converge in large
networks. This issue mainly affects switches.
Bridge latency
When a bridge receives a frame, it reads it into the device before it is
processed, and then it either forwards or filters or floods it. A device of this
type is called a store-and-forward device.
The time interval between the last bit arriving at the device and the first bit
leaving it is referred to as latency. The lower the latency, the more powerful
the device, as less total delay is introduced in the frame transmission. The
total delay introduced by a bridge is given by the sum of the input
serialization delay, the output serialization delay, and the latency of the
device.
Switch latency
Two types of switches are defined according to the way they deal with the
frame once they receive it: store-and-forward and cut-through switches.
Ethernet
Technical and office environments widely use CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection) bus networks, better known as
Ethernet networks. An Ethernet resides at layer 1 (physical connections) and
layer 2 (routing within a LAN) of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect)
model.
LAN implementations must follow the rule that a maximum of 1024 devices
can participate in a LAN.
When two or more devices interfere with one another (i.e., in an attempt to
transmit data onto the network), a collision occurs. As a result, transmission is
slowed down. In order to reduce collisions within LANs, the MAC sublayer
uses CSMA/CD for access to the physical medium. Table 3-1 displays the
CSMA/CD frame structure. A CSMA/CD device ‘senses’ the network before
transmitting data. If no other devices are transmitting, the device sends the
data. However, if two or more devices, after having verified that no other
devices are transmitting, send data at the same time, a collision occurs. In this
case, the devices detect the collision and send an alert to the other nodes that a
collision has occurred. All nodes then stop transmitting, and send the data
after a random period of time, according to a Backoff algorithm. Thus,
CSMA/CD does not stop collisions from happening, but reduces them, and
can handle the situations when collisions occur.
levels should be limited to between 30% and 40% of the LAN bandwidth
(i.e., between 3 and 4 Mbit/s on a standard Ethernet network).
Data
46 - 1500 bytes
Note: When only two 10BaseT devices need interconnection, this can be
created using a direct connection. Cable type will depend upon the type of
devices being connected. Refer to “DCE and DTE configurations” on page
3-12.
Table 3-2
Examples of physical implementations
Data Signalling Maximum Segment Media Topology
rate Method Length (m)
(Mbit/s)
10BaseT 10 baseband 100 UTP wire star
10Base5 10 baseband 500 50-Ohm coax bus
(thick)
10Base2 10 baseband 185 50-Ohm coax bus
(thin)
Note: HF = half duplex, FD = full duplex, UTP = unshielded twisted pair.
10Base5
10Base5, also known as thick-wire Ethernet, is a legacy implementation,
and is supported in the SDH DCN for older NEs (Network Elements) such as
the TN-1X. Devices which use 10Base5 have an AUI (Attachment Unit
Interface) port—a 15-way D-type with a locking collar. A cable (known as the
drop cable) runs from the AUI port to a transceiver which is clamped onto
the coaxial LAN cable. Alternatively, a number of devices could be connected
via drop-cables to a hub, sometimes known as a fan-out unit.
10Base2
10Base2, also known as thin-wire Ethernet, uses thinner core coaxial cable
and BNC connectors. It is not used in the SDH DCN because of its poor noise
immunity.
10BaseT
The main advantage of 10BaseT over its predecessors is that the media used
is CAT5 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable, which is cheaper and much
easier to manage. The network infrastructure consists of hubs, switches or a
combination of both, with devices usually connected using RJ-45 to RJ-45
cables (there are some exceptions in the SDH DCN. Refer to SDH DCN
Design for Transmission Products, 323-4061-100).
Figure 3-3
Interconnecting two stations
10BaseT Cables
AUI to 10BaseT Transceiver
3
AUI Interface
Figure 3-4
Interconnecting multiple stations
In practice, the major problem for fast Ethernet is how to achieve a speed of
100 Mbit/s over 100 m of unshielded twisted pair cable, as for 10BaseT. To
overcome the inherent difficulties, three standards are utilized to implement
Layer 1, as shown in Table 3-3:
Table 3-3
Fast Ethernet standards for Layer 1 implementations
A crossover cable can also used to connect a hub to a hub in order to cascade
them. On most hubs this is not necessary, as there is normally one port which
is switchable between MDI and MDI-X, in which case a straight cable can be
used between a standard MDI-X port on one hub, and a port switched to MDI
on the other. Table 3-4 summarizes.
Table 3-4
10BaseT cable types
end of chapter
WAN links 4-
Routers in the SDH DCN (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy Data
Communications Networks) are normally connected by WAN (Wide Area
Network) links, which, in contrast to LANs (Local Area Networks), are
point-to-point—that is, two devices are connected together, often over a long
4
distance. There are several types of WAN interface in the SDH DCN—routers
use X.21, E1, and ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), while NEs
(Network Elements) use the ECC (Embedded Communications Channel).
Data carried over WAN links is carried in frames.
X.21
The X.21 standard interface has been defined for interfacing a DTE (Data
Terminal Equipment) to a DCE (Data Circuit Terminating Equipment, for
example, a modem) of a public data network. The X.21 interface is also used
as the termination interface for digital leased circuits of n x 64 kbit/s. As the
The modem supplies the clock signal to the router. The modem is therefore
DCE and the router is DTE; this is true at both ends of the connection. One of
the modems supplies the clock to the other over the leased line. One is
therefore required to be set up as ‘Master’ and the other as ‘Slave’, as shown
in the serial port to serial port example in Figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1
Master-slave modem configuration
Master Slave
For an E1 to serial port link using only one modem, the modem must be set
for master clock.
FE1/E1 modules
Introduction
These modules provide a G.703 2048 kbit/s interface for access routers,
which eliminates the need for external X.21 to G.703 high-speed modems for
WAN links. These WAN links could connect a network operator’s router over
PTT (Post, Telephone, and Telegraph) leased lines or over spare 2 Mbit/s
channels in the network operator’s infrastructure. These modules are physical
devices; therefore they reside at layer 1 of the OSI model.
The FE1/E1 interface is presented as a 120 Ohm RJ45 socket for each of the
three types of router. Conversion to 75 Ohm is achieved by means of an
external adaptor, known as a balun, which provides TX and RX BNC
connectors.
Example
Figure 4-2 shows an example of high-level topologies and the supported
interoperability options for the FE1/E1 interfaces on the various routers.
Figure 4-2
Typical network topologies
E1 or FE1 E1 or FE1
Router Router
75 or 120 Ohm
75 or 120 Ohm
2 M line system
E1 only E1 X.21
Router Modem Router
75 or 120 Ohm 75 or
2 M line system 120 Ohm
Compared to modem connections over the PSTN, ISDN provides faster call
setup, a more reliable service, and higher data rates. The applications covered
in this section are dial backup and dial-on-demand services. In addition,
Nortel Networks routers support bandwidth-on-demand, where B channels
are dynamically aggregated into a single circuit to provide greater bandwidth
when required.
Example
Figure 4-3 shows a typical network topology for dial backup.
Figure 4-3
Typical network topology - dial backup
S21 S21
ISDN ISDN
Master Slave
64 kbit/s backup circuit
IS D N
The serial WAN circuit (S21), running PPP, is the permanent circuit which is
backed up by the dial-up ISDN connection. BOFL (Breath of Life) packets
are enabled on this link; this is the only time BOFL packets are enabled on a
PPP line. The BOFLs are used to detect whether the primary circuit is up or
down. When failure of the circuit is detected, a call is set up across the ISDN
network. To avoid call collisions, the router designated as master always calls
the slave router. The ISDN line automatically inherits the upper layer
protocols from the primary circuit; this includes cost/metric values.
Example
Figure 4-4 shows a typical network topology for dial-on-demand.
Figure 4-4
Typical network topology - dial-on-demand
NE
NELAN
P reside EC
xterm E C -1 IP L A N
Central Site 192.1 68.1.5 192.1 68.1.6
ASBR (Autonomous
Rem ote Site
System Boundary Router)
router IS D N router
SDH DCN
One router is configured as the collision master, and one as the collision slave.
This master/slave relationship operates only if both routers try to initiate a call
at the same time, in which case the slave backs down. Normally whichever
router has data to send will initiate the ISDN call.
Call authentication
For dial services, it is important to authenticate calls made to the router. PPP
supports CHAP (Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol, which is
performed during link setup) before any data is sent. The calling router sends
its own local CHAP name and secret. The called router is configured with a
caller resolution table which contains the CHAP name and secret for each
circuit. When an incoming call is received, it uses the caller resolution table to
verify the caller. In ISDN dial-on-demand, either router may initiate a call, so
both routers must be configured with a local CHAP name and secret for
outgoing calls and a caller resolution table to look up incoming calls. In ISDN
dial backup, the master router always calls the slave—therefore the master is
configured with an outgoing phone number and CHAP parameters, and the
slave is configured with a caller resolution table.
Figure 4-5 illustrates the CHAP information that must be configured when 4
either router can initiate a call.
Figure 4-5
CHAP authentication
SDH D-bytes
As defined in ITU-T G.784, bytes D1 to D3 and D4 to D12 provide two
transparent management channels operating at 192 kbit/s and 576 kbit/s
respectively. These channels are referred to as DCCs (Data Communication
Channels).
A1 A1 A1 A2 A2 A2 J0 Regenerator
B1 E1 F1 Section
D1 D2 D3 Overhead (RSOH)
AU Pointer(s)
B2 B2 B2 K1 K2
D4 D5 D6 Multiplex
D7 D8 D9 Section
D10 D11 D12 Overhead (MSOH)
S1 Z1 Z1 Z2 Z2 M1 E2
MOR/MOR+
Inherent within the MOR/MOR+ with OSC card is a unidirectional OSC
supported on a 1510 nm wavelength. The 1510 nm OSC is transmitted in the
same direction as the RED direction of the MOR/MOR+ (wavelengths
1547-1560 nm).
1600G amplifier
The 1600G amplifier configuration differs slightly from the MOR/ MOR+
configuration, as both OSC wavelengths are proposed on a single dedicated
OSC card NOT as part of the 1600G amplifier itself. A single OSC card
provides both a 1550 nm and a 1625 nm OSC channels.
Figure 4-6
OSC: Management comms connections to optical elements
DCC DCC
Management information
ifrom
NE
d collocated SDH
4
No electrical DCN link to this NE
The Problem
DCC DCC
SDH NE SDH NE
Management information
fromi collocated
d SDH NE
Figure 4-7
Parallel optical links
Physical
P MOR
of i i icards
forms a OSC
ii
DCC DCC
SDH NE SDH NE
In systems with two parallel collocated MOR systems, the two unidirectional
1510 nm OSCs provided by the MORs can be configured as a single
bidirectional OSC. The positioning of the MORs in the subracks define the
pairing of the 1510 nm OSCs.
Figure 4-8
Single optical links
C C C C
D CC D CC
SDH NE SDH NE
1 5 1 0 n m O S C + Bi-d i rect io nal (R ed & Bl u e) T ra ffic W av elen g th s B i- d ire ctio n al ( Re d & B lu e) T raff ic W av ele n g ths
an d b o t h 1 5 1 0 n m & 1 6 2 5 n m O S C
1625nm OSC
In networks with a single MOR system, provision of the 1625 nm OSC card
in the appropriate slot in the subrack defines the 1510 nm and 1625 nm
unidirectional channels as a bidirectional OSC. The additional optical
coupling introduces additional losses which may affect the optical power
budgets.
In MOR+ and 1600G systems, at the line amplifier sites the equipment is
configured using two amplifiers, which in some configurations require use of
two OSC cards.
OSC structure
The OSC is a proprietary interface with a proprietary bit rate and frame with a
maximum information bit rate of 4.86 Mbit/s. This includes:
• section data communications channel of 576 kbit/s, that supports the OSI
management communications
4
• wayside channel: 2.112 Mbit/s - in the future, this channel could be used
to carry a DS-1 or E-1 channel
• local orderwire, express orderwire, data channel (E1, E2, F1 bytes) -
192 kbit/s (some of these channels are reserved for future use only, so are
not presently implemented).
• proprietary message bytes - 160 kbit/s. Presently used by Power Optimiser
software.
• multi-protocol encapsulation.
Figure 4-9 illustrates the components of the PPP related to the OSI model.
The figure shows that PPP encompasses both the physical and the data link
layers.
Figure 4-9
Components of PPP
Network Network
Data Link NCP
Data Link
Physical LCP Physical
ROUTER ROUTER
• Flag - A single byte that indicates the beginning or end of the PPP frame.
It consists of the binary sequence 01111110 (hex 7E).
Figure 4-10
PPP frame format
protocol data
Link initialization
PPP is initialized using both LCP and NCP. Figure 4-11 shows the link
initialization phases. Five phases are defined:
1 dead phase - Determines the physical readiness of the circuit. This is the
phase a PPP circuit begins and ends its life with. As the physical layer is
initiated, the circuit moves into the establish phase.
2 establish phase - Initiates LCP and negotiates the data link layer
parameters. When Configure Ack is received on both ends, the circuit
moves into the authenticate phase.
3 authenticate phase (optional) - Authenticates each end of the circuit using
PAP or CHAP. The circuit moves to the network phase only when
authentication is successful. In case of unsuccessful authentication, the
circuit goes to the termination phase.
Note: The authentication phase is optional on a dedicated PPP line, but is
required on dial services using PPP.
4 network phase - Activates any supported network layer protocols using the
appropriate NCP. Once an NCP is opened, the PPP circuit transports data
across the circuit.
Note: During the IPCP (Internet Protocol Control Protocol) Configure
Request, the IP address of each router is exchanged (supported by NCP).
5 terminate phase - Terminates the PPP circuit. The terminate phase can be
caused by physical failure, circuit-quality failure, configuration rejection,
or authentication failure. The network administrator can also disable the
circuit for diagnostic purposes. LCP uses Terminate Request packets to
end the circuit and notifies the appropriate NCPs that the circuit is
terminating.
Figure 4-11
Link initialization phases
Router Router
dead phase
establish phase
send Config Request receive Config Request
receive Config Ack send Config Ack
receive Config Request
send Config Ack
send Config Request
receive Config Ack
4
authenticate phase (optional)
LCP is up
network phase
send IPCP Config Request receive IPCP Config Request
receive IPCP Config Ack send IPCP Config Ack
receive IPCP Config Request send IPCP Config Request
send IPCP Config Ack receive IPCP Config Ack
IPCP (NCP) is up
data exchange data exchange
terminate phase
send Terminate Request receive Terminate Request
receive Terminate Ack send Terminate Ack
receive Terminate Request send Terminate Request
send Terminate Ack receive Terminate Ack
Multiline PPP
Multiline PPP is a proprietary feature of BayRS to aggregate the bandwidth of
two or more WAN links (to a maximum of 16) into one logical link. The
maximum bandwidth available on WAN links between routers in the SDH
DCN is 2 Mbit/s, or 5 Mbit/s where the routers are physically close to each
other. While this is generally adequate, it is sometimes necessary to increase
the bandwidth-for example, when linking routers which support fast Ethernet
(100BaseT) LANs.
reason, it is important that the bandwidth value for each interface is correctly
identified—if the interface is clocked externally, the default bandwidth setting
is 64 kbit/s, so this should be changed if necessary to reflect the correct
bandwidth. The algorithm which handles the distribution of the packets
between interfaces is configurable—it can be set to distribute based either on
destination address (which is the default setting) or randomly.
One further advantage of Multiline PPP circuits is that they introduce a higher
level of resilience—if any of the interfaces in the Multiline PPP circuit fails,
the link remains active so long as one of the interfaces is operational. As
interfaces on different modules (and in the case of stacked ASNs [Access
StackNodes], different routers) can be joined into a single Multiline PPP
circuit, it is particularly useful to construct such circuits from interfaces
distributed over a number of modules, as this significantly increases link
resilience.
end of chapter
Routing principles 5-
This information details the methods employed to implement Layer 3 of the
ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 7-layer model—the
network layer. It covers the various techniques used to establish and maintain
routes through a DCN (Data Communications Network).
Static routes
Initially, when data networks evolved beyond single LANs (Local Area
Networks), and routers were used to link networks together, devices 5
communicated with each other over fixed paths which were calculated by the
network administrator. These fixed paths were implemented by configuring
static routes on each router on the path. In networks of limited size and
complexity, where the traffic was relatively predictable and restricted, routing
strategies which rely entirely on static routes are adequate.
However, this method of routing has fundamental flaws inherent in the fact
that the routes are static, and must therefore be changed manually when the
network changes, whether the change is planned (for example, when a new
router is added to the network) or unplanned (for example, when a fault
causes a link to fail, or indeed when such a fault is cleared).
Dynamic routing
As the size and complexity of routed networks grew, algorithms were
developed to calculate routes dynamically. These algorithms are capable of
responding to changes in the network topology, and re-calculate routes
without reconfiguration of routers and, more importantly, without interruption
of service.
Routing algorithms
Routing algorithms initialize and maintain routing tables, which contain
routing information useful for the process of path determination of the packets.
The information is routed according to the routing algorithm used. Routing
algorithms must have several features:
• Optimality. Capability to select the best route.
Routing tables are exchanged at the initialization of each router and every
30 seconds thereafter. With all routing elements in the network performing
similar calculations, it can be some time before all elements have an identical
picture (convergence) and several exchanges of topology may occur. The
slowness of convergence that characterizes the distance vector algorithms
causes them to be prone to routing loops, which have the undesired effect of
slowing down the network traffic.
A B A B
D istance Vectors
R outer E receives
R ecalculated
R o u ter E se nd s
d ista nce vecto rs E E d ista nce vecto rs
to its n e ig hb o u rs
from its neighbours
A B A
B
C D D
C
D ijkstra’s algorithm
R outing table
Poison reverse and split horizon are two methods utilized by distance vector
routing protocols in order to limit the occurrence of loops.
Figure 5-2
Transitional routing loops
N1-3
Poison reverse
Poison reverse speeds up the convergence of the routing tables of the network
by reducing the possibility of routing loops between adjacent nodes.
The principle of poison reverse (referring to Figure 5-2) states that when
router B learns about a network 1 from router A through a certain interface,
router B cannot be closer (in terms of hops) than router A to the network 1,
through that interface.
The routing loop of Figure 5-2 between routers A and B will not occur if the
interfaces are configured with poison reverse, because router B, after having
learnt from router A (in the first update) that network 1 is two hops away
(through the interface linked to Router A), will advertise router A back out
the same interface that network 1 is unreachable. Therefore, if network 1 fails,
both router A and router B will advertise each other that network 1 is
unreachable through those interfaces.
Split horizon
Whereas poison reverse has the intrinsic disadvantage of using bandwidth to
advertise unreachable networks, split horizon attempts to solve this problem.
The link state protocols used for IP (Internet Protocol) and OSI (Open
Systems Interconnect) routing are discussed in the relevant sections. These
protocols are OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) for IP routing and IS-IS
(Intermediate System-Intermediate System) for OSI routing.
Each router sends an LSA periodically, and also whenever there is a change in
status to any of its links to neighbours. Therefore, failed routers can be
detected quickly by a comparison between established adjacencies and link
states, and the network topology can be modified accordingly. From the
topological database generated by LSAs, each router calculates its
shortest-path tree, with itself as root.
Figure 5-3
Pseudo-node situations
Metrics/costs
Routing algorithms use routing tables in order to select the best route for
packets from source to destination. Routing tables contain information about
the possible routes between any of the devices within a network. Routing
algorithms utilize metrics to determine the best route.
Routing metrics are also referred to as routing costs. On the other hand, the
cost of a path can be regarded as one of the metrics. Generally speaking, a
metric is a standard of measurement which is used by routing algorithms in
order to determine the optimal path to a destination. There are several common
metrics, which depend upon the routing algorithm used. More sophisticated
routing algorithms base their route selection on multiple metrics, combining
them in a single (hybrid) metric. Metrics used by routing algorithms follow:
• Path length is the most common routing metric, sometimes simply
referred to as cost. In simple algorithms (such as RIP), the path length is
simply given by number of intermediate passes through internetworking
devices, that packets need to take from source to destination (hop count).
However, some routing protocols allow the user to set a cost to each
network link (i.e, a cost of two or more can be given to one physical
interface). On the other hand, increasing interface cost parameters causes
the maximum distance vector to be reached sooner.
• Reliability is based on several physical factors (to which numerical values
are assigned), which express the reliability of a network link, appointed by
network administrators. In fact, network links can go down and can be
IP routing 6-
IP networks, addressing, and masks
This section briefly explains the concepts of IP (Internet Protocol, version 4)
addressing and uses examples from DCN (Data Communications Networks)
to illustrate.
• Every interface within an IP system must have a unique IP address (four
bytes expressed in decimal and separated by dots [for example,
192.168.12.43]). For more information on this notation, see “Dotted
decimal notation for IP addresses” on page 6-2.
• The IP addresses available for the system are divided into networks and
further subdivided into subnetworks.
• Devices must be grouped together such that they are directly connected 6
only to other devices with IP addresses conforming to the same
subnetwork addresses.
• There are two groups of networks: public and private networks.
— Public networks are those networks which can be connected to the
Internet; therefore they are accessible from any device outside that
network, as long as this device is also connected to the Internet.
— Private networks are isolated from the outside world; therefore they
cannot be connected to the Internet, and as such they are not accessible
by any device that does not belong to the same network. Well-defined
ranges of addresses are reserved for private networks.
– One of the address ranges available for private networks is
192.168.x.y (x = 0 to 255, y = 0 to 255, which is the decimal
representation of an 8-bit binary number); ‘x’ is the part of the IP
address which is available for the network address. For example,
192.168.1.0, 192.168.2.0, and 192.168.3.0 are three different
network addresses. Every device or interface connected to
network 192.168.1.0 must have an IP address that is 192.168.1.y,
where ‘y’ is the part of the IP address which is available for both
the subnetworks and the host ID (identifier).
• The subnetwork mask identifies the number of bits allocated to the host ID
and the number allocated to the subnetwork.
• When subnetting a network, two subnets are not available: those identified
by all ones (used as a broadcast address), and all zeros (reserved by
convention as it is used to identify the network).
• As for subnets, host addresses of all ones (broadcast) and all zeros (by
convention) are not available.
• The network designer will decide how many bits define the subnetwork
and how many define the host ID, according to the actual and possible
future network architecture.
The next section of this information shows the bit significance of the dotted
decimal notation.
Example: 10010001
• 10000000 is represented by 128
• 00010000 is represented by 16
• 00000001 is represented by 1
• Total 145
An IP address contains a 32-bit address field and a 32-bit subnet mask. The
mask defines which part of the address is a network address and which is a
device address. The mask thus allows a router to decide whether the address
of the packet is destined for one of the subnets to which it is connected. For
example:
The last 12 bits are available to the user to use as subnet address and device
address.
Note: This notation is conventional for CIDR addresses. However, the
method in which an IP address is configured can vary according to the
router where it is performed. For example, the IP address notation
196.0.16.0/20 can be used to configure a Cisco router, whereas Nortel
Networks routers require the full notation 196.0.16.0 with the subnetwork
mask 255.255.240.0. There is no substantial difference between these two
methods.
Circuitless IP interface
A circuitless IP interface is a virtual interface that exists in software only. The
special property of this interface is that it always exists and is therefore always
included in the routing tables. Ethernet and serial interfaces cease to exist if a
connector falls out, or if the device at the other end of the cable fails for any
reason. The interface then shuts down and is removed from the routing tables.
Note that circuitless IP is a Bay term; Cisco uses the term ‘loopback’ for these
interfaces. Having an interface that always exists within a router is very useful
for the following reasons:
1 If a tunnel is set up between two router interfaces and one of the interfaces
fails, the tunnel fails. However, when the tunnel is set up between two
circuitless IP interfaces, if the normal route fails, the tunnel is re-routed if
another route exists and does not fail.
2 If during a Telnet session on a router the interface to which the session is
connected goes down, then the session is lost. Another connection via the
IP address of an alternative interface must be made. If Telnet sessions are
set up to connect to the router using the circuitless IP interface, then loss
of one interface is not a problem, providing the router has at least one
working IP interface.
3 Other interfaces can be referenced to the circuitless IP interface. This is
known as an unnumbered interface. This applies only to point-to-point
interfaces (that is, not an Ethernet port). This reduces the number of IP
addresses needed.
Note: It is more difficult to find faults in a network with an unnumbered
link, and topologies from some network management systems are easier to
follow with unnumbered serial links. For this reason, SDH DCN Release 6
issues templates with all serial links numbered. The use of unnumbered
links is still permissible where sufficient IP addressing space is not
available.
IP routing protocols
The primary function of IP, which resides at the network layer (3) of the OSI
(Open Systems Interconnect) model, is to receive data from the higher layer
protocols (TCP [Transmission Control Protocol] or UDP [User Datagram
Protocol] layers) on a source host, create a datagram and route the datagram
through a network to a destination host. Secondary functions of IP include
fragmentation and reassembly of the datagram, and packet lifetime control.
The most important IP routing protocols are explained in the following
sections.
ARP
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map IP addresses to LAN
(Local Area Network) hardware addresses. When a host wishes to send a
packet to a host on another network, it sends the packet to its gateway for
forwarding. It can also do the same for a packet destined for a host within the
same network but it leads to excessively high traffic levels, especially if a
large number of hosts are on the LAN. Therefore, in order to reduce the traffic
on a LAN, a node uses ARP with another node when it determines that the
destination address is on a directly attached network. The node can determine
if the host is local by comparing the network portion of its own IP address
(including the subnet) with the target address.
Therefore, in order to avoid using the gateway, the originating host needs to
determine the destination host’s local data link layer address. It achieves this
by sending out an ARP request message containing its own IP address and
data link layer address, and the IP address of the destination host. This
message is sent via the gateway. The destination host then responds with an
ARP reply message containing its own data link layer address and uses the
originating host’s data link layer address as the destination address. Thus the
reply does not need to go via the gateway. The originating host and
destination host store the learned network and data link layer address pairing
in their ARP caches for future use, thus avoiding the use of the gateway
altogether. The rest of the hosts on the LAN build up similar caches, thus
reducing LAN traffic.
RIP/RIP 2
RIP (Routing Internet Protocol) is a distance vector protocol, based on
Bellman-Ford algorithm. RIP uses hop count as its only metric, therefore it
makes its routing decisions based solely on distance, measured in hops
(factors such as congestion, line speed, and cost are not taken into account for
the choice of the best path). RIP is used to perform routing within single
areas, and as such is an IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol); EGPs (Exterior
Gateway Protocols) route packets between different areas.
RIP sends routing updates at regular intervals every 30 seconds and also when
network topology changes occur. The latter type of updates is sent
6
independently of the former one (that is, the normally scheduled updates).
When a router receives the update of a network change, it updates its own
routing table, and increases the metric value for the path by one, indicating
the sender as the next hop. Only the best route (the one with the lowest
metric) is maintained by the RIP routers.
RIP assigns a hop-count value (typically 1) to each hop in a path from source
to destination. RIP allows a maximum of 15 hops by default; setting a limit to
the number of hops prevents routing loops from continuing indefinitely. A
network which is 16 hops far from the source is considered unreachable.
Some implementations may allow the use of extended RIP (up to 127 hops) in
the network topology. However, extended RIP is not recommended, as it will
cause a significant increase in network convergence time.
In order to adjust for rapid network topology changes, RIP specifies features
that are common to many routing protocols, such as poison reverse (see
“Poison reverse” on page 5-4) and split horizon (see “Split horizon” on page
5-5), which reduce the occurrence of transitional routing loops, thus reducing
the network convergence time.
RIP is defined in the document Request For Comments (RFC) 1058, where
the first implementation of RIP is described.
OSPF
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is an open protocol, as defined in Request
For Comments (RFC) 1247. It is based on the Dijkstra’s ‘Shortest Path First’
algorithm, which is a link state routing mechanism (see “Link state protocol”
on page 5-5).
The topology of each OSPF area is invisible to entities outside the area. This
area partitioning system speeds up routing, because all packets with
destinations within an area are contained within that area; packets destined for
another area are sent to the backbone area for redirection. For the SDH DCN,
which is usually constructed using a ring topology and does not lend itself to
this hub/spoke design, OSPF is implemented using only the backbone area.
The only exception to this is for access networks— for further information,
refer to SDH DCN Design for Access Products, 323-4061-103.
The rules for area use within OSPF networks contrast with the way areas are
implemented in OSI in the following ways:
Redistribution
Redistribution gives visibility of both networks using dynamic routing. Routes
from one area to subnets in the other are costed within limitations. There is no
easy way for RIP to interpret OSPF metrics and vice versa.
• The boundary router advertises all OSPF routes into the RIP network with
a cost of one hop.
• Redistributing RIP routes into the OSPF network is more complex.
To a router within the OSPF network, networks in the RIP network within
one hop of the boundary router have the same cost as the cost of reaching
the boundary router. To a router within the OSPF network, networks in the
RIP network beyond one hop of the boundary router have a cost equal to
the number of hops required in the RIP network. The cost to reach the
6
boundary router within the OSPF area is considered to be zero.
How this is implemented varies between router manufacturers.
A router (boundary router) must always be used as the interface between the
two networks. There may be more than one router performing this role.
Terms
Some terms associated with OSPF are:
• Costs Routes have a cost associated with them. The higher the cost the less
favourable the route. With RIP the costs of routes is a simple hop count to
a limit of 15. Routes of 16 hops and over are unreachable in RIP terms.
OSPF has a number of metrics which are converted with algorithm into a
cost.
• Policy filters This parameter only applies when an OSPF network uses
external routes. An announce filter acts on the outward advertisements
form the OSPF area and the accept filter acts on inward advertisements. As
the LSPs are modified by the filter and the resultant used to produce a
routing table, it follows that policy filters need to be applied to all routers
in the OSPF network and not just to the boundary router.
• Link state is the status of a link between two routers.
• OSPF multicasts. Packets sent out with 224.0.0.5 are sent to all OSPF
routers. Packets sent out with 224.0.0.6 are sent to all OSPF designated
routers.
Topology considerations
As with OSI, an OSPF network has to be planned out in areas to take full
advantage of the protocol.
Thus it may be inferred that all areas must have a connection to area 0. There
may be more than one connection between an area and area 0 but there must
be no inter-area connections.
It can be concluded that OSPF networks are tree structures which lend
themselves to hierarchical addressing schemes using variable length subnet
masks.
The designated router on a LAN in a network running OSPF has a very high
processor utilization. It may be that some routers are unsuitable for this role
and so should be allocated a priority of 0.
Figure 6-1
OSPF areas
Area 1
Area 2
Area 0
(Backbone)
Area 3
Area 6
Wherever possible the SDH DCN network should be fitted into one area
(area 0). This gives the benefit of OSPF speed and versatility without the
restrictions on topology.
When the network is large enough to merit more than one area or the customer
currently runs OSPF on a network to which the IP part of the DCN is added,
contact the SDH DCN Design team for further assistance. Additional material
may be found on the SDH DCN Design Web page at:
http://bbndhwww.europe.nortel.com/DCN/
All the router templates presented at Release 6 use OSPF within a single area.
However, if UE3000 Release 16 or later is in the network, multiple areas must
be used.
Other parameters may need to be changed. Refer to SDH DCN Design Using
Nortel Networks Routers, 323-4061-101, Chapter 3, ‘Basic router
configuration with BCC and Site Manager’ which provides instructions for
configuration of OSPF on a Bay router.
Figure 6-2
Route summarization
.
Route summarization
140.100.10.0/24
140.150.10.0/24 Area Border 140.100.20.0/24
Router 140.100.30.0/24
140.100.40.0/24
140.150.10.0/24 140.100.0.0/16
Route preference
All routing protocols are assigned a preference which allows the router to
select routes when different protocols each report a path to the same network.
It could be considered as a measure of believability. IGRP (Internet Gateway
Routing Protocol) routes are used in preference to OSPF routes which are
Nortel Networks routers assign 16 for highest priority and 1 for lowest and
refer to the parameter as preference. Cisco routers assign 0 for highest
(connected interface) and 255 for lowest (unknown) and call the parameter
administrative distance.
Default routes are a form of static routes in that they provide a catch-all for
destinations not contained in routing tables. In effect they provide a static
route to a large network rather than a specific IP address or subnetwork. In the
case of the subnetwork attached to a corporate network, the intermediate
router on the border has a default route to the corporate network advertised
into the subnetwork.
Figure 6-3 shows an example of the way that static routes and default routes
are used.
Figure 6-3
Default and static routes
The following examples illustrate how this system works. They are used to
illustrate the mechanism of address allocation and subnetting. It is left to the
reader as an exercise to modify the examples to achieve a more efficient use
of IP addressing space. However, remember to allow for network expansion
when allocating IP addresses. Failure to do so can lead to unnecessary and
time-consuming address reallocation when modifications to the network are
made.
Figure 6-4
Two routers within an SDH NE area
Serial link 2
Serial link 1 S0 S1 S1 S0 Serial link 3
router 1 router 2
circuitless IP circuitless IP
Ethernet 0 Ethernet 0
LAN LAN
Between them, the two routers shown in Figure 6-4 have the following
interfaces:
• router 1, serial 0
• router 1, serial 1
• router 1, Ethernet 0
•
•
router 1, circuitless IP
router 2, serial 0
6
• router 2, serial 1
• router 2, Ethernet 0
• router 2, circuitless IP
Seven separate subnetworks are required. These are the networks connected
to R1 Ethernet 0, R1 circuitless IP, R2 Ethernet 0, and R2 circuitless IP, and
the three serial links. In order to provide seven subnetworks, three bits are
required.
If four bits are used for the subnetwork addresses, this gives provision for up
to 14 subnetworks; subnets 0000 and 1111 are reserved. This leaves four bits
that are used for the host ID.
However, not all the subnetworks need to be the same size. Only two devices
are on a WAN point-to-point link, so a mask of 255.255.255.252 would
suffice, giving four combinations (host ID of 00 and 11 not allowed). Certain
routers can have a mask of 255.255.255.255. The circuitless IP addresses,
although they are singularities, require a mask of 255.255.255.252. In the
following examples, one subnet has been further subnetted for the serial links
and another for the circuitless IP interfaces.
Four bits gives 16 combinations. The host IDs of 0000 and 1111 are reserved.
The Ethernet port of the router usually has host ID 0001. Therefore 0010 to
1110 are available for up to 13 other devices.
in decimal: 255.255.255.240
Subnetworks available with this mask are:
• 192.168.7.0 (reserved as the subnet field is all zeros)
• 192.168.7.16
• 192.168.7.32
• 192 168.7.192
• 192 168.7.208 (addresses in this range are used for serial interfaces with a
mask of 255.255.255.252, four addresses)
• 192 168.7.224 (addresses in this subnet range are used for circuitless IP
interfaces with a mask of 255.255.255.252, single address)
Therefore, the following addresses can be allocated for the Ethernet ports (see
Figure 6-5):
• R1 Ethernet 0
— subnetwork 192.168.7.16 (192.168.7.0 is reserved)
— IP address 192.168.7.17, subnetwork mask 255.255.255.240
— host ID for other devices connected to R1 Ethernet 0: 192.168.7.18 to
192.168.7.30
• R2 Ethernet 0
— subnetwork 192.168.7.32
— IP address 192.168.7.33, subnetwork mask 255.255.255.240
— host ID for other devices connected to R2 Ethernet 0: 192.168.7.34 to
192.168.7.46
Circuitless IP addresses are as follows:
• R1 circuitless IP
— IP address 192.168.7.225, subnetwork mask 255.255.255.252
• R2 circuitless IP
— IP address 192.168.7.229 subnetwork mask 255.255.255.252
Note: A subnet mask of 255.255.255.255 cannot be entered for circuitless
IP
Figure 6-5
Allocation of IP addresses
6
Serial link 2
Serial link 1 Serial link 3
192.168.7.212
192.168.7.208 S0 S1 S1 S0 192.168.7.216
Network: 192.168.7.0
Figure 6-6
Routers within a management area
LAN
R3
Ethernet 0 Serial
circuitless IP link 1
Serial
link 2
LAN LAN
R1 R2
Eth 0 Eth 1 Eth 0 Eth 1
circuitless IP circuitless IP
Between them, the three routers in Figure 6-6 require the following
subnetworks:
• router 1 - Ethernet 0
• router 1 - Ethernet 1
• router 1 - circuitless IP
• router 2 - Ethernet 0
• router 2 - Ethernet 1
• router 2 - circuitless IP
• router 3 - Ethernet 0
• router 3 - circuitless IP
• router 3 - serial 0
• router 3 - serial 1
Ten subnetworks are listed. To allow for expansion, use four bits of
subnetwork mask. This leaves 4 bits for the host ID, allowing 14 hosts on each
subnet—the router and 13 workstations.
• Each serial loop supports up to 750 NEs. Each LAN in the management
area must therefore be capable of supporting enough workstations to
manage 750 NEs. Thirteen host IDs are not adequate, thus the management
areas require multiple IP network addresses. This is achieved in the
following way:
— network address 192.168.1.0 for router 1 - Ethernet 1, router 2 -
Ethernet 1, router 3 - Ethernet 0, and all of the circuitless IP interfaces
in binary:
11111111 11111111 11111111 1111 0000
Subnetwork Host ID
in decimal: 255.255.255.240
Table 6-1
Possible address allocations
Network 192.168.1.0
Subnetwork 192.168.1.16
LAN
R3 Network:
192.168.1.208
Ethernet 0: Serial link 1:
192.168.1.17 192.168.1.209
R1 R2 192.168.1.3
Therefore, the initial transition involves upgrading hosts and routers such that
they incorporate IPv6 functionality, whilst keeping their IPv4 functionality
(called ‘dual stack’). Further ahead, it is likely that IPv6-only nodes will
appear that have no in-built IPv4 functionality. If these hosts are to fully
interoperate with the installed IPv4 base, some form of header translation is
necessary—this is difficult to manage, due to the differences between IPv4
and IPv6 headers. Alternatively, such hosts can only talk to other IPv6-only
hosts, which may be acceptable in some scenarios.
Both IPv4 and IPv6 support the DNS (Domain Name System) to map
hostnames into addresses. A new resource record type named ‘AAAA’ has
been defined for IPv6, whereas the resource record type for IPv4 is referred to
as ‘A’. IPv6/IPv4 nodes must be able to interoperate directly with both IPv4
and IPv6 nodes, and therefore they must provide resolver libraries capable of
dealing with IPv4 ‘A’ records as well as IPv6 ‘AAAA’ records. IPv6/IPv4
nodes supporting automatic tunnelling have both A and AAAA records listed
in the DNS. The AAAA record holds the full IPv4-compatible IPv6 address,
6
and the A record holds the low-order 32-bits of that address. Thus, DNS
queries can be satisfied by both IPv6 and IPv4-only nodes.
Whilst it is predictable that IPv6 will become more and more necessary, due
to the shortage—and the eventual lack—of available IPv4 addresses, it is also
unlikely that IPv4 will actually ever be removed completely, as some sites
may decide that the upgrade is not worth the effort, and remain with IPv4.
end of chapter
OSI routing 7-
There are two types of OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) host—the end
system or ES, which has no routing functionality (equivalent to the IP host),
and the intermediate system or IS, which is capable of routing OSI traffic.
The number of ISs and ESs in an area in an SDH DCN is subject to limits
which are specified in SDH DCN Design for Transmission Products,
323-4061-100.
Figure 7-1
SDH Management Domain/area structure
IS
L2 L2
Area B Area C
L1 L1
IS IS IS IS
L1 L1/L2 L1
L1/L2
L2
ES IS IS ES
The ESH PDU informs a local IS of the existence of that ES (and its SNPA
address) and informs all local systems of the NSAPs available on that ES. The
PDU contains a pair of NSAP and SNPA values for each NSAP resident on
the system.
Other than ESH and ISH PDUs, ES-IS also uses redirected PDUs. This are
used by ISs to inform ESs of a better route through which to route
information for certain PDUs (the alternative route could be either via another
IS on the same network, or the SNPA (Subnetwork Point of Attachment) of
the destination ES itself).
IS-IS protocol
This is the protocol used by ISs to communicate routing information to each
other at Levels 1 and 2. IS-IS is a link state routing protocol (similar to OSPF
[Open Shortest Path First] in IP), defined in ISO 10589.
Figure 7-2
Routing Information Base
Update
Decision
(SPF algorithm)
Forwarding Database
Forward
One node on a LAN performs the work of the pseudo-node. It must maintain
its own list of adjacencies and generate its own LSPs (Link State Packets). It
must do the same work for the pseudo-node. The node which is performing
this task is called the DR. The pseudo-node must be given an address; the
address used is a combination of the DR’s system ID and the circuit used to
connect the DR to the LAN.
Figure 7-3 shows a node which is the DR on two broadcast networks. Notice
that despite this the LAN-IDs are still unique.
Figure 7-3
Node (DR)
LAN-ID: 0010.7B80.1226.01
Circuit:
0x01
Node connected to two LANs.
System ID: 0010.7B80.1226
Circuit: 0x02
LAN-ID: 0010.7B80.1226.02
OSI addressing
This section briefly explains some of the concepts of OSI addressing as it
relates to Nortel Networks SDH DCN. Many features of OSI are not used in
DCN and are not discussed here.
Note: For clarity, OSI addresses in this section have a dot between groups
of four digits.When configuring a Bay router, this dot should not be used.
Note: From a routing perspective, the ISIS routing protocol treats all fields
before the SID as the area designation. Thus DCC, ICD and Local format
addresses can be mixed in the same OSI network, with ISIS treating them
all as separate areas.
Figure 7-4
OSI address structure as defined in ITU-T X.213
IDP DSP
area address (3 for local, 13 for ICD and DCC formats) system ID (6) SEL (1)
For more information on the structure of the OSI addresses, see ITU-T X.213
Network Service Definition.
For example, Routers A, B and C are connected in a spur (A-B-C), and each
is configured to be in area x. Additionally, Router B is configured to be in area
y, and Router C is configured to be in area z. Router B examines the L1 IS
protocol packets (called IS Hellos, or ISHs) from Router C and sees that they
share membership of area x. This association is referred to as an adjacency.
Router B therefore assumes membership of area z, as Router C is in area z.
Router C, similarly, assumes membership of area y, as Router B is in area y.
Router B, therefore, has two MAAs (x and y) and one CAA (z), while Router
C also has two MAAs (x and z), and one CAA (y). Router B advertises all its
areas (x, y and z) to Router A, which has also formed an adjacency with
Router B, courtesy of its membership of x. Router A, therefore, has one MAA
(x) and two CAAs (y and z).
• Unregistered format, which can be used only when the network is truly
‘private’, only contains low order NEs (that is, the network is never
connected to another OSI network and never connected to any TN-16Xs or
TN-64X's via DCC links). The address is of format
49.aaaa.eeee.eeee.eeee.ss where ‘a’s represent the area, ‘e’s represent the
MAC address of the device, and ‘s’s the selector field.
Full details can be found in ISO 8348 Appendix A. Figure 7-5 provides a
tabular comparison between DCC, ICD, and local formats.
Figure 7-5
OSI ICD, DCC, and local formats
IC D :
F ie ld S iz e in b y t e s C o n te n t V a lu e
AFI 1 IC D N S A P f o r m a t 47
ID I 2 IO T A a d d r e s s in g s c h e m e 0124
O r g ID 3 W o r ld C o m ( f o r e x a m p le ) 001003
FI 1 F o r m a t In d ic a to r xx
A re a 2 A re a a d d re s s xxxx
S u b A re a 2 S u b a re a a d d re s s xxxx
N e tw o r k 2 N e tw o r k A d d r e s s xxxx
ID 6 M A C a d d re s s x x x x .x x x x .x x x x
N -S e l 1 N - S e le c to r xx
T o ta l b y te s 20
DCC:
F ie ld S iz e in b y t e s C o n te n t V a lu e
AFI 1 D C C N S A P fo rm a t 39
ID I 2 C o u n tr y in d ic a to r 0 0 0 0 -F F F F
DFI 1 D S P f o r m a t id e n tif ie r 80
O r g ID 3 T e le s p ( f o r e x a m p le ) 076F
R e s e rv e d 2 0000
R o u tin g D o m a in 2 F o r in te r d o m a in r o u tin g xxxx
A re a 2 F o r le v e l 2 r o u tin g xxxx
ID 6 M A C a d d re s s x x x x .x x x x .x x x x
N -S e l 1 N - S e le c to r xx
T o ta l b y te s 20
L o c a l:
F ie ld S iz e in b y t e s C o n te n t V a lu e
AFI 1 D C C N S A P fo rm a t 49
A re a 2 F o r le v e l 2 r o u tin g xxxx
ID 6 M A C a d d re s s x x x x .x x x x .x x x x
N -S e l 1 N - S e le c to r xx
Step Action
—end—
Where the network is sufficiently small to occupy a single area, and provided
the network is private and isolated from other OSI DCNs, the default
addressing scheme may be employed (that is, 49.0000).
circuitless IP circuitless IP
Tunnel
Ethernet0 Ethernet0
L1 L1
LAN LAN
For each router the following is required to write the router configurations:
— an OSI area address
— circuit-type for each interface (that is, L1, L1 and L2, or L2 only)
— metric for each interface
For the purposes of this example, the area is part of a network belonging to an
imaginary organization in Brazil.
— The country code for Brazil is 076F.
— The organization code for our imaginary company is 123456.
— The reserved field is fixed at 0000.
— This is the first OSI network installed into this company, so RD 0001
can be used.
— This is area 0002. Area 0001 is the management area.
Figure 7-7
Two routers within an SDH NE area
.
L1/L2 L1/L2
LAN LAN
R1: 39.076F.8012.3456.0001.0001.0002.1C3F.2B95.780E.00
49.0000.1C3F.2B95.780E.00
R2: 39.076F.8012.3456.0001.0001.0002.34A0.8C45.98F4.00
49.0000.134A0.8C45.98F4.00
The routers in all of the other areas are configured in the same way, except that
the area addresses vary as follows:
• 39.076F.8012.3456.0000.0001.0001.eeee.eeee.eeee.ss for the
management area
• 39.076F.8012.3456.0000.0001.0002.eeee.eeee.eeee.ss for SDH NE area 1
• 39.076F.8012.3456.0000.0001.0003.eeee.eeee.eeee.ss for SDH NE area 2
• 39.076F.8012.3456.0000.0001.0004.eeee.eeee.eeee.ss for SDH NE area 3
• 39.076F.8012.3456.0000.0001.0005.eeee.eeee.eeee.ss for SDH NE area 4
CLNS/CLNP
IS-IS and ES-IS are routing protocols for the CLNS/CLNP network layer
service. CLNS and CLNP (Connectionless mode Network Layer Protocol)
provide OSI connectionless network service.
CLNS provides network-layer service to the transport layer via CLNP. As the
paths for each packet sent through the network are determined independently,
CLNS does not perform connection setup or termination (unlike
connection-oriented service). CLNS provides best-effort delivery (that is,
there is no guarantee that the data is not lost, corrupted, misordered or
duplicated). CLNS relies on transport-layer protocols to perform error
detection and correction.
OSI tunnels can also be used where the customer requires different parts of
the DCN to be connected via an existing data network, which often does not
support OSI.
Figure 8-1
Tunnelling
OSI network
IP only network
OSI network
Figure 8-2
Tunnelling to protect partitioning
IP only network
Tunnel (virtual path visible to OSI)
OSI tunnel through IP only area
encapsulated in IP
IP only area
OSI packet
encapsulated in IP
OSI packet
OSI packet
encapsulated
within IP packet
OSI packet
encapsulated
s1 Router A V3 s0 Router B s1
(O S I and IP ) (OSI and IP)
e0 e0
Routers in the DCN do not support partition repair when an OSI area is
fragmented. Figure 8-2 shows that after the area is partitioned by some
network event, both routers report routes to the same area, although neither
router has routes to all NEs in the area. To prevent this, the area is maintained
8
as a single entity by the OSI-over-IP tunnel. The metrics associated with the
tunnel are such that it is only used when the serial link between the two
routers is lost.
Note: Each router can be anywhere within its respective OSI network
where there is an IP path to the other router which forms the tunnel. The
routers do not need to be at the edge of the part of the network which
supports OSI.
VRRP
Introduction
Each host on an IP LAN needs to have the IP address of its default gateway
(sometimes called the default router) configured if it is to communicate with
hosts on other IP subnets. If the default gateway fails in any way which affects
its ability to route packets to and from other subnets, the LAN segment it
serves becomes unreachable. The network is therefore vulnerable to a single
point of failure.
Note: This subsection covers the use of a single backup router only—
SDH DCN support is not available for configurations with multiple backup
routers.
Example
Figure 8-3
Typical network topology
IP Address:
192.168.17.3
Default Gateway:
192.168.17.1
EC-1
SDH DCN
192.168.17.1
192.168.17.0/24
Management IP LAN
IP Address:
Preside* 192.168.17.2
Default Gateway:
192.168.17.1
Consider the network in Figure 8-3. If the router in the above topology fails,
the network manager Preside (formerly known as the INM [Integrated
Network Manager) loses IP connectivity with any OPCs or ECs not on the
192.168.17.0/24 subnet. Similarly, if there are other Preside platforms
elsewhere in the SDH DCN, these will be unreachable for the EC-1 at
192.168.17.3.
The solution is to add a redundant router on the same LAN (Local Area
Network), and configure a ‘Virtual’ router on it and the primary default
gateway using VRRP, as in Figure 8-4. Thus, both routers present the virtual
router, with the redundant (or Backup) VRRP router taking on the role of
default gateway in the event of a failure of the primary (or Master) VRRP
router.
Figure 8-4
Network topology using VRRP
IP Address:
192.168.17.3
Default Gateway:
192.168.17.1 Router B
192.168.17.4
EC-1 Router A
192.168.20.2
SDH DCN
192.168.17.1
Preside
IP Address:
192.168.17.2
8
Default Gateway:
192.168.17.1
contains, amongst other things, the IP address of the virtual router, the
advertising router’s priority, and the virtual router ID. From these
advertisements, the VRRP routers identify the master router from the
priority—the master router is the one which owns the interface with the
address which will be used as the default gateway. It will generally have the
highest possible priority of 255.
When a host on the LAN with the VRRP routers issues an ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) request for the default gateway IP address, the master
router responds, but instead of replying with the MAC address of the Ethernet
port, as it would normally, it responds with a pseudo-MAC address of
0000.5e00.01<VRRP Virtual Router ID>. Subsequent traffic directed at that
MAC address is handled by the master router.
If the master router’s interface goes down, and it ceases to advertise in the
normal way, the backup router with the highest priority becomes the master
router. This means that it now takes ownership of the pseudo-MAC address,
taking on responsibility for all traffic directed at the pseudo-MAC address and
responding to any subsequent ARP requests for the default gateway address
with the same pseudo-MAC address.
When the original master router recovers, it resumes advertising itself, and
the normal election process ensures that it becomes master once more,
resuming responsibility as default gateway.
Critical IP interface
In addition to the protection offered by VRRP for the LAN interface, a second
interface on the master VRRP router—typically a WAN (Wide Area
Network) interface connected to the remainder of the network—may be
identified as a critical IP interface, so that if either interface were to fail, the
backup VRRP router would take over. Only one interface may be configured
as the critical IP interface.
When the interface with the critical IP address recovers, router A advertises
that it is healthy again, and resumes its role as default gateway.
HSRP
HSRP (Hot Standby Router Protocol) is a Cisco proprietary protocol which
addresses the same problems as VRRP. It is important to bear in mind that
HSRP and VRRP are similar in function, but do not interwork together.
Protocol prioritization
As a router operates, network traffic from a variety of sources converges at
each WAN interface. Without protocol prioritization, the router transmits
packets in a FIFO (first-in, first-out) order. By implementing protocol
prioritization, the router is instructed to use a different transmit order for
specified ranges of packets.
• PPP
• Standard (Nortel Networks standard PPP) 8
• Frame Relay
• SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Service)
Furthermore, protocol prioritization is supported on HSSI (High-Speed Serial
Interfaces) running Frame Relay only. Specifically, prioritization is
performed at the virtual circuit level, and not at the HSSI driver level.
Priority queues
Depending on how protocol priority is configured, the router queues each
packet and holds them in one of the four priority queues:
• Low queue. Used for transmitting low-priority data such as file transfers or
web browsers.
• Normal queue. Used for all user traffic without an assigned priority. This
is the default for all traffic types.
• High queue. Used for critical or time-sensitive data, such as SNA (systems
network architecture).
• Interrupt queue. Used by various link management entities such as Frame
Relay, SMDS, or PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
The router will empty these queues by sending the traffic to the outbound
buffer, or transmit queue, based on a dequeuing algorithm (see Figure 8-5).
An outbound filter cannot be configured to direct traffic to the interrupt
queue. This queue is reserved for circuit management updates.
Figure 8-5
Protocol prioritization
Protocol prioritization
LMI
Dequeuing algorithm
Transmit queue
Dequeuing
The two following dequeuing algorithms determine how packets are removed
from the high, normal, and low queues:
1 bandwidth allocation algorithm
2 strict dequeuing algorithm
Other configured values also affect the transmission of traffic. These are:
• latency
• queue size 8
Bandwidth allocation algorithm
Using bandwidth allocation algorithm (see Figure 8-6), the queues are
serviced based on a configured percentage of the transmit queue utilization.
The router transmits from one queue until the utilization percentage of the
transmit queue is reached. When the router reaches this percentage, it services
the next lower-priority queue.
Figure 8-6
Bandwidth allocation algorithm
70%
20%
10%
Therefore, if there is a lot of high priority traffic, the router may not have the
chance to service the normal and low priority traffic.
Figure 8-7
Strict dequeuing algorithm
#1 #2 #3
Latency
Latency, or line delay, specifies how many normal and low-priority bytes the
router can allocate to the transmit queue at any one time. Latency, therefore,
determines the delay that a high-priority packet could experience.
Latency is based on the line speed of the attached media and the number of bits
queued. The following formula illustrates how line speed, bits queued and
latency value are related:
Latency = Bits queued/Line speed (bit/sec)
A lower value will potentially result in lower throughput for normal and low-
priority packets or possibly prevent them from being queued. A higher value
may result in slower terminal response time.
Queue size
Queue size is the number of packets each priority queue can hold; this is a
configurable number. Queue size determines the number of buffers set aside
for each queue to hold packets. If an insufficient number of buffers are
assigned, packets may be clipped (dropped).
Overview
This section contains a worked example of an SDH DCN design including a
small OPTera LH network. It supplements other chapters in this publication
and illustrates how to apply the guidelines detailed in SDH DCN Design for
Transmission Products, 323-4061-100, and SDH DCN Design Using Nortel
Networks Routers, 323-4061-101.
Northwest rings
Northeast ring
KEY
OPTera LH network O PTe ra LH
R epe ater
T N -64 X
OAS
T N -16 X
South central ring
TN -1 6X E /4 X E
Southwest
ring T N -1 X/1C
S TM -16
R eg ene rato r
Example SDH DCN design 9-3
DCN topology
The first action is to group the SDH NEs into areas and allocate the routers.
Base the areas around the various rings and include a management area. The
large sizes of the northwest and northeast rings make them obvious separate
areas. The remainder of the system will be 113 NEs. Given the 150 IS limit, it
is prudent to have two areas. The best partition is to include the OPTera LH
system in with the north central ring and have a separate area for the south
central ring and southwest ring. The addition of a management area gives a
total of five areas.
Arrange the four areas in a chain. Connect each end of the chain to a
management area.
Figure 9-2
Management domain
SDH NE SDH NE
Area 1 Area 4
SDH NE SDH NE
Area 2 Area 3
Management systems
The following network managers are needed:
• EC-1: two per management site, each of which can control up to 128 low-
capacity NEs (TN-1X/1C and TN-4XE/TN-16XE)
• POPC (Partitioned Operations Controller) - OPTera LH: two deployed in
the system (primary and backup)
• POPC - TN-64X: four (two deployed in each of the central rings as primary
and backup)
• OPC (Operations Controller): two deployed in the STM-16 northwest ring
as primary and backup
• Preside managers: two (one in each management location)
Although not shown in Figure 9-3, xterms are often deployed at each location
to support multiple users on the Preside platforms.
Management area
A single 2-Mbit/s link is used to connect between the two management
locations. The management locations can be at any location where there are
two 2-Mbit/s links available into the SDH network.
Figure 9-3
SDH management area
PAP PAP
IP LAN IP LAN
Router (ASN)
OSI LAN
Router (ASN)
OSI LAN
9
M M M M
E1 E1
hub
Note 3: POPCs are deployed in pairs—one primary and one backup. From
OPTera LH Release 1.5 Repeater and OAS NEs (up to 34) can be in the
same SOC (span of control). However, the TN-64X NEs (up to 24 ADMs)
need to be in a separate SOC and hence need their own pair of POPCs.
POPCs should be deployed in the same OSI area as the NEs which they
manage.
Note 4: OPCs are deployed in pairs in the same OSI area as the NEs which
they manage. One pair can control up to 34 TN-16X elements in total, up
to 24 of which can be TN-16X ADMs. However, there is a limit of 16
TN-16X ADMs per ring.
Note 5: Preside is scalable to control an extremely large number of NEs.
Two are used in this network to protect the network against the failure of
one management location.
SDH NE areas
SDH NE area 1 consists of the northwest rings of TN-16XEs and TN-1Xs.
Two router locations are recommended for resilient access to SDH NE area
from the management area. Each router location contains a router and two
2-Mbit/s connections (here using high-speed modems between router serial
interfaces and NE tributaries).
Figure 9-4
SDH NE area 1
M
Router 1-2
2-1 M
1-1
OSI LAN
KEY
O PTe ra L H
R ep eater TN -1 6X E /4X E
T N -64 X T N -1 X /1C
OAS S TM -16
R eg ene ra to r
T N -16 X
Note 1: The routers are best placed on opposite sides of the area at
locations where headend NEs and 2 Mbit/s tributaries are available for
WAN (Wide Area Network) connections.
Note 2: In this case TN-1Xs are used as headend NEs and connected by
their OSI Ethernet ports to the collocated router OSI LAN. In this way the
headend NEs, and subsequently the rest of the NEs of the area, learn their
OSI address from the routers.
Note 3: All of the DCCs (Data Communications Channels) are enabled
except for the two STM-1 connections to the north central ring. These are
turned off to separate the northwest rings OSI area from other OSI areas.
Note 4: The 2 Mbit/s tributary connections (E1s) are made between the NE
and the router X.21 serial ports via high-speed modems. If possible each
serial connection should be hosted to different SDH devices to avoid a
single point of failure. If there is only one SDH device at a location the
serial connections should be hosted to different 2 Mbit/s tributary cards.
Note 5: Each E1 bi-directional connection at a router site is labelled to
show its far end (for example, ‘1-2’ means far end is router 2 in area 1 and
‘ma-1’ means far-end is management area router 1). There is always an
inter-area WAN connection between the routers running L1 (Level 1) and
L2 (Level 2) routing, in this case E1 1-2/1-1. The WAN connections out of
area 1 to the management area and area 2 are both L2 only.
Note 6: In the preceding example there are a number of potential single
points of failure (for example, the STM1 link between the TN-1X ring and
the TN-16XE ring). However, the routers will have a L1 OSI tunnel over
IP enabled between them to maintain the integrity of the OSI area in the
event of this kind of break.
Note 7: Only 63 NEs can be managed via a single TN-1X headend. In this
case if one headend fails, the limit has not been exceeded (that is, only 51
NEs in area).
SDH NE area 2 consists of the north central ring, which incorporates the
OPTera LH system.
Figure 9-5
SDH NE and OPTera LH NE area 2
DCC OFF
1-2 3-1
to OSI LAN to OSI LAN
2-2 PP PB 2-1
OPTera LH network
M
M
M
M
Router 2-1
Router 2-2
PP PB
IP LAN IP LAN
OSI LAN* OSI LAN*
KEY
O PTera LH
R epe ate r T N -16 X E/4X E
OAS S T M -16
R ege nerator
TN -16X
Note 1: In Figure 9-5, the OPTera LH system transports the SDH traffic of
the north and south central TN-64X rings using four wavelengths over a
single fibre. The Repeater NEs are of the wavelength translator type and so
together with the OASs, form an optical-only network. There is no
demultiplexing of the SDH frames and neither RS DCC (Regenerator
Section Data Communications Channel) nor MS DCC (Multiplex Section
Data Communications Channel) are terminated. A bi-directional OSC
(Optical Service Channel) is implemented from end to end to allow
management from PP (POPC - Primary) or PB (POPC - Backup).
Note 2: The TN-64X NEs need to be in a separate SOC (Span of Control)
to the OPTera LH system. So they need their own PP and PB placed on
either side of the ring.
Note 3: Figure 9-5 shows some SDH NEs collocated with the OPTera LH
Repeaters. At each site there is a TN-64X, a TN-4XE, and a TN-1X with
E1 interfaces. These two sites, with their access to 2 Mbit/s tributaries for
WAN connections, are therefore chosen for the router deployments.
Note 4: At each of these headend sites the router needs direct IP LAN
connections to the local POPCs to allow management from Preside and a
direct OSI LAN connection to the OPTera LH Repeater and the collocated
TN-64X. This ensures the TN-64X ring and the OPTera LH system are
joined in the same OSI area, with the address being learnt from the router.
Note 5: All DCC channels are enabled except for the headend TN-64X
STM16 tributary connections to the south central ring (area 3), the
TN-4XE STM1 tributary connections to the northwest rings (area 1) and
the TN-4XE STM1 tributary connection to the southwest ring (area 3).
Note 6: The E1 WAN connections are labelled with their far-end router
reference, (for example, 3-1 indicates a far-end router 1 in OSI area 3).
Note 7: Generally when there are several collocated NEs at a headend site
which are to be in the same OSI area (that is, a choice of headend NEs is
available), ensure a direct LAN connection is made from the router to the
higher capacity NE.
Note 8: Here the OPTera LH system is using MORs (Multiwavelength
Optical Repeater) which are subject to a seven-hop (that is, seven-fibre
span) limitation. If the OPTera LH system included more NEs, then a
workaround would be required involving the addition of another router.
Note 9: If NEs with E1 access are not collocated with OPTera LH NEs at
sites where routers need to be deployed, then E1s will need to be leased
from a third-party telecoms operator.
SDH NE area 3 includes an TN-64X ring and a TN-4XE ring. Three router
locations are required, as each POPC requires direct connection to a router
and the TN-4XE spur requires a router.
Figure 9-6
SDH NE area 3
Southwest PP PB
ring
2-2 3-2
3-3 4-1 IP LAN
Router 3-1 M
M
KEY
O PTera L H
R epe ater T N -1 6X E /4 X E
OAS S TM -16
R ege nera to r
T N -16X
Note 1: In Figure 9-6, the TN-64X ring is closed by its SDH STM64 traffic
passing transparently across the OPTera LH system.
Note 2: On all STM-N links, DCC is turned on (except the STM16
tributary connections to the north central ring and the STM1 tributary
connection from the southwest ring to the north central ring).
Note 3: The diagram shows the ideal placement for PP and PB for the
TN-64X SOC. In this example collocated NEs are available to provide E1
connectivity for WANs. Each POPC connects to the router IP LAN and
each router OSI LAN connects to the TN-64X headend OSI Ethernet port.
Note 4: Figure 9-6 shows a case when three routers are required in the
same OSI area. The positions of routers 3-2 and 3-3 are governed by the
POPC positioning rules and the fact that POPCs are always plugged
directly into one of the TN-64Xs they are managing. However, this area’s
topology includes a TN-4XE spur in the shape of the southwest ring.
Without router 3-1 a failure of the SDH link between the southwest ring
and the south central ring would cause a loss of management in the
southwest ring. Router 3-1 is required to provide a second path for DCN
comms to the southwest ring. The three routers are joined together by a L1
and L2 WAN with only 3-1 and 3-3 having L2-only WANs to other areas.
The E1 connection to 3-1 from 2-2 must be directed via the north central
ring connection to the southwest ring, while the E1 to 3-3 from 4-1 must
be via the south central ring. In this way if the STM1 link between the
southwest ring to south central ring fails, then area 3 integrity is maintained
by the OSI-over-IP GRE (Generic Route Encapsulation). If the E1 to 3-1
from 2-2 is carried over the southwest ring to south central ring connection,
then a failure of this STM1 link will leave the southwest ring and router
3-1 isolated.
SDH NE area 4 includes an STM-16 ring and TN-1Xs. Two router locations
are required. Each router location contains an OPC, a router and two 2-Mbit/s
connections.
Figure 9-7
SDH NE area 4
3-3
M
Router 4-1
M
IP LAN 4-2
OSI LAN
Northeast ring
OPC-B
OPC-P
OSI LAN IP
LAN
ma-2
M Router 4-2
4-1 M
STM4 trib 1
DCC OFF
KEY
STM4 trib 2
DCC OFF 9
O PTe ra L H
R ep eater TN -1 6X E /4X E
T N -64 X T N -1 X/1C
OAS S TM -16
R eg ene ra to r
T N -16 X
Note 1: OPCs plug directly into one of the TN-16X NEs in their SOC of
any one SDH link from isolating router 3.
Addressing
The second action is to assign addresses to the DCN.
OSI addresses
For the purpose of this example, the ANSI country code format is used, using
an imaginary organization in Brazil. The OSI address is of the form
39.076F.8012.3456.0000.dddd.aaaa.eeee.eeee.eeee.00
where
• dddd is the domain, 0001 is used
• aaaa is the area, 0001 through 0005 is used
• eeee is the MAC (Media Access Control) of any given device in the
network. This needs to be a unique 6 byte hex number and it usually cannot
be changed.
• NEs are installed with a default address of 49.0000. They learn, or
compute, their 39. address from the routers in their L1 OSI areas.
• The EC-1s need to have their MAAs (Manual Area Addresses) set to the
particular 39. address in which they reside. They then need to be
programmed with the individual NSAP (Network Service Access Point)
addresses of NEs in their SOC in order to manage them.
Note 1: Routers in SDH NE areas are configured with two OSI addresses:
a local format OSI address, also referred to as an MAA, and an ISO DCC
OSI address.
Note 2: The local format OSI address is always 49.0000.eeee.eeee.eeee.00.
Note 3: Routers in an area with no SDH NEs (that is, management areas)
need only the ISO DCC OSI address.
Note 4: Configuration details need to define whether serial ports are
connected to another router in the same OSI area (L1/L2) or to a router in
a different OSI area (L2 only).
Note 5: Provide an IP tunnel between the routers to protect the link
between two routers in the same OSI area.
IP addresses
Assigning the IP addresses and subnetwork masks is a more involved process.
To assign the IP addresses and subnetwork masks, the following information
is required:
• the number of routers in each area
9
• the number of IP devices that are connected to each router (that is,
workstations for Preside and element controllers such as POPC, OPC, and
EC-1)
This example uses the IANA (Internet Address Numbering Authority) class C
addresses, which are reserved for private networks. These are addresses
192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255.
The example assumes that OSPF routing is used which allows classless IP
addressing.
Router serial ports are always configured with IP and OSI, whereas their
Ethernet ports are always separated into IP only or OSI only.
Network addresses for circuitless IP, IP LANs and serial links are to be chosen
from the range:
192.168.5.0 to 192.168.5.255
It is important to agree the IP address range with the customer at an early stage
in the DCN design. Even with a private network, the customer may seek to
minimize the address allocation for the DCN implementation.
The management area in this example contains two routers and six
workstations. Each router has a circuitless IP interface, an IP Ethernet
interface, and two serial interfaces.
• Serial ports and circuitless IP each require minimum subnet masks of
255.255.255.252 (that is, a 30 bit mask).
• The IP LANs are each required to support three hosts; a subnet mask of
255.255.255.240 (that is, a 28 bit mask) is chosen which allows up to 13
hosts per LAN plus the router interface. This leaves plenty of room for
future expansion such as the addition of more EC-1s or xterms.
• The management area IP addresses and masks are allocated as follows:
— 192.168.5.5/30 router ma-1 circuitless IP
— 192.168.5.9/30 router ma-1 serial 1/1
— 192.168.5.13/30 router ma-1 serial 1/2
— 192.168.5.17/28 router ma-1 IP Ethernet interface
— 192.168.5.18/28 EC-1#1 address
— 192.168.5.19/28 EC-1#2 address
— 192.168.5.20/28 Preside#1 address
— 192.168.5.49/30 router ma-2 circuitless IP
— 192.168.5.53/30 router ma-2 serial 1/1
— 192.168.5.10/30 router ma-2 serial 1/2
— 192.168.5.33/28 router ma-2 IP Ethernet interface
— 192.168.5.34/28 EC-1#3 interface
— 192.168.5.35/28 EC-1#4 interface
— 192.168.5.36/28 Preside#2 interface
• SDH NE areas tend to have more routers, but very few host IDs are
required. Generally each IP Ethernet port is connected to only one or two
OPC/POPCs. Most of the devices connected to a router in an SDH NE area
do not support IP. In the case of this particular example, a subnetwork mask
of 255.255.255.248 is used for each POPC/OPC IP LAN. This allows up
to five hosts and the router interface. Some routers do not need IP LANs.
The SDH routers, POPCs, and OPCs have the following IP addresses
allocated:
— 192.168.5.14 router 1-1 S1/1
Figure 9-8 shows the DCN router network design. The IP addresses have
been abbreviated to the last decimal number. The OSI areas are abbreviated to
only the area bytes of the full address (that is,
39.076f8012.3456.0000.0001.0005 becomes 0005). OSI areas are separated
by WAN links running IP and OSI L2 only. Inter-area WANs run IP, OSI L1,
and OSI L2. Tunnels (that is, OSI over IP GRE) are set up between routers in
the same OSI area to protect against OSI area fragmentation.
Figure 9-8
DCN router network design
E C -1 E C -1 P resid e
E C -1 E C -1 P resid e
OSI OSI
(.17) (.33)
OPC-P
L2
Location definition/considerations
A key consideration is access to E1s for router WAN links. In some cases the
customer’s infrastructure may not offer E1s at key locations (i.e, low-capacity
NEs with 2-Mbit/s tributaries may not be collocated with POPC/OPCs and
routers). OPTera LH optical-only NEs may well face this problem. In this case
E1s need to be obtained from a third-party telecoms operator as leased lines.
Consider the effects of a single point of failure and plan router locations and
connections accordingly, as shown in Figure 9-6 with the south central ring
and its three routers.
In the example shown in Figure 9-8, each router has been located in a
different site. All WAN connections are therefore made to collocated NE E1
tributaries. Consequently all router serial ports are set for external clock, at a
rate of 2048000 Hz. However, some network designs have multiple OSI areas
terminating at large sites (that is, many headend NEs, each sitting in its own
OSI area). In this case a router is required to connect to each headend NE OSI
port (that is, one Nortel Networks router for each OSI area terminating at the
site). In order to maintain the ring architecture of the router network, the
collocated routers are connected via back-to-back serial cables with OSI L2
only enabled across them. Directly connected routers are set for the internal
clock at a rate of 2.5 MHz.
In Figure 9-9, one of the router locations from the northeast ring is used as an
example to illustrate the connectivity at the location. This location consists of
one TN-16X, four TN-1Xs, an OPC, a router, and two G.703 modems. The
following are required:
• LAN to connect all the TN-1Xs, the router, and the OPC
• two E1 connections (75 Ω or 120 Ω)
• power for all DCN components
Figure 9-9
System illustrating connectivity at location
STM-1o ports
with no no with
DCC DCC DCC DCC
TN-1X
TN-1X
TN-1X
O SI LAN IP LAN
TN-1X Eth1 Eth2
E1 E1 Router 4-2
Table 9-1 details all the DCN components needed for this site.
Table 9-1
Needed DCN components
—end—
Installation/integration information
The preceding information in this example DCN design would need to be
summarized by the DCN designer and passed on to the installation/integration
teams. This information needs to include details on:
• locations
• addressing
• interfaces
• configuration
• connectivity
end of chapter
sized networks rather than the standard networks normally associated with
classful addressing. In the CIDR model, every item of routing information is
advertised with a bit mask (prefix). The prefix length is a way of specifying
the number of left-most contiguous bits in the network portion of the routing
table entry. In order to support CIDR, routers do not make assumptions based
on the first three bits of the address; rather they rely on the prefix length
information provided with the route.
However, IANA has reserved the following three blocks of address space for
private networks (that is, networks that are not connected to the public
Internet):
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (class A)
• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (class B)
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (class C)
OSI addresses
Information regarding the allocation of ISO DCC addresses within the United
Kingdom and other countries that operate registered schemes can be found by
visiting the Web site of the International Register of ISO DCC NSAP
schemes at:
http://fm6.facility.pipex.com/fei/dcc-nsap.htm
end of chapter
OSI
• connection-mode transport service, as defined in ITU-T X.214
• connection-mode transport protocol Class 4 (TP4) mandatory procedures
for operating over the CLNS, as defined in ITU-T X. 224
• the transport layer profile for use over connectionless-mode network
services, as defined in ITU-T Q.812, section 3.2
• mandatory procedures, as defined in ITU-T X. 234 Connectionless-mode
Transport Protocol (CLTP)
• CLNS defined in ITU-T X.213/ISO 8473
• CLNP with full protocol subset of category “type 1” functions defined in
11
ITU-T X.233/ISO 8473
• ESs only ES-IS routing information exchange protocol as an ES defined in
ISO/IEC 9542 (ES-IS)
12
Data Communications Networks SDH DCN Overview and Principles
13
13-1
ATU
Asynchronous Transfer Unit. A means to transport IP management data over
SDH networks for legacy PDMX-Es.
CENCA
Control unit for a legacy PDMX-E.
COBU<X>
Generic term for UE3000 control unit.
EOC
Dedicated 64 kbit/s channel for management comms in PDH aggregate.
F interface
A point-to-point RS-232 1200-115200 kbit/s interface for local and remote
management of the UE3000.
Legacy PDMX-E
PDMX-E Release 15 or earlier.
LSDB
Link State Database
MEGIF card
2 Mbit/s interface card
PDH ECC
N x 64 kbit/s Management Data Channel in a 2 Mbit/s PDH aggregate.
Qx
LAN interface on a UE3000 COBUX card carrying OSI and IP protocols.
Q1
A management communication interface to a bus conforming to RS 485.
Q1 master
An interface on the UE3000 COBUx card allowing management of legacy
multiplexers over their Q1 interfaces.
RS-232
See V.24.
SIFOX card
Allows access to the EOC channel from the F interface.
SDH ECC
Embedded Control Channel in all SDH aggregates running at either
192 kbit/s or 576 kbit/s.
SYNIO card
STM-1 aggregate card in a UE3000.
TRDB
Tunnel Routing Database
TTRP
Tunnel-to-Tunnel Routing Protocol. The tunnel discovery protocol.
UCST
UE3000 craft terminal connected via the F interface.
V.24
CCITT standard defining the DTE-DEC physical interface. Also known as
RS-232.
100BaseTX
Ethernet wiring scheme using twisted-pair cabling in a star configuration.
Uses RJ-45 connectors and has a reach of up to 100 m. Maximum bit rate is
100 Mbit/s.
adjacencies database
In OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol, a list of all a router’s
neighbours.
ADM
Add-Drop Multiplexer
AFI
Authority and Format Identifier
AH
Authentication Header
AN
Access Node
ANH
Access Node Hub
ARN
Access Remote Node
ARP
Address Resolution Protocol
AS
Autonomous System
ASBR
Autonomous System Boundary Router
ASN
Access StackNode
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATU
Asynchronous Telemetry Unit
AUI
Attachment Unit Interface. Connection to 10BaseT LAN requires 10BaseT
transceiver to be provisioned.
autonomous system
An IP data communications network of hosts, routers, and networks under the
same administration. Inside the autonomous system, interior gateway
protocols such as RIP or OSPF are used to maintain routing information. It
functions as an independent system with regard to other IP networks. In order
to reach other Autonomous Systems, a ‘gateway’ is required (for example,
running a Border Gateway Protocol).
backbone area
Area to which all other OSPF areas are connected, either directly or via a
virtual link. It is always referred to as area 0.0.0.0.
BCC
Bay Command Console
B channel
Bearer Channel
BLN/BCN
Backbone Link Node/Concentrator Node
BN
Backbone Node
BOFL
Breath of Life. A Bay proprietary link quality monitor.
border router
A router which sits between two OSPF areas.
boundary router
A router which sits between an OSPF and non OSPF area.
BPDU
Bridge Protocol Data Unit
BRI
Basic Rate Interface
bridge
Joins two or more LAN segments together at the OSI data link layer (layer 2).
Bridges are normally connected together in pairs--one at either end of a WAN
serial link. The terms ‘transparent bridge’ or ‘spanning tree bridge’ are
sometimes used to refer to bridges that link Ethernet LANs.
CHAP
Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol
CIDR
Classless Inter-Domain Routing
13
CLNS
Connectionless-mode Network Service
CLNP
Connectionless-mode Network Layer Protocol
CLTP
Connectionless-mode Transport Protocol
CLUI
Command Line User Interface
CNET
Communications Network. Data bus used to connect OPC to TN-16X.
Community Strings
A rudimentary level of security provided by SNMP.
CORBA
Common Object Request Broker Architecture
cost
Routes have a cost associated with them. The higher the cost the less
favourable the route. With RIP the costs of routes is a simple hop count to a
limit of 15. Routes of 16 hops and over are unreachable in RIP terms. OSPF
has a number of metrics which are converted with algorithm into a cost.
cost of a link
In OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol, cost is computed from
bandwidth, real cost, availability, reliability and other link metrics.
CP
circuit pack
cross-connect
A network element which allows flexible switching of traffic containers
between interface and any other.
CSM
Centralized Software Manager
CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
CSPDN
Circuit Switched Public Data Network
DCC
(1) Data Communications Channel, defined in G.784, Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) Management. DCCr = D1-D3; DCCm = D4-D12.
(2) Data Country Code.
DCD - PRC
Digital Clock Distributor - Primary Reference Clock. The Digital Clock
Distributor - Primary Reference Clock (DCD-PRC) is a range of timing
source options. The main item, in terms of being an NE requiring
management over the DCN, is the DCD 521 digital clock distribution shelf
which supports options for GPS and cesium timing sources.
DCE
Data Circuit Terminating Equipment. Refers to the equipment that provides a
connection into a data transmission network. In this document the term is
used to refer specifically to the type of physical interface provided by the
equipment.
DCN
Data Communications Network
designated router
A router elected on the basis of OSPF priority.
DIL
Dual In-Line
DNS
Domain Name System
DR
Designated Router
DRAM
Dynamic RAM
DSP
Domain Specific Part
DTE
Data Terminal Equipment. This term refers to equipment that is to be
connected to a network. In this document the term is used to refer specifically
to the type of physical interface provided by the equipment.
DVP
Distance Vector Protocol
DWDM
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
EC
Element Controller. Consists of a workstation and software. Used to
13
configure one or more NEs. EC and NE are connected via a network which is
the DCN.
ECC
Embedded Communications Channel. See DCC.
EEPROM
Electronically Erasable PROM
EGP
Exterior Gateway Protocol
EIGRP
Enhanced Internet Gateway Routing Protocol. A Cisco proprietary routing
protocol
EIA
Electronic Industries Association
end system
Provides a source and destination for data communications traffic. ESs can be
attached to one or more data communications links or subnetworks, but they
cannot pass data communications traffic between them. The EC (Element
Controllers) and some NEs (for example, TN-1P and ATU) are ESs.
ES
End System. See above.
ESH
End System Hello
ESP
Encapsulating Security Payload
ES-RIB
End System Routing Information Base
ESWD
Electronic Software Download
FCS
Frame Check Sequence
FIB
Forwarding Information Base
FIFO
First-In, First-Out
FTP
File Transfer Protocol
forwarding table
See Routing Table.
FRE
Fast Routing Engine
FRU
Field Replacement Unit
GNB
Graphical Network Browser
GNE
Graphical Network Editor
GRE
Generic Route Encapsulation
GUI
Graphical User Interface
HDLC
High-Level Data Link Control
high-capacity SDH NE
TN-16X, TN-16 4F, TN-64X, and X/40.
HO-DSP
High Order Domain Specific Part
host
An IP equivalent of the OSI end system. Examples of IP hosts connected to
the SDH DCN are network controllers, element controllers, and X terminals.
HSRP
Hot Standby Router Protocol
HSSI
High-Speed Serial Interfaces
IANA
Internet Address Numbering Authority
ICD
International Code Designator
IDI
Initial Domain Identifier
IDP
Initial Domain Part
13
IGP
Interior Gateway Protocol
IGRP
Internet Gateway Routing Protocol
INM
Integrated Network Manager, now known as Preside; formerly known as
NRM (Network Resource Manager)
IP
Internet Protocol
IPCP
Internet Protocol Control Protocol
intermediate system
Can pass data communications traffic between subnetworks to which it is
connected. This functionality is sometimes referred to as routing. Most SDH
NEs and third-party OSI routers are ISs. ISs may be Level 1 or Level 2.
IS
Intermediate System. See above.
ISDN
Integrated Services Digital Network
ISDN-BRI
Integrated Services Digital Network Basic Rate Interface
ISH
Intermediate System Hello
ISO
International Organization for Standardization
IS RIB
Intermediate System Routing Information Base
ITU-T
International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications
Standardization Section. Previously known as CCITT.
L1
Level 1 routing
L2
Level 2 routing
LAP-D
Link Access Protocol on the D-channel
LAN
Local Area Network
LAT
Local Area Transport
LCAP
Local Craft Access Panel
LCP
Link Control Protocol
LED
Light Emitting Diode
link state
In OSPF protocol, the status of a link between two routers.
LLC
Logical Link Control
low-capacity SDH NE
NE which multiplexes Virtual Containers VC12 and above (that is, all NEs
not regarded as high capacity, including ATU).
LQM
Link Quality Monitoring. A Bay proprietary Layer 2 protocol.
LQR
Link Quality Reporting
LS
Link State
LSA
Link State Advertisement. Routing information distributed by ABRs in an
OSPF network.
LSD
Link State Database
LSDU
Link State Data Unit
LSP
Link State Packet. Routing information distributed by all routers in an OSI
13
network. Link State Protocol.
MAA
Manual Area Address
MAC
Media Access Control
MANLAN
Management LAN
MDI
Media Dependent Interface
MDI-X
Media Dependent Interface (Crossed). Switch setting which changes the
polarity of a UTP port.
MI
Maintenance Interface
MIB
Management Information Base. Contains various types of information, such as
read-only data which describes the equipment (manufacturer, model, and so
forth), read-write data used to configure the equipment and statistical data,
which may be read or cleared by the management station.
MIS
Maintenance Interface System
MOA
Managed Object Agent
MOR
Multiwavelength Optical Repeater
MS-SPRing
Multiplex Section Shared Protection Ring (MS-SPRing)
MS DCC
Multiplex Section Data Communications Channel. D4 -D12 bytes of the
MSOH.
MSOH
Multiplex Section Overhead. Administration bytes in the STM1 module
which are regenerated by each add/drop multiplexer but passed transparently
through a regenerator unit. Also see RSOH.
MSP
Multiplexer Section Protection
MTBF
Mean Time Between Failures
MTD
Memory Technology Driver
MTTR
Mean Time To Repair
MX
Message Exchange
NC
Network Controller
NCP
Network Control Protocol
NE
Network Element. Refers to an element within the SDH network, such as a
TN-1X, TN-4X etc.
NELAN
Network Element LAN
NET
Network Entity Title. OSI address used for routing purposes.
NIC
Network Interface Card; Network Information Centre
NMM
Network Management Modules
NPA
Network Point of Attachment
NRM
Network Resource Manager, now known as Preside. Workstation with
software used to provide network services across an SDH network.
Connected to ECs via the DCC. See also INM.
NSAP
Network Service Access Point. OSI address used for the purpose of
communication between users or applications.
NSSA
Not so stubby areas. In OSPF protocol, stub areas which receive certain link
state updates from external networks.
NVRAM
Non-Volatile Random-Access Memory
323-4061-091 Release 5 Standard
List of terms 13-13
OADM
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
13
OAM&P
Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning
OAS
Optical Amplifier Shelf
OCI
Optical Channel Interface
OFA
Optical Fibre Amplifier
OPC
Operations Controller. Element controller used by TN-16X, and X/40 radio.
OSC
Optical Service Channel
OSI
Open Systems Interconnect
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First. A routing protocol intended to be used in larger
networks. See also RIP.
OSPF area
A collection of connected routers which exchange link state updates.
PAP
Password Authentication Protocol; Preside Application Platform
PB
POPC - Backup
PCMCIA
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDMX-E
Primary Digital Multiplexer-Enhanced. Now known as UE3000.
PDUs
Protocol Data Units
PMOM
Preside Manager for OPTera Metro
policy filter
A parameter that applies only when an OSPF network uses external routes.
An announce filter acts on the outward advertisements form the OSPF area
and the accept filter acts on inward advertisements. As the LSPs are modified
by the filter and the resultant used to produce a routing table, it follows that
policy filters need to be applied to all routers in the OSPF network and not
just to the boundary router.
POPC
Partitioned Operations Controller. Element Controller used with TN-16 4F,
TN-64X, and OAS.
private network
Network that is not connected to another network (specifically the Internet).
PROM
Programmable Read-Only Memory
PP
POPC - Primary
PPP
Point-to-Point Protocol standard
PSDN
Public Switched Digital Network
PSTN
Public Switched Telephone Network
PTT
Post, Telephone, and Telegraph
13
PVC
Permanent Virtual Circuit
QOS
Quality Of Service
RD
Routing Domain. See Routing Domain.
repeater
Joins two or more LAN segments together at the OSI physical layer (layer 1).
An example of a repeater in the SDH DCN is the 10BaseT LAN hub, which is
a multiport repeater.
No more than four repeaters are allowed between any two DTEs connected to
an ISO 8802-3 10 Mbit/s baseband CSMA/CD or Ethernet LAN.
RIB
Routing Information Base
RIP
Routing Internet Protocol. A simple widely used routing protocol for small
networks. See also OSPF
RML
Router Management Lab
RMON
Remote Monitoring. RMON probes can be physical devices, which can be
linked to a variety of network interfaces, or software agents within network
devices. Typical of the statistics maintained by RMON probes are packets in
and out, octets in and out, errors, broadcasts, and multicasts. More
sophisticated probes are capable of characterising traffic by packet size, frame
size and protocol. Management stations are able to poll RMON probes and
present network utilization data in real-time.
router
Joins two or more LAN segments together at the OSI network layer (Layer 3).
Routers are normally connected to other routers over WAN serial links.
Cisco routers can be configured to route IP and OSI protocols if they have
Enterprise software. They can be configured to support one or both protocols
on an individual port basis.
SDH NEs that are classified as Intermediate Systems are OSI protocol
routers.
router ID
In OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol, this is the number by which
each router is known to OSPF. On a Bay router the default is the IP address of
the first configured interface. On Cisco the default is the highest configured
IP address. On both routers it should be manually configured to be the same
as the circuitless IP address.
routing domain
An OSI data communications network of end systems, intermediate systems,
and networks under the same administration. Inside the routing domain,
intra-domain routing protocols (such as the ES-IS protocol and the IS-IS
[L1/L2] protocol) are used to maintain routing information. It functions as an
independent system with regard to other OSI networks. In order to reach other
routing domains, a “gateway” is required (for example, running an
inter-domain routing protocol).
routing table
Also known as a forwarding table. The best routes are chosen from all
protocol routing tables. Note that each router has a different routing table.
RS DCC
Regenerator Section Data Communication Channel. D1-D3 bytes of the
RSOH.
RSOH
Regenerator Section Overhead. Administration bytes in the STM-n module
which are regenerated by each add/drop multiplexer and regenerator unit.
Also see MSOH.
SC
Shelf Controller
SDH
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
SEL
Selector
13
SID
System Identifier
SIM
Station Interface Module
SMDS
Switched Multimegabit Data Service
SNA
Systems Network Architecture
SNCP
Subnetwork Connection Protection
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol
SNPA
Subnetwork Point of Attachment
SOC
Span of Control
SOF
Start of Frame
SOH
Section Overhead
SOHO
Small Office/Home Office
SPF algorithm
Shortest Path First algorithm
standard area
In OSPF protocol, area which is not the backbone area but which receives all
link state updates from external networks.
stub areas
In OSPF protocol, these are areas which although can have more than one
interface, by definition do not carry transit data and do not receive link state
updates from external networks. As the standard DCN uses only a backbone
area 0.0.0.0, stub areas are not used in the standard DCN. All routers in a stub
area must be set to be stub routers. How this is implemented varies between
router manufacturers.
STM
Synchronous Transfer Mode
STP
Shielded Twisted Pair
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TFTP
Trivial File Transfer Protocol
TI
Technician’s Interface
TMN
Telecommunications Management Network
TT
Terminal Timing
TTL
Time to Live
UDP
User Datagram Protocol
UI
(1) User Interface. (2) Unnumbered Information.
UTP
Unshielded Twisted Pair
VLAN
Virtual Local Area Network
VRRP
Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol
WAN
Wide-Area Network
WT
Wavelength Translator
XR
Regenerator
13
xterm
A machine presenting a GUI which conforms to the X-Windows open
standard for connection to an application running on a remote system.
end of chapter
Index 14-
‘head-end’ NE 1-6 addressing
‘Shortest Path First’ algorithm 5-5 classful 10-2
100BaseT 3-11 OSI
10Base2 3-10 recommended schemes 7-10
10Base5 3-10 adjacencies database, OSPF 6-8
10BaseT adjacency
advantage of 3-10 definition of 7-9
cable types 3-13 administrative distance, Cisco routers 6-13
device interconnection 3-9 advanced data communications topics 8-1
1600G amplifier 4-8 algorithms
configuration 4-8 ‘Shortest Path First’ 5-5
OSC card 4-8 backoff 3-8
5-4-3 rule bandwidth allocation 8-9
hubs 3-2 dequeuing 8-8
7-layer model, OSI 2-1 in dynamic routing 5-1
functions of layers 2-2 Spanning Tree 3-4
hierarchy 2-1 strict dequeuing 8-9
Layer 3 announce filter 6-7
implementation methods 5-1 application layer 2-1
function of 2-4
A area limits, SDH NEs 1-7
Access StackNodes 4-16 area, OSPF 6-8
acronym usage xiv areas
address in networks 6-6
assignment 10-1 in OSI networks 7-1
address allocations 6-20 OSPF 6-6
class C 10-2 OSPF example 6-10
address blocks rules for use 6-6
private networks 10-2 ARP
address classes 6-2 use of 6-4
Address Resolution Protocol AS 1-3
use of 6-4 ASBR 4-6, 6-8
address space ASN 4-16
private networks 10-2 assigning addresses to DCN 9-12
address, PPP 4-13 assigning IP addresses 9-13
addresses assigning subnetwork masks 9-13
IANA class C 9-13 associated information xiv
IP, obtaining 10-1 Attachment Unit Interface 3-10
W
WANs
cables and connections 4-1
definition of 4-1
example connections 4-1
frames in 4-1
in DCN 1-1
interfaces in SDH DCN 4-1
IP and OSI coexistence 1-5
links
maximum bandwidth 4-15
protocols
Layer 2 4-11
PPP 4-11
wayside channel, OSC structure 4-11
Wide Area Network
in DCN 1-1
X
X.21 4-1
in physical layer 2-2
interface defined 4-1
to G.703 modem connection 4-2
xterms 1-2, 1-5
deployment 9-5
IP use 1-2
Data Communications
Networks