The Writing Process cHapter 1 Assessing the Writing Situation cHapter 2 Developing and Shaping Ideas cHapter 3 Drafting and Revising cHapTeR 4 Writing and Revising Paragraphs cHapter 5 Designing Documentsmycomplab® iss FRU j Cans enininicompatcom Gracainrnsae HIGHLIGHTS Teachers know that writing is nor easy, but students, especially pinning writs, often have the misconception that vsiting comes easily to experienced writers and fs hard only for the un: talented or inexperienced. This chepter begins by recognising the dificulies faced by all writer, experienced and inexperienced alike. Nest, the Chapter alerts students tothe varius elements of the writing situation and the writing process and discusses ways to discover and imit subjects. The concluding sections explore Jexible strate ‘scs Tor considering audience and defining a pur pose for writing. Special feaures ofthis chapter fare the attention pad tthe roe "audience and purpose throughout the composition process and thelist of "Questions About Audierce” (p. 11). Although Chapters {and 2 look at activities typical of the early stages of composing and Chapter 3 treats drafting and vevsing, the text does not endorse 3 sirkily linea view of the Composing process. Instead, all three chapters emphasize the writer’ many opions andthe Aesibility of the composing process. They point ‘out that writing sa way of thinking and discov ‘ering: that in the middle of drafting an essay & ‘writer may recomnize the need to develop new supporting ideas, to make mrajor changes in the ‘organization, orto shift the purpose ofthe essay and mosify the thesis, Fee ns ‘See page IAE-S1 for companion Wb site content description Instrucor’s Annotated Eition Assessing the Writing Situation “Writing is easy,” snarled the late sportswriter Red Smith. “All you do is sit down at the typewriter and open a vein.” Most writers ‘would smile in agreement, and so might you, Like anything worth: while, writing well takes hard work. This chepter and the next two will show you some techniques that successful writers use to ease the discomfort of writing and produce effective compositions. (TaN) Understanding how writing happen: Even for experienced writers the process is usually messy, which is of ease and orderliness from a well-crafted magazine article, we can reshaping paragraphs to make a point convincingly. There is no one writing process: no two writers proceed in the to the task at hand, Still, most experienced writers pass through ® Analyzing the writing situation: considering subject, purpose, audience, and other elements of the project (pp. 4-15). = Developing or planning: gathering infornation, focusing on a central theme, and organizing material (yp. 16-43). = Drafting: expressing and connecting ideas (pp. 44-48). ® Revising and editing: rethinking and improving structure, con- tent, style, and presentation (pp. 48-63).Instructor's Annotated Edition “The writing process With experience, as you complete varied assignments and try the varied techniques described in this book, you will develop your own basic writing process. ‘Note Like many cthers, you may believe that writing is only, or even mainly, a matte: of correctness. True, any written message will find @ more receptive audience if it is correct in grammar, spelling, and similar matters. But these concerns should come late in the writing process, after you've allowed yourself to discover ‘what you want to say, freeing yourself to make mistakes along the ‘way. As one writer put it, vou need to get the clay on the potter’s wheel before you ean shape it into a bowl, and you need to shape the bowl before you can perfect it. So get your clay on the wheel, aand work with it until it looks Tike a bowl. Then worry about cor- rectness. RCISE 1.1. Starting a writing | Recall several writing experiences that you have had—a letter you had difficulty composing, an essay you enjoyed writing, an all-nighter | spent happily or riserably on a term paper, a posting to an online newsgroup that received a surprising response. What do these experi- fences reveal to you about writing, particularly your successes. and problems with it? Consider the following questions: How wating happens 3 ‘A WRITER'S PERSPECTIVE ve decided ‘hat if you wait forthe perfect time tovsrite, youll never wre Macnee Arwoo0 You ger all yur best ideas i the shower unr Edsrwoon AT EASE Students efien bring their apprehensions bout veitng (and writing instructors) with them to class. To create positive atmosphere for your cntise, you tmy wish to establish a setting in ‘which students fel at ease about acknowledging land sharing their apprelensions. Oe way to do this is ta ask them to fst what they dislike (and like) about witing without worrying about the form or correness of entries in their lists. Vol- “unlaty sharing of che entries ean help reduce the ‘solation many students feet and help you (ard ‘them set prionities for instruction, ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.1 Individual -esponse,4 Assessing the writing situation RESOURCES AND IDEAS Ball, Kevin and Amy Goodurn. “Compesition ‘Studies ard Service Learning Appealing to Communities?” Composition Studies 28.1 2000); 79-94, The authors arecritical of ser- vice learning pedagogy which too often ex chides the voices of communiw participants they offer suggestions for writing. assien- ‘ments that would inclide the perspectives of community participants. Bartholomse, Davd. “venting the University" In When «Writer Can's Write: Stalier in Writer's ‘Block and Other Composing Prcess Problems. Bd, Mike Rose. New York: Gullford, 1985 134-65. Bartholomoe argues pasuasively that many sudent writers, especial those with it ‘te writing experience, need tobe taught explic fly the discourse standards o! an academic ‘community in oner to write successfully for it Berlin, James A. “Contemporary Composition: ‘The Major Pedagogical Theories.” College English 44 (1982): 765-77. Betin points out that various process approaches have conse- {quences instructors must consile; Blakesle, Ann M. "Bridaing the Workplace and the Academy: Teaching Professional Genres ‘Through Clasroom-Workplace Cllabore tions," Tecical Comtnicarion 10.2 (2001) 169-92, Using case studies, Bhikeslee shows hhow student writing improves when students work on projects prosided by professionals in business and industiy Deans, Thomas. Writing Pannesships: Sevice Learning in Composition. ‘Urbana: NCTE, 2000. Deans provides an excelent introduc tion to the theoretical and pedagogical issues ‘of community writing initiatives Durst, Russel K. Collision Course: Conflict, Nego ‘ation, and Leaning in College Composition Urbana: NCTE, 1999, Durst advocates that teachers use a “relleotiveinstrementalisen” in ‘order to reconcile students’ practical goals ‘with their ov desire io each critical aware. ness and reflection Flower, Linda, and John &. Hayes, “A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing.” Cllege Compos tion and Communication 32 (I981), 365-87. ‘Tihs classic article contains what is probably the best-known and most widely accepted dis cussion of the components of the writing process though its model is more theoretical ‘han practical Instructor's Annotated Edition | Do you like to experiment with language? ‘Are some kinds of writing easier than others? | Do you have trouble getting ideas or expressing them? | Do you worry about grammar and spelling? Do your readers usually understand what you mean? | Record your thoughts as part of continuing jpural entries that track | your experiences as a writer. (See pp. 17-19 cn keeping a journal, anc See the exercises titled “Considering your past work" in Chapters 1-4.) As you complete writing assignments for your composition course and fother courses, keep adding to the journal, noting especially which pro- cedures seem most helpful to you. Your aim isto discover your feelings | about writing so that you can develop a dependable writing process of ‘your own. Pewee eae Any writing you do for others occurs in acontext that both lim: its and clarifies your choices. You are communicating something about a particular subject to a particular audience of readers for a specific reason. You may need to conduct research. You'll be up against a length requirement and a deadline. And you may be ex- pected to present your work in a certain format. These are the elements of the writing situation, and analyzing them at the very start of a project can tell yeu much about how to proceed. (For more information about these elements, refer to the page numbers given in parentheses.) Content = What is your writing for? A course in school? Work? Something. else? What do you know of the requirements for writing in this context? * Will you present your writing on paper, online, or orally? ‘What does the presentation method requi-e in preparation time, special skills, and use of technology? = How much leeway do you have for this writing? What does the stated or implied assignment tell you? Subject (pp. 6-9) = What does your writing assignment require you to write about? If you don't have a specific assignment, what subjects might be appropriate for this situation? = What interests you about the subject? What do you already now about it? What questions do you heve about it? = What does the assignment require you to do with the subject?Instructor's Annotated Edition Audience (pp. 9-13) = Who will read your writing? = What do your readers already know and think about your subject? What characteristics—such as education or political ws—might influence their response? * What is your relationship to your readers? How formal or in- formal should your writing be? = What do you want readers to do or think after they read your writing? Purpose (pp. 13-15) = What aim does your assignment specify? For instance, does it ask you to explain something or argue a point? = Why are you writing? = What do you want your work to accomplish? What elfect do vyou intend it to have on readers? = How can you bes: achieve your purpose? Research (pp. 558-636) = What kinds of evidence will best suit your subject, audience, and purpose? What combination of facts, examples, and expert opinions will suport your ideas? = Does your assignment require research? Will you need to con- sult sources or conduct interviews, surveys, or experiments? = Even if research is not required, what information do you need to develop your subject? How will you obtain it? = What documentation style should you use to cite your sources? (See pp. 637-38 on source documentation in the aca- demic disciplines) Deadline and length = When is the assignment due? How will you apportion the work you have to do in the time available? = How long should your writing be? If no length is assigned, what ‘seems appropriate for your subject, audience, and purpose? Document design = What organization and format does the assignment require? (See pp. 111-12 en format in the academic disciplines and pp. 839-54 on format in public writing.) = How might you use margins, headings, and other elements to achieve your purpose? (See pp. 116-20.) = How might you use graphs, photographs, or other images to support ideas and engage readers? (See pp. 120-25, 225-29.) ‘The writing situation 5 Lindemann, Eska, “Three Views of English 101." College Engish 87 (1995). 287-302. This arti- cle lays out the opposing claims and assump tions of the“process." “product,” and “system fof social action” approaches to the writing classroom, MeComiskey, Bruce. Teaching Composition as a Social Prociss. Logan: Utah State University Press, 200, MeComiskey extends composi- tion theory beyond! a discussion of the writing process, re=xamining product, in the context ‘of cultural theory, as a cycle of production, distribution, and consumption, Sherman, Lina K, and Beverly Wall, “The “Things that Go Without Saying in. Compos- ‘Studies A Colloguy." Journal of Advanced Composition 15 (1998): 281-320. The authors assemble a many-voiced critique of some of the current assumptions of composition peda 2045, including the process paradigm. ‘Tobin, Lad, and Thomas Newkitk, eds. Taking Stock: The Writing Process Movement in the ‘90s. Portsncuth, NH: Boynton, 1994, This collection of essays analyzes the goals of the ‘writing process movement, its application in particular astitations, and the ways in sehich 8 focus on the writing process can be adapted forthe classrooms ofthe future, Yagelski, Robert P. Literacy Matters: Writing ant Reading the Social Saf. New York: Teachers College Press, 2000. Yagelshi supports changes to writing curricula to account for the semina influence af social cmtext on the production and composition of writen texts, Ask studens to locate articles or other mater: Jon the World Wide Web that can serve as ‘models (havirg clear subjects, audiences, and purposes) or as negative models (having unclear Subjects, purposes, or audiences). Students can ‘hare whe they ind with the rest ofthe class by ‘emailing the URLs to thelr classmates Comer ect GROUP ANA.YSIS Break students into small groups and ask them to work iogether to analyze a writing situa- sion using thesestions on pp. 4-5 as a guidel6 Assessing the writing situation ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.2 The assignment specifies the subject (the ‘combinations of client, therapist, and theory that tend to make psychotherapy successful), the au: dence (the instructor and a “discussion group of classmates), and the purpose (to explain and suupport a conelusion about the subject). It re ‘quires research into studies of psvchotherape. Tt specifies a length range and a deadline. It does rot specify format, but APA format could be sumed because the courses in psychology. RESOURCES AND IDEAS ‘Brady, Laura, “Overcoming Resisunce: Comput ers in the Writing Cassroom.” Computers end Compostion 7-2 (1990) 21-33 Brady found that word processing inthe fis-year compo sition classroom inereased the wlume of stu dent writing, prompted new wys of thinking about topics, encouraged collzboration, and Tostered a postive workshop atmosphere Brooke, Rupert, Ruth Mirtz, and Rick Evans, eds. ‘Small Groups in Writing Workshops: Invita: tions to a Writers Life. Urbana NCTE, 1994 This collection of essays offers many strate es for using collaborstive group work ta ere ‘ate an active earning station in Din ER 1.1 Flower, Linda S.,and John R, Hayes. “The Cogni tion of Discovery: Defining a Rhetorical Prob- em.” College Composition and Communica tion 31 (1980): 21-2. This article reports on a detailed study of how good wrters and poor ‘writers conceive of writing tasks as they begin to compos. Golub, Jeff, Activites for an Ineractive Closs- room. Urbana: NCTE, 1994. Golub provides = ‘number of hands-on Suggestions for creating tn effoctve workshop environment Hillocks, George, J. “Environments for Active Learning” In Theory and Puctice in the Teaching of Writing: Rethinkingrhe Diseptine. Ed, Lee Odell. Carbondale: Sothern Minois UP, 1993, 244-70, Hillock” essay is part case study and part analysis ofa classroom struc tue based on student interactions with each other and with texts, Instructor's Annotated Edition “EXERCISE 1.2 Analyzing a writing situation, ‘The following assigrment was given in a survey cours in psychology. What does the assignment specify about the elements of the writing situation? What does it imply? Given this assignment, how would you answer the questions on the previous two pages? (You can do this ex- ercise online at abfongman.com/litlebrowt) When is psychotherapy most likely to werk? That is, wat combi- nations of cient, therapist, and theory tend lo achieve good results? In your paper, cite studies supporting your conclusions. Length: 1500 to 1800 words. Post your paper online to me and to your discussion group by March 30. ERR [HEY discovering and For most college and public writing, you will write in response to an assignment. The assignment may specify your subject, or it may leave the choice to you. (If you're stuck, you can use the discov techniques on pp. 16-26 to think of subjects.) Whether the sub- ject is assigned or not, it will probably need some thought if itis to achieve these aims: ‘« The subject should be suitable for the assignment. = It should be neither too general nor too limited for the length of project and deadline assigned, = Itshould be something you care about. Hil Responding to a specific asignment Many assignments will et boundaries fo: your subject. For in- stance, you might be asked {0 discuss what makes psychotherapy effective, to prepare a lab report on a physics experiment, or to ana- Iymwa character law short tory Such asaignments may seem to leave litle room for you to move around but in fact youll have several questions to answer = What's wanted from you? Writing assigments often contain words such as discuss, describe, analyze, report, interpret, ex- plain, define, argue, and evaluate. These words specify the way you are to approach your subject, what kind of thinking is ex- pected of you, and what your general purpose is. (See pp. 13-15 for more on purpose.) = For whom are you writing? Many assignments will specify or imply your readers, but sometimes you will have to figure out for yourself who your audience is and what it expects from you. (For more on analyzing audience. see pp. 9-13.) * What kind of research is required? Sometimes an assignment specifies the kinds of sources you are expected to consult, andInstructor's Annotated Edition you can use such information to choose your subject. (If you are unsure whether research is required, check with your instructor.) = How can you narrow the assigned subject to do it justice in the length and time required? (See below.) [J Responding to a general assignment Some assignment specify features such as length or amount of| research, but they leave the choice of subject entirely to you. Others fare somewhat more focused—for instance, "Respond to a reading Assigned in this course” or ‘Discuss a proposal for solving a local social problem"—but still give you much leeway in choosing a particular reading or 2 partieilar proposal To find your approach, Consider your experiences, interests, or curiosities = What subject do you already know something about or have you been wondering about? Athletic scholarships? Unemploy- ment in your town? = Have you recently disagreed with someone over a substantial issue? The change in relations between men and women? The methods being used to fight terrorism? = What have you read or seen lately? A shocking book? A violent or funny movie? An effective television commercial? = What tople in the reading or class discussion for a course lias intrigued you? An economic issue such as taxes? A psychologi- cal problem such as depression? = What makes you especially happy or especially angry? A hobby? The behavior of your neighbors? = Which of your ovn or others’ dislikes and preferences would you like to understand better? The demand for sport-utility ve~ hhicles? A taste for vegetarian cuisine? Once you have a subject, youTl also need to answer the questions the bulleted list opposite. [Bl Narrowing a subject to a question Let's say you've decided to write about communication on the Internet or about a perticular character in a short story. You've got a subject, but it’s stil broad, worthy of a lengthy article if not a whole book. For a relatively brief paper, you'll need a narrow focus, in order to provide tho specific details that make writing significant and interesting—all within the length and deadline specified by the assignment. ‘One helpful technique for narrowing a subject is to ask focused questions about it, seeking one that seems appropriate for your as- signment and that promises to sustain your interest through the writing process. The following examples illustrate how questioning, Subject ? ‘Sammefild, Jedth, “Ts There Life in This Test? ‘Reimagining Narrative.” In Wrtiag Theory ned Critical Thorry: Research and Scholarship in Composition. Ed. ohn Cliferd and John Schill, NY: MLA, 1934, 179-194, Surmmesfild examines the role of student narratives in the ‘composition class, especially the extent t0 ‘whieh they can provoke and sustain students) “authentic” ices sdlock, David "The Case Approach to Compost jon.” College Composition and Communica tion 32 (1981): 253-61. Tedlock argues for the tse of cases—detailed, self-contained descrip- tions of a writing situation—as a basis for as. signments end instructions, PO cans your classroom is linked to the Internet, ask ‘your students 6 do a subject search on a broad topic, ike the “environment,” and to note the sceessive points at which they will be able to tnarvow the topic by choosing among lists of sub- healings. At alater stage you might ask students Ao create their nen hypertext document in wich broad subject heading leads the user to infor ‘mation on mote specific topics, NARROWING SUBJECTS TO TOPICS (Clustering (28-5) and asking the journalist's ‘questions (22-6) can also help narrow subjects to topies. For example, the broad subject “Islam can be the center point ofa cluster, and students ‘an write related topic ideas such a “theology of| Islam.” "Western attitudes toward Muslims and Tslatn” and "women in Islam” in branches radi ing from the center. “Islam” can also be rowed by asking such questions as "Who are ma- jor figures in Islan,” "Whar do Muslims Ielieve?," "How are Muslims and Islam viewed in the United Stes?” "Where is Islam practiced?,” find "How ane Why are women and men treated diferent in lami tradition?” ‘Other good subject areas that give students practice in narrowing topics are movies, cars, felevision programs, and academic Belds (lor ex ample, sociolesy,geologs)RESOURCES AND IDEAS Guiher-ulf, Susan, “Iavolvement in a Current Problem as a Basis for Writing” Teaching English in the Two-Year Collge (7 (1990) 187-88, Guiher Hull describes how students used a range of essay formats, made a cause andseffeet oral presentation, an! wrote per suasive letters around the topiz of potion, ‘The sustained topic seemed (o make the writ= Ing meaningful forthe students Schreffler, Peter H."Where ll the Children Arve Above Average’ Garvison Keillr as a Model for Personal Narrative Assignments” College Composition and Communicator 40 (1989) 82-85, Schrffler discusses the delightful ex- perience personal narrative writing can be as sStdents debe into themselves as well as into the world around them, Seabury, Marcia Bundy. “The Abstraction Lad- der in Freshman Composition.’ College Cow: position and Communication 40 (1989): 189-92, Seabury has found that teaching S. | Hayskaws's abstraction ladder can benefit firstsear composition studentsin the think= Ing through and writing abour their topes Wallace, David. “From Intention 9 Tests Artiew- lating inikial Intentions for Writing” Researeh inthe Teaching of English 30 (1396): 182-219, This essay explores the relationship becween the planning and composing stages of writ- ing. Wallace's study found chat students who were most able to articulate tei initial tentions fora writing task werealso most able to complete the task eecively. (On limiting subjects Coe, Richarl M. If Not to Narrow, Then Howe to Focus: Two Techniques for Fecasing.” College Composition and Communicator 32 (1981) 272-71. Coe describes wavs Io fel students 0 focus on a particular aspect ofa topic as an alternative (othe usual approach of narrow Ing a opie Tucker, Amy. Decoding ESL: Intemational St denis in the American College Classnorn Portsmouth, NH: Boynton, 1995. This book explores the larger sues of haw to read ane respond to ESL writers, and includes (partic. tlatly in Chapter 8) strategies for using rea ings as the prompts for writing assignments. ‘Assessing the writing situation Instrucior’s Annotated Edition can scale down broad subjects to specific subjects that are limited and manageable: Broad subjects Specific subjects Communication What are the advantages of online communica ‘on the Internet tion? How if at al, should the covernment regulate Internet content? How might the Internet contsbute to social and economic equality? Mrs. Mallard What changes does Mrs. Mallard undergo? in Kate Chopin's Why does Mrs. Mallard respond as she does to “The Story of an news of her husband's death? Hour” ‘What does the story's irory contribute to the character of Mrs, Malltd? Lincoln's ‘What was Lincoln's most significant eror as weaknesses: commander-in-chief of the Union army? as President Why did Lincoln delay emancipating the slaves? ‘Why did Lincoln have diffculties controling his cabinet? Federal aid to Which students should be entitle to federal aid? college students How adequate are the kinds of federal ad avail- able to college students? Why should the federal government aid college Students? AAs these examples illustrate, your questions should no: lend them selves to yes-or-no answers but should require further thinking. Here are some guidelines for posing questions: # Reread the assignment. Consider what 1 tells you about pur- pose, audience, sources, length, and deadline = Pursue your interests. If questions don't come easily, try freewriting or brainstorming (pp. 20-22) or use a tree diagram (pp. 34-35), = Ask as many questions as you can think of. ' Test the question that seems most interesting and appropriate by roughly sketching out the main ideas. Consider how many paragraphs or pages of specific facts, examples, and other de tails you would need to pin those ideas down. This thinking should give you at least a vague idea of how much work you'd have to do and how long the resulting paper might be. = Break a too-broad question down further, and repeat the pre- vious step. The Internet can also help you limit a general subject, On the Web, browse a directory such as BUBL LINK (bublac.uk). AS you pursue increasingly narrow categories, you may find a suitably lim- ited topic.Instructor's Annotated Edition Don't be discouraged if the perfect question does not come easily or early. You may find that you need to do some planning and writ- ing, exploring different facets of the general subject and pursuing, your specific interests, before you hit on the best question. And the question you select may require further narrowing or may sh subtly or even dramatically as you move through the writing process. E13 ASTRA A RE | Following are some general writing assignments, Use the given infor- ‘mation and your own interests to pose specific questions for three of these assignments. (You can do this exercise online at abfongman.com/ + tittebrown.) (1 Fra wing coe, conser how the Wed Wie We cul tert expaence of popular culture Length: Unee pages, Ded | _ Trerone went 2, Fora couse in rocoogy esearch and analyze the dynamics ofa pane grou a pepe. en unspeied. Denie fot =o | a, Fora witing couse, read and respond to an essay ina text you tre using, Lengty tive pages, Delve two weet. | 4. Fora goverent couse, consider possible rstntons on leg fore gin fe pages Deans ta west | 5. For a letter to the editor of the town newspaper, describe the tftects of irengation Of your zammuniy. Length: to pages, Deadline unppese, ‘ eaters haveing ended Think of something you've recent wrtten—perhaps an application Rey seaec eiee 0 Gr toprol ee So ce from beginning to end? In retrospect, was it appropriate for your writ ing situation? Hows fat all, might it have been modified? As the first step in developing a three- to four-page essay for the in- structor and the other students in your writing course, choose a sub- ject and narrow it. Use the guidelines in the previous section to come Lup with a question thats suitably interesting, appropriate, and specific. Who are my readers? Why will they reed my writing? What will they need from me? What do I want them to think or do afier they read my writing? Audience 9 RAT Pern Have students work in groups to find specific topics for the assignments in Exercise 1.3, and then share thet conclusions with the class, Stu- dents benefit om realizing the numerous and varied options ‘or narrowing a broad subject. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.3 Possible answers 1, How has direct distribution of popular music ‘on the Web tected consumers’ choices? 2, How doesslang help to bind members ofthe college cemmunity? 3. How doesX's theory about math anxiety ap ply tome? 4. How migat term limits affect the House of Representatives? 5. How has immigration affected food choices? rT ce SHARING PAST WRITING Sharing past work can help students connect the writing they are doing in your class to their broader experince as writers, a connection that helps ther to gain greater awareness oftheir own progress as writers. Have students bring. ina Piece of previous work and present it to their ‘group, describing the context in which that piece ‘was written, their purpose in writing it, what they Teamed from writing it, and how it ders from other hinds of writing they have done. Ask groups to report on the interesting or unexpected mo- ‘ments that occurred in the group presentations. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.4 Individual sponse, ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.5 Individual -esponse. Eemetr nue As part of te process of developing their top- ies for Exercise 15, have students verbally artieu- Jate their ideas in Small groups and receive sug- _zesions for further development and focus.10 Assessing the writing situation [AUDIENCE INVENTORY Ask sere t chose a posite topic for an essay a a isthe Kinds of interested in the tone. Te Wish they may empl the "Questions About Au- lence om page II (n theory, helt ght be ‘ery long In practice stdlents soon run 04 of ‘das, bet not uni they have hegen to visualize the audience fr thir exeays) To extend the exer clue atk stents what part of the penal aud fence they would most lie to adie or what Kinds of poople wold be most inerested i the topi. Them ak them tole ether (1) what there ‘trict audience probably already knows about ‘he topic and shat t needs to knew oF 2) what itsattudes are and what Kids of arguments will be needed to change them, See AUDIENCE INVENTORY Ask students to compare the lists they devel: oped for the audience inventory and suggest changes, additions, or deletions Gomer AUDIENCE ASSESSMENT tribute to sour class an article from a spe ciabinterest magazine, a newspaper feature 0 ‘editorial, an article from the Intertet, or another brief essay whose appeal toa particular audience students will be able to recognize fairly easily Ask students to read the essay ané then to work together to identify the charaetersties and att tudes of the intended audience as they think the author viewed it ak them also 16 identify the tone of the essay and to decide whether or not it {s appropriate to the subject, the intended aul ‘ence, and the publication In whic! the essay’ ap- peated, Tel thom to be ready to point out what evidence in the essay they used tently the fn- tended audience and the tone. Ratver than bring articles to cass yourself, ask students either indi- vidlually or as teams to bring ina varoly of essays (writings aimed at particular atliences. Some targot audiences you might pick -e consumers “sports fans, parents, businesspeople patients, and health-care workers Instrucior’s Annotated Edition These questions are central to any writing project, and they will crop up again and again, Except in writing meant only for yourself, you are always trying to communicate with readers—something about a particular subject, for a particular purpose. ‘Your audience will often be specified or implied in a writing as- signment, When you write an editorial for the student newspay your audience consists of fellow students. When you write a report ‘on a physics experiment, your audience consists of your physics in- structor and perhaps other physicists or vou" classmates. (See pp. 129-30 for more on audience in academic writing.) Whatever the audience, considering its needs and expectations can help you form or focus a question about your subject, gather answers to the ques- tion, and ultimately decide what to say and how to say it, Hil koowing what readers need ‘sa reader yourself, you know what readers need * Context: a link between what they read and their own knowl- edge and experiences, lity: an understanding of the writer's purpose and how itis being achieved. = Information: the specific facts, examples, and other details that make the subject clear, concrete, interesting, and convincing. = Respeet: a sense that the writer respects their values and be- liefs, their background, and their intelligen ® Voice: a sense that the writer is a real person. * Clarity and correctness: writing free of tnnecessary stumbling blocks and mistakes. For much academic and public writing, readers have definite needs and expectations. Thus Chapter 6 discusses academic writing in general, Chapters 49-53 discuss writing in various disciplines, and Chapter 55 discusses public writing. Even in these areas, you must make many choices based on audience. In other areas where the conventions of structure and presentation are vaguer, the choices are even more numerous. The box opposite contains ques- tions that can help you define and make these choices, [B® Pitching your writing to your audience Your sense of your audience will influence three key elements of what you writ = The specific information you use to gain and keep the atten- in of readers and to guide them to accept your conclusions. This information may consist of concrete cetails, facts, examples,Questions about audience Identity and expectations = Who are my readers? = What are my readers’ expectations for the kind of writing I'm do- ing? Do readers expect features such as a particular organization and, format, distinctive kinds of evidence, or a certain style of document- ing sources? = What do | want readers to know or do after reading my work? How should I make that clear to them? "= What is my relationship to my reaclers? How formal or informal will they expect me to be? What role and tone should | assume? Characteristics, knowledge, and attitudes = What characteristics of readers are relevant for my subject and purpose? For instance: ‘Age and sex Occupation: students, professional colleagues, etc Social or economic role: subject-matter experts, voters, car buyers, potential employers, ete Economic or educational background Fthnie harkgersinel Political, religious, or moral beliefs and values Hobbies or activities = How will the characteristics of readers influence their attitudes ‘toward my subjecc? What do readers already know and not know about my subject? How much do I have to tell thern? How should | handle any specialized terms? Will readers know them? Ifnet, should I define them or avoid them? What Ideas, aruments, or information might surprise, excite, or offend readers? How should | handle these points? = What misconceptions might readers have of my subject and/or ‘my approach to it? How can | dispel these misconceptions? Uses and format = What will readers do with my writing? Should | expect them to read every word from the top, to scan for information, to look for conclusions? Can |help by providing a summary, headings, illstra- tions, or other aids’ (See pp. 111-26 on document design) You can download these questions from abfongman.com/fitebrown. Save them in a fle of :heir own, duplicate the file for each writing pro- ject, and insert appropriate answers between the questions. Print your answers for reference és you develop your paper. Audience u UNCC ee) Geeta COLLABORATIVE POSTINGS Have your students work together to compose 8 posting for an Intemet newsgroup in which they practice pitching their writing to a nonse- cific audience In their postings they should try {o include sufficient (or even extra} information, to assume the role of an equal in the conversa- tion they are entering, and to vite in a. level2 Assessing the writing situation RESOURCES AND IDEAS Bacon, Nora, “Building = Swan's Nest for In- ‘struction in Rhetorie.” Colle Composition sand Communication S14 Q2000): 589-60. [Bacon shows how cammaniey based siting assignments help studonts understand how purpose and style most changeas a result of hetorical conten. (Ong, Walter J, S.J. “The Writers Audience Is Al ‘ways a Fltin,” PMLA 90 (1975) 9-21. Ong. fzues that writers must construc audiences i ‘hei imaginations asan essential par of the act of soricng and that readers mu play the role defined for them by the writer's tof imagina tion, OF course, students are probably aware that in many writing circumstances, such 95 swrting fora profesor oF a managor at work, the audiences real not Fictional t's worth dis cussing how a writers task car be shaped by hisorher knowledge of actual riders. Vandenberg, Peter. Pick Up Ths Cross and Fol- Tow: (responsibilty and the Teaching of "Writing for Audience.” Composition Stes Freslnan English News 20 (Fall 1982}: 84-97, Vandenberg reviews debates over the chang- Ing concep of audience and papoints some fof the contradictions that stulents face as, they try to write for particular audiences, ree I lave students work in groups ertique and revise one oftheir paragraphlength responses to Exercise 1.6. In networked classrooms, students ‘can “publish” the revised paragraphs forthe class. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.6 Possible answers 1. For elementary school students: physical of fects in simple terms; statisies in simple figures; dfficuky of quiting once addicted; Importance of resisting peer pressure Role: combined teacher ane parent. Tone: ‘warm, slighty admonitory. For adult smolers: graphic depiction of physical effects; detailed staisies influence ‘0 childien effect on smokers appearance, ‘dor, breath. ‘Rok: combined friend and ecturer. Tone Instructor's Annotated Edition or other evidence that makes your ideas clear, supports your as- sertions, and suits your readers’ background, biases, and spe- cial interests. = The role you choose to play in relation to your readers, De- pending on your purpose and your attitude toward your topic, ‘you will want readers to perceive you in acertain way. The pos- sible roles are many and varied—for instance, scholar, story= teller, lecturer, guide, reporter, advocate, nspirer, = The tone you use. Tone in writing is like tone of voice in speak- Ing: words and sentence structures on the page convey some of the same information as pitch and volume in the voice. De- pending on your writing situation and what you think your readers will expect and respond to, your tone may be formal or informal. The attitude you convey may be serious or light, forceful or calm, irritated or cheerful. Even when you're writing on the same subject, your informa- tion, role, and tone may change substantially for different audiences. Both memes below were written by a student who worked parttime in a small company and wanted to get the company to conserve pa- per. But the two memos address different readers eaerees emma Ever notice how much paper collects in your lye esl hand trash bake every day? We meat often be Gackt recyeled with Ite efor | promise Bascal Yon need todo i sat bag or box near your fol heey Me dapeat wastrel RT ben, space Is cramped in these little cubicles. But Tone:informa, personal ‘thats eile More crowding when the ears (om me Wey seach its To management In my four months here, have observed that all nfrmaton spect of us throw out baskets of potentially recyclabe _fesers ew sfcampany paper every day. Considering the drain on our Sasol: lees 9 forest resources and the pressure on landfils femotcon that paper causes, we could make a ValUabe pale serous though contribution to the environmental movement feponile emionee by helping to recycle the paper we we, Atte Je compary where | worked before, employees Tepe fomalseous separate clean wastepaper from other trash at {oestrestutes vol their desks. The maintenance staf collate trash conten, no you in two receptacles, and the trash hauler (the “omations) same one we use here) makes separate pickups {ido not know what the hauler charges for han- dling recyclable material ‘Typically for business writing, the information grows more specific and the tone more formal as the rank and number of readers rise.Instructor's Annotated Edition If you are writing online—for instance, to an Internet news- group—you may not know enough about your audience to pitch ‘your writing (o particular expectations and needs. Consider, then, providing more information than you otherwise might, assuming the role of an equal ‘perhaps a colleague), and using @ level tone (neither hostile nor chummy, neither very formal nor very informal). EXERCISE 1.6 Considering audience Choose one of the following subjects, and, for each audience speci- | fied, ask the questions on page 11. Decide on four points you would make, the role you would assume, and the tone you would adopt for, | each audience. Then write a paragraph for each based on your deci- sions. (You can do this exercise online at ablangman.com/ltlebrown.) 1. The effects of smoking: for elementary school students and for | adult smokers 2. Your opposition to a proposed law requiring adult bicyclists to ‘wear helmets: for cyclists who oppose the law and for people who favorit | 3. Why your neignbors should remove the wrecked truck from their front yard: for your neighbors and for your town zoning board i How did audience figure in 2 piece of writ {your choice of infomation, your role, and your tone? At vihat point in ‘the writing process did you find it most productive to consider your | Wwe your readers? How did your arenes af hem inuence | | readers conscouse | | Use the questions cn page 11 to determine as much as you can about | the probable tends youre snproges oe Becele 3). What | doef your anabis revel about the specie information your readers reel? What cdo you want to esure, end whet tone wil bet con | vey your etude tonard you tpt eae When you write, your purpase is your chief reason for commu nicating something about a topic to a particular audience. Purpose thus links both the specific situation in which you are working and the goal you hope to achieve. It is your answer to a potential reader's question, “So what?" Purpose B 2. For cyclists who also oppose the law status fof law: reasons for opposition; need For ae= om; suaprested actions Role: peer, motivator. Tone: informal urgent For prople who favor the low: acknowl ‘edgment of pro-law postion; disadvantages ‘of helmas; lek of proven need; infringe ment of vests rights. Role: Fellow citizen. Tone: informative reasonable, appealing to shared vallcs 3. For your neighbors: feelings. of neighber hood residents: dangers to children and pes; lowered property values; threat of pet {om to ening board Role: peer. Tone: direct, «bit angry. Fr the zoning board violation of zoning regulations; length of time the erecked truck has been present; number of unsuc- cessful appeals to neighbors; dangers to children and pets Role: plaintiff Tone: serious, reasonable ANSWERS: EKERCISE 1.7 Individual response. Smee Students can often experience difficulty in ‘identifying the implied readers of their own work, Have students work in small groups to compare their responses to Exercise 18, to help fone another identify the probable readers of their essays-insprogress, and to note places in each es say where toc much oF t00 litle information is supplied ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1 Individual response. IDENTIFYING PURPOSE Use paragraphs drawn from magazine arti= les, essays ina reader, or student papers as the basis for class discussion of the purposes of wnit- ing. You may ask students ta work individually ‘or in groups v9 compare the aims of individual paragraphs with the overall purpose of the essay from which they are taken and to decide what role the paragraphs play within the essay,“ Assessing the wing situation RESOURCES AND IDEAS Ede, Lisa, and Andrea Lunsford. “Audience Ad- ‘dressedAudionce Invoked: The Role of Audi- ence in Composition Theory ard Pedagogy.” College Composition and Conmtaricetion 38 (1984): 155-71. The authors suggest a negoti- ated balance between the writers desires and the audience’ needs, See also their “Repre- senting Audience: ‘Successful’ Discourse and Disciplinary Critique” in Collewe Composition anid Communication 47 (1996). 67-7 ‘Kirsch, Gots, and Duane H. Roen. 4 Sense af Au ence in’ Written Commattcaton, Newbury Park: Sage, 1990, ixtoen inter sciplinary es- says on atdience treat the subject from a ‘number of extcal perspectives. Park, Douglas B. “Analyzing Audiences.” College Composition and Commuricaton 37 (1986): 478-88. Understanding the social context of writing act helps students defite their aux f. Mary Jo. "Rereading ‘Involed! and ‘Ad- dressed’ Readers Through a Sosial Lens: To- wards a Recognition of Multiple: Audiences Journal of Advarced Composition 16 (1996) 407-24, Ref revows wi tudionce has boon evoked by composition hearists and examines. ways that writing teachers and students can take noltiple aude lence perspectives into account. ‘Trimbur, John, *“Composion and the Cireula- tion of Writing” Collge Composition and Communication 52 (December 2000), 188- 219. Trimbur suggests that tezchers should enrich composition instruction by alerting students othe effects broadereirculation of students work would have of tie manner of its composiion, Wells, Susan. “Rogue Cops and Health Care: What Do We Want from Public Writing?" Cal. lege Composition end Commanication 47 (1996): 325-41. Wells explores the problems of addressing a "general public’ audience in student assignments, xy, RJ. "Audience Awareness: Methods and Madness.” Freshax English News 182 1990}: 20, Willey found that hen shetori- cal, informational, and socal perspectives on ‘audience awareness were consdered in the ‘composition classroom, the soci perspective ‘was the most productive hocaus of is trans- sctional nacre Instructor's Annotated Edition RSE Se The general purposes for writing = To entertain readers * To express your felings or ideas * To explain something to readers (exposition) * To persuade readers to accept ar act on your opinion (argument) [Wl Defining a general purpose Your purpose may fall into one of four general categories: en- tertainment, self-expression, explanation, or persuasion. These pur- poses may overlap in a single piece of writing, but usually one predominates. And the dominant purpose wil influence your par~ ticular slant on your topic, the supporting details you choose, even the words you use. In college or public writing, by far the most common purposes are explanation and persuasion: = Writing that is mainly explanatory is often called exposition (from a Latin word meaning "to explain orset forth”). Using ex- amples, facts, and other evidence, you present an idea about your subject so that readers understand it as you do. Almost any subject is suitable for exposition: how to pitch a knuckle- ball, why you want to major in business, the implications of a new discovery in computer science, the interpretation of a short story, the causes of an economic shump. Exposition is the ind of writing encountered most often in newspapers, mage zines, and textbooks. = Writing that is primarily persuasive is often called argument. Using examples, facts, and other evidence, you support your po- sition on a debatable subject so that readers will at least con- sider your view and perhaps agree with it or act om it. A newspe- per editorial favoring city council reform a business proposal for a new personnel policy, a student paper recommending more required courses or defending a theory about human psy- chological development—all these are arguments. (Chapters 9-11 discuss argument in some detail and provide examples.) [® Defining a specific purpose Purpose can be conceived more specifically, 10, in a way that in- corporates your particular subject and the outceme you intend—what you want readers to do or think as a result of reading your writing Here are some examples of specific purposes: To explain how Annie Dillard's “Total Eclipse” builds to its climax so that readers appreciate the author's skillInstructor's Annotated E ‘To explain the methods and results of an engineering experiment so that readers understand and accept your conclusions ‘To explain why the county has been unable to attract new businesses so that readers better understand the local economic slump To persuade reade's to support the college administration's plan for more required courses To argue against additional regulation of health-maintenance argani- zations so that reacers perceive the disadvantages for themselves ‘To argue for additional gun-control laws so that readers agree on thelr necessity Often, a writing assignment will specify or imply both a general and a specific purpose. Say, for instance, that a psychology teacher assigns a review of the research on infants’ perception of color. You know that the purpose is generally to explain, more specifically to summarize and analyze the established findings on the subject. You want readers to come away understanding the eurrent state of the investigation into the subject. In addition, you want your instructor to see that you can competently read others’ work and write about it, (See p. 130 for more on purpose in academic writing.) With any writing assignment, try to define your specific pur pose as soon as you have formed a question about your subject. Don't worry, though, if you feel uncertain of your purpose at the start. Sometimes you may not discover your purpose until you begin drafting, or you may find that your initial sense of purpose changes as you move through the writing process EXERCISE 1.9. Finding purpose in assignments ues | For each of your questions from Exercise 1.3 (p. 9), suggest a likely {general purpose (entertainment, self-expression, explanation, persua- | Sion) and try to define 2 specific purpose as well. Make audience part ‘of your suggestiors: What would you want readers to do or think in ‘each case? (If you completed Exercise 1.3 online, you can add these suggestions to that fl.) en | Look over two or three things you've written in the past year oF so, | What was your specific purpose in each one? How did the purpose in- | fluence your writing? Did you achieve your purpose? EXERCISE 1.17 Defining a purpose foryour essay For your essay-in-progress, use your thinking so far about topic (Exer- cise 1.5, p. 9) anc audience (Exercise 1.8, p. 13) to define a general and specific purpose for your writing. Purpose 15 Fences Give your students a series of Web pages to look at and ark them to evaluate what they find ‘on each page in terms of purpose, Geet ec Askestuderts 19 develop thelr responses to Ex reise Lin groups, paying particular attention to places where the purposes of piven topie could differ. This discussion will help students to explore ways in which a topic might lend itself to various purpones. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.9 Possible answers 1. How hasdiect distribution of popular music ‘on the wb affected constoners' choices? Ex- plain how the ability to connect directly ‘vith musicians on the Web results in mare rmusic choices for consumers. Introduce readers a bensfit ofthe Web. 2. How does slang help to bind members of the college exmmunity? Explain how the com munitystnique slang contributes toa sense of belorging. Show readers the value of their slang, 3. How does X' theory about maih anciety ap- ply to me? Explain the way X's theory = ects your own experience. Demonstrate to readers the truth ofthe theory 4. How might term lis affect the House of Represewatves? Argue sgainst term limits for logidators. Lead readers to agree that {erm lirits are unnecessary and potentially harmful 5, How ha: immigration affected food choices? Explain how immigrants have vastly in- creased the variety of foods available. Help, readers appreciate this benefit of immigra- ANSWERS: EXERCISE 1.10 Individual response ANSWER: EXERCISE 1.11 Individa response