CRACKGRADEB@GMAIL.COM WWW.CRACKGRADEB.COM M.NO.

9971687048

Communication: The word ‘communication’ is derived from Latin word ‘communis’,

which means common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and a means that
individuals or organizations share the meaning and understanding with one another.

Definitions:

Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession. It

modifies the disposition of both parties who partakes it- John Dewey.

Communication is sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality- Edgar Dale.

Communication is a means of persuasion to influence other so that desired effect is

achieved- Aristotle

Communication Process : Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non-verbal

messages. It is a continuous process. It is a process of exchanging Information, Ideas,
Thoughts, Feelings, Emotions, through Speech Signals, Writing, and Behavior.

Figure: Communication

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The main components of communication process are as follows:

Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context
may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with
context.

Sender / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message. A sender makes
use of symbols (words or graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the
required response.

Message - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It must be ensured
that the main objective of the message is clear.

Encoding (Communication symbol) – The process of conversion of subject matter into

symbols is called encoding. The message or subject matter of any communication is always
abstract and intangible. Transmission of message requires use of certain symbols.

Medium - Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message For instance -
Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people,
while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the recipient
as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.

Recipient / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is intended /
aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent
upon various factors such as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message,
and the reliance of encoder on decoder.

Decoding- It is the process of translation of an encoded message into ordinary

understandable language. Receiver converts the symbols, words or signs received from the
sender to get the meaning of the message.

Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the

sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or non-
verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of memos,
reports, etc.

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Types of communication based on the communication channels: Types of People

communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Types of communication based on the communication
channels used are:
1. Verbal Communication
2. Nonverbal Communication
3. Symbolic Communication
4. Meta Communication

VERBAL COMMUNICATION is an exchange of information using words including both the

spoken and the written word. The most important aspects of verbal communication are the
following.  Language  Pacing  Intonation  Clarity and Brevity  Timing and relevance

Verbal Communication is divided into: Oral Communication and Written Communication

Oral Communication: In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-
face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over
internet. Communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.
Advantages – It brings quick feedback. In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial
expression and body language one can guess whether he/she should trust what’s being said
or not.
Disadvantages – In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is
delivering, so this can be counted as a fault.

Written Communication: In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to

communicate. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter,
report, memo etc. Written Communication is most common form of communication being
used in business.
Advantages – Messages can be edited and revised Written communication provide record
and backup. A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate
feedback.
Disadvantages – Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback. It take more time
in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth and number of people
struggles for writing ability.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION: Information is exchanged through non-verbal

communication in various ways. It is sometimes referred as body language. Duribleby and
Brutan (1992) suggest that body language has several elements.  Gesture  Facial
expression  Posture  Gait  Body space and proximity  Touch  Personal appearance 
Eye contact  Sounds  Silence

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Non-verbal communication:Through signs & symbols.

Types of Non-verbal communication:
KINESICS (BODY LANGUAGE)
Oculesics [ocalics]
HAPTICS (TOUCH LANGUAGE)
PROXEMICS ,(SPACE LANGUAGE)
Objectics [artifactics]
ENVIRONMENTAL Factors
CHRONEMICS (TIME LANGUAGE)
PARALANGUAGE\VOCALIC
Olfactics
Gustorics

KINESICS (BODY LANGUAGE) : Kinesics is the interpretation of body motion communication

such as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to movement of any part of the
body or the body as a whole.
FACIAL EXPRESSION
HEAD
EYE GAZE
GESTURES
POSTURES
SHAPE OF BODY
PERSONAL APPEARANCE ADORNMENT
Oculesics [ocalics] – use of eyes: Oculesics, a subcategory of kinesics, is the study of eye
movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication.

HAPTICS (TOUCH LANGUAGE): Haptic communication is a branch of nonverbal

communication that refers to the ways in which people and animals communicate, and interact
via the sense of touch.

Proxemics (Space language): Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effects
that population density has on behaviour, communication, and social interaction.
To communicate while keeping a distance is called proxemics.
The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we perceive as belonging to us is
influenced by a number of factors including social norms, situational factors, personality
characteristics and level of familiarity.

Objectics [artifactics] – use of objects/artifacts: Communication through the use of artifacts

i.e. appearance, style. Communicate:
Marital status
Economic status
Social status/membership, Personality

ENVIRONMENT: Environment refers to how the objects we adorn ourselves and our
surroundings with, referred to as artifacts, provide nonverbal cues that others make meaning

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from and how our physical environment—for example, the layout of a room and seating
positions and arrangements—influences communication.

CHRONEMICS (TIME LANGUAGE): Chronemics is the study of the role of time in

communication. It is one of several subcategories of the study of nonverbal communication.
A call at 2 a.m. indicates some kind of emergency.
You reached in a party on time shows you are punctual.

PARALANGUAGE\VOCALIC: Attributes of speaking which include the pitch, the tone, the
volume, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance, nasality and even the accent of the speaker
collectively known as paralanguage, we can understand mood and the situation by
paralanguage expressions.

Olfactics – use of smell A smell can trigger the oldest of memories We can remember what we
smell longer than what we see & hear. Can even be used as a warning system

Gustorics – use of taste, Can communicate pleasure, displeasure or warning. We can savor
flavors we enjoy. What one person perceives as mildly spicy may be hot and displeasureable to
another.

Semiotics (also called semiotic studies) is the study of meaning-making, the study of sign
process (semiosis) and meaningful communication. For instance, when we see the different
colours of a traffic light, we automatically know how to react to them. We know this without even
thinking about it. But this is a sign which has been established by cultural convention over a
long period of time and which we learn as children, and requires a deal of unconscious cultural
knowledge to understand its meaning.

Symbolic Communication: It involves the verbal and nonverbal symbolism to convey

meaning. An example of symbolic communication in humans is the wearing of uniforms. A
man in a white coat with a stethoscope will often be perceived as a doctor on the basis of
his appearance alone. Military uniforms have badges and insignias which indicate rank and
honors as well as their branch of operation. Art and music are also forms of symbolic
communication.

Meta Communication: Meta communication is all the nonverbal cues (tone of voice, body
language, gestures, facial expression, etc.) that carry meaning that either enhance or
disallow what we say in words. It is ‘communication about communication’ so that the
deeper ‘message within a message’ can be uncovered and understood. When a patient tells
the nurse that he is cool to undergo surgery with his body rigid and sharp voice, a nurse can
interpret that he is anxious as evidenced by the body language.

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Media of communication: It would be possible to classify the communication media into

three main groups: Audial, Visual and Audio-Visual.
Audial communication media is adopted through conferences, the interviews, the
inspection trips, public meetings, broadcasts, telephone calls, etc.
Visual communication media includes written communication viz., circulars, manuals,
reports, bulletins and hand books and pictorial forms namely pictures, photographs,
posters, cartoons, slides, flags, insignia, etc.
Audio-visual media comprises sound motion pictures, television and personal
demonstrations.
Each of these media has its advantages and disadvantages bun it is up to the management
to decide what media will be used for which purpose.

Communication Channels: The channel, or medium, used to communicate a message

affects how accurately the message will be received. Channels vary in their “information-
richness.” Information-rich channels convey more nonverbal information. Research shows
that effective managers tend to use more information-rich communication channels than
less effective managers. The figure below illustrates the information richness of different
channels.

Information Channel Information Richness

Face-to-face conversation High

Videoconferencing High

Telephone conversation High

E-mails Medium

Handheld devices Medium

Blogs Medium

Written letters and memos Medium

Formal written documents Low

Spreadsheets Low

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Seven C’s in communication:

CHANNELS,
CONTEXT,
CLARITY,
CONTINUITY & CONSISTENCY
CONTENT,
CAPABILITY,
CREDIBILITY
Types of Communication based on the direction of communication flow: There are
following types of communication based on the direction of communication flow:

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Lateral
4. Diagonal
5. External

Downward Communication: Downward communication refers to the instructions and other

official messages originating with the top personnel of an organisation. These are
transmitted from top to down through hierarchical set up and reach the lowest ranking
official in the chain. The top level for downward communication makes use of devices, such
as, directives, written or verbal orders or instructions, manuals, staff conferences, budget
sanctions, other authorisations to inform the lower rungs about its attitude and ideas as
well as to direct, guide and advise. 'In large organisations, downward communication is
difficult enough to begin with, because orders must descend through numerous
intermediate levels before the point of execution is reached. Misunderstandings can easily
occur when instructions pass through so many people. If little upward communication
exists, the difficulties are multiplied, because the orders themselves are apt to be
unrealistic and are likely to meet with worker's resistance.

Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all
examples of downward communication.

Upward communication: In upward communication, messages are passed by the lower

levels in the hierarchy up to those heading the organisation. This includes whatever
information is passed up through methods, such as written and verbal reports pertaining to
performance and progress, statistical and accounting reports related to work, written and
verbal requests for seeking guidance suggestion and discussions. The upward reporting
system is often of very limited use or value in finding fault. in the agency's operation
because sometimes the head of the agency may appear to be unbelievably blind as to what

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is really going on in his agency; yet based on the reports he gets everything is fine: these
reports simply do not present him with all the facts.

Grievance Redressal System, Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all
help in improving upward communication. Other examples of Upward Communication are -
performance reports made by low level management for reviewing by higher level
management, employee attitude surveys, letters from employees, employee-manager
discussions etc.

Lateral / Horizontal Communication: Communication that takes place at same levels of

hierarchy in an organization is called lateral communication, i.e., communication between
peers, between managers at same levels or between any horizontally equivalent
organizational member. We may call it across communication. The methods viz., written or
verbal information and reports, formal and informal as well as personal contacts, staff
meetings and coordination committees, are used in this type of communication. The
advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
It is time saving.

It facilitates co-ordination of the task.

It facilitates co-operation among team members.

It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.

It helps in solving various organizational problems.

It is a means of information sharing

It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department
or conflicts within a department.

Diagonal Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and

employees of other workgroups is called diagonal communication. It generally does not
appear on organizational chart. For instance - To design a training module a training
manager interacts with an Operations personnel to enquire about the way they perform
their task.

External Communication: Communication that takes place between a manager and

external groups such as - suppliers, vendors, banks, financial institutes etc. For instance - To
raise capital the Managing director would interact with the Bank Manager.

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Networks of Communication: Communication Networks are the modes for transmission of

messages. Networks can be dyadic, group, or organizational level networks. Also employees can
be members of multiple networks simultaneously. Networks can be of following types:

1. Formal Networks , and

2. Informal Networks

Formal Network of Communication: Formal network is a network that is established

systematically to transmit the messages along pre-defined paths of authority and responsibility
in an organization. It follows organizational hierarchy as specified in the organizational
structure and depicted through the organizational charts. It takes place within the official
channels approved by senior management for example, Chief Finance Officer (C.F.O)
communicating with Finance manager who in turn may talk to the Accounts officer.

Figure: Formal Communication method

Formal networks are split into two parts Centralized Networks and Decentralized Networks:

Centralized Networks –This network is so-called as in this network information passes through
a central position. The merit of this network is its simplicity. However, there may sometimes be
a problem of the central position being overloaded with messages to be passed on.

Centralized Networks can be put into three categories:

 Chain Network – Serial transmission (in a line). The chain here refers to an
arrangement of persons starting from the central authority in a tree like structure. The
person at the top of the chain, being empowered with central authority, passes the
message to the other person who is linked to him directly, who passes it further in the
same manner. Such an approach to communication is a formal approach suited for
formal communication and is generally found in any hierarchical organization like Civil
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services. At the top of the hierarchy, the initiator of the message has full control over its
transmission and is able to oversee its flow downward through the levels of
management. Such a serial or hierarchical flow of information may however make
people at the lower levels feel a bit isolated and distant from the top management and
may become indifferent to it.
 Y Network – Shaped like a Y. This type of network also facilitates flow of information
through a hierarchical structure in an organization. The difference being in the fact that
here there is more than one source through which information may be disseminated. An
example of this may be Police force and Army people who receive information from
various sources above them.
 Wheel Network – Central message unit and separate transmission/reception units in
all directions. This network resembles the structure of a wheel wherein there is one
central unit handling transmission and receipt of communication message through
separate transmission/reception units in all directions. It has the advantages of quick
and simultaneous transmission of message to all as message is passed directly and not
in a serial order. It gives a greater sense of belongingness to the employees as they feel
directly connected to the central authority. Because of this, such a network is
particularly suitable for solving organizational problems

Figure : (a)The Serial, (b) Y, (c) Wheel, (d) Circle and (e)All Channel Networks.

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Decentralized Networks – Decentralized Networks overcome the limitation of centralized

network becoming redundant in the event of destruction of the central repository or node. In a
decentralized network information flows more freely and widely throughout the organization.
The presence of a turbulent and complex business environment; growing flatness in hierarchical
structure in organizations; and greater autonomy and flexibility of relationships in the
organizations have lead to the popularity of decentralized networks.

Decentralized Networks can be put into two categories:

 Circle Network - Serial transmission of messages but decentralized. It resembles a circle

wherein each individual is linked to two other persons. This makes it possible for a
person to communicate with any of the two persons. An example for this may be
communication between middle managers from different departments at the same
level of organization. The main problem with this type of network is lack of co-operation
and co-ordination between members.
 The “All Channel” Network – This network is suited for small groups. In such
environments because of the involvement of every member it provides the best
solution. It may be used when a department decides to brainstorm over any issue.
Decision-making may be slow, as many people need to be consulted.

Centralized and decentralized communication networks

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Informal Network of Communication: Informal network does not have a permanent structure.
Employees join/leave it because of a particular issue or situation. Informal networks get formed
between two participants because of proximity of participants, perception of one member
about the other member as reliable or knowledgeable, friendship/trust between one another.
It may also be by reason of their knowing each other in the outside of the workplace or because
they see each other at time that informal network communication is needed. Hence it is an
unofficial channel of communication that arises out of socio-psychological needs of individuals
to interact with each other. Informal communication is also termed as ‘Grapevine’.

Informal Communication

Grapevine is of immense importance as without grapevine employees will not be able to fill in
gaps left from official word or may not feel ownership of information. Grapevine
communication allows employees to feel a sense of belonging and allows them to discuss
concerns off the record. In turn the management can learn what employees are thinking in non-
formal ways that they could not learn through formal networks.

 Single-strand – In this pattern information passes from one person to the other in a
sequential order, like: A à B à C and so on.
 Gossip chain – In this pattern one person passes information to everyone else in the
organization, like spreads information to everybody.
 Probability chain – In this pattern information is passed randomly by one person to
those who come in contact with him. They further pass it randomly, like ‘A’ provides
information randomly to ‘M’, ‘Q’, ‘R’ and ‘Z’ who do so in turn following probability
rules.
 Cluster transmission (most common) – In this pattern one person passes information to
a selected few confidentially; stating, ‘It is strictly between you and me’. A few of them

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transmit it further while others keep it to themselves. For example, ‘A’ communicates
information to four other employees whom he trusts, two of them duplicate it further.

Figure: Grapevine transmission patterns

(a) Single strand, (b) Gossip chain, (c) Probability chain, (d) Cluster chain

Grapevine communication is very useful to the managers as it spreads very fast like wild fire
throughout the organization. It supplements the formal channel of communication by
transmitting information about the company’s history and traditions as well as such
information that cannot be communicated through formal channel. It is also helpful to the
managers in seeking feedback about policies, directions and instructions. It helps in developing
healthy relations amongst people in the organization as it cuts across the official channel of
communication.

However, it is not free from pitfalls. Unsubstantiated rumors can create dysfunction as a result
of grapevine communication. Information (intended lay-offs, for example) can leak before
ready. Information filtration and distortion usually takes place. Information transmitted
through this channel may be wrong and distorted, it is not authentic and may also be
incomplete. Origin of information cannot be ascertained and therefore fixing responsibility is
difficult. It spreads through word of mouth and is not supported by evidence. This makes it non-
dependable.

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Despite its limitations grapevine communication can be effectively used by the managers by
being sensitive to employee anxiety; by providing important information to employees openly,
honestly, and quickly; by using key communicators amongst employee ranks to disseminate
information and by making decision-making as much participative as possible. Grapevine is
inevitable and managers can’t eliminate it. Hence they must make effective use of it to attain
organizational goals.

Difference between Formal and Informal Networks of Communication:

Formal Communication Informal Communication

1. It follows the official chain of command or 10.It is a personal form of
management hierarchy. communication.
2. It is based on formal relationships amongst people.
3. It is task-oriented. 11.It is flexible.
4. It is related to position of a person in the organization.
5. It flows in vertical, horizontal and diagonal direction. 12.It is oral.
6. It is deliberately created.
7. It is a slow means of communication.
8. The information is likely to be exact and accurate.
9. It aims at achieving organizational goals.
10. It is impersonal form of communication.
11. It is rigid.
12. It can be oral or written.
13. It cuts across the formal chain of command and does
not follow organizational hierarchy.
14. It is based on informal relationships.
15. It is people-oriented.
16. It is related to person rather than position.
17. It flows in every direction.
18. It arises spontaneously along with the formal channel.
19. It is a fast means of communication.
20. Information distortions are likely to take place.
21. It aims at achieving personal goals.

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External and Internal Communication: Communication may be between the organization

and the outside world (External) or it may be within the organization (Internal). The External
and Internal communication may be done through various ways:

Barriers to Communication: Communication barriers are those factors that hinder the
effectiveness of communication at some stage in the process of communication. Such
communication barriers often occur despite a good the communication system in an
organization. A host of factors may either individually or collectively affect the effectiveness of
communication. Some of these may be physical barriers while some may be system design
faults and yet some may be termed as attitudinal barriers etc.

Organizational barriers: These barriers arise when duties and line of authority are not
clearly defined. Various types of organizational barriers are:  Policy  Rules and regulations 
Facilities  Complex organization  Status and position.

Psychological factors: Poor pronunciation.  Confused thinking.  Communication overload.

 Attitude.  Fear and anxiety.  Suspicious, jealousy, anger.  Resentment, antagonism and
prejudices.  Lack of interest and lack of listening.

Physical barriers –Staff located in different buildings, on different floors of the same building or
on different sites may find it difficult to interact face to face on a frequent basis. Although other
modes of communication are available, but if coming together physically is important to discuss
some vital issues, such a placement of people causes a physical barrier. Physical barrier does
not restrict to the physical location of the communicators alone, but also includes poor or
outdated equipment and the failure of management to replace them with new technology.
Inadequate staff availability, distractions in the form of background noise or poor lighting or
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extreme weather conditions can indirectly affect communication by affecting people's morale
and concentration and  Physical health Poor hearing  Distances.

Mechanical/system barriers:  Non availability of proper machines.  Presence of defective

machines  Interruption  Power failure.

Perceptional barriers:  Lack of common experience.  Linguistic- different languages and

vocabulary.  Lack of knowledge of any language.  Low IQ.  From receiver’s side: interrupting
the speaker; asking too many questions for the sake of probing.  From sender’s side: unclear
messages; incomplete sentences, no clarification.
Attitudinal barriers come about in an organization as a result of problems or disputes among
the staff members. As a result of poor management or lack of consultation with employees or
some personality conflicts people in the organization may delay or refuse to communicate. Lack
of motivation or dissatisfaction at work may prevent the employees to carry out particular
tasks, or resist a change.

Few guidelines can be followed to overcome the barriers to communication:

 The sender must make the purpose of communication clear. He must use simple and
easy language and explain the technical terms to avoid misunderstanding.
 He must plan the message thoughtfully before communicating.
 He must supplement verbal communication with appropriate facial expressions,
gesture, body movement voice and tone.
 He must take the feedback from the receiver to ensure that the massage has been
understood with right perception.
 The sender may also use projectors, slides and charts if necessary to strengthen his
communication.
 He must overcome distrust and maintain good relations with the receiver before
sending message.
 Development of listening skills on the part of receiver also improves communication
process. As far as possible noise must be avoided in communication, but if it could not
be avoided then the place must be changed.
 To overcome emotional encounters in some unpleasant situations, written
communication must be preferred to oral communication.
 In case of linguistic problems, language translators should be appointed.
 The communicators must be open-minded and receptive to ideas, suggestions and
improvements.
 It is equally important to choose the right channel of communication, for example,
official information should be sent through official channel and feedback should be
obtained through informal channel.

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