“Gunpowder” Land-based Empires-A

Comparison (1500-1750)
Ottoman Safavid Mughal Qing Russian

Emerged after the Rose in the 1500s: Under Reorganized the Ivan IV issued a reform
Government Mongols early 1300s Babur the Great, society into eight regarding to the ridding
/Military  defeated the under the his armies military units of Russian Boyars, he
Seljuks leadership of invaded Muslim called banners, killed several of them and
(How they
Sail-al-Din controlled India each with its own others he forced to
built and
Relied on a from Afghanistan color flag separate areas that limited
managed
their military elite Imams and (Later, he was a their local connections.
empires) Mullahs terrible leader and Centralized rule (Result: Tsars would
Military controlled on some accounts through a become the true autocrats
consisted of education a drunkard. When bureaucracy without the interference
mainly efforts, spread he died, he put the of the aristocracy)
Janissaries who the Shia empire in peril) Building schools
were men taken ideology and Unlike France, Russian
from non-Muslim found their Similar to the Chinese Tsars could arbitrarily
societies as a way into the Ottomans, the Dictionary withdraw power from the
“tax” and forced bureaucracy Mughals relied on (42,000 nobility.
into servitude as (When the a military elite characters) (Result: The power to the
soldiers for a Shahs became armed with Tsars would be truly
designated period weak, the firearms Buddhist, Muslim absolute as the Russian
of time religious leaders along nobility would be
(Note: it wasn’t leadership rose Strong centralized with Mongol subservient to the state
exactly slavery and took government aristocrats were and lose their traditional
since many control of the through a provided with power to govern local
Janissaries found empire) bureaucracy with positions in the affairs)
their ways into Akbar the Great government
higher positions Under Shah Under Peter the Great,
in the Ottoman Abbas, he Rule was divided In order to gain there was the
bureaucracy allied him with along religious acceptance and reorganization of taxation
overtime) the Europeans lines political and bureaucracy:
in order to legitimization (Ex: Bureaucracy was run
Devshirme strengthen his Akbar attempted from the Chinese, by the boyars, Peter
Originated in the army defend to bridge this the Manchus: replaced them, and
late fourteenth his borders divide through a 1) Instituted the created the Table of
century, through policy of civil service Ranks to find merit based
this system, Under Shah toleration; he Confucian employees)
Christian boys Abbas, similar married Hindu bureaucracy (Ex 2: Reformed the tax
who were to the princesses but 2) Adoption of system, instead of having
subjects of the recruitments of didn’t require the Chinese title to pay per household in
 empire were Janissaries in them to convert Son of Heaven which peasants would
recruited by force the Ottoman avoid by registering
to serve in the empire Hindus were several families under a
Ottoman empire provided with single household. Peter
Relied on a positions in issued a tax per person
Boys 8 to 20 military elite government basis)
were taken each
year from At the age of 13, Relocated the capital
conquered he was forced from Moscow to a new
Christian lands in upon the throne location in the Baltic Sea
Europe. and faced threats (Window on the West:
from Mughal St. Petersburg)
After converting enemies. He (Intention: break the hold
to Islam, they defeated them of Old Russian cultural
were taught easily. and religious traditions
various skills in on the government)
politics, the arts,
and the military. Created a new postal
system to facilitate trade
Others were and communication
groomed to
become Didn’t have an effective
administrators of legislative body (no such
newly conquered body existed)
territories, some
were scribes, tax Until Peter the Great,
collectors, and who created a Senate, a
even diplomats council to advise
government officials
Viziers would when Peter was away
later emerge
Peter the Great created
provinces with provincial
officers that received a
salary; this replaced the
system of local officials
feeding off the land
(getting money through
bribes, fees, and taxes)

Regional Shah Abbas “The divine faith” Rebellion of the The imposal of European
Resistance/ governors sought killed many of proclaimed the Three Feudatories culture onto the nobility
Rivalries  to control their his sons as he emperor as the (1673-1681) or Boyars
territory was convinced leader of all faiths The Manchu (Result: Social tensions,
independently that they were in the empire rulers had that were already present,
plotting (Result: This initially assigned increased between the
Corruption in the against him, incited anger of three Han nobility and the serfs as
bureaucracy as his weak conservative Chinese rulers to this created a wide
expansion and grandon Abbas Muslim teachers, govern south cultural difference
conquest took II took the religious tension China since the between them)
their toll on the throne emerged as a Manchu didn’t
Ottomans (Result: The central problem have the
Ottomans and again for the resources to rule
The empire will Mughals empire) directly over vast
decline as picked at the distances,
Western Europe Safavid Hindu temples difficult terrains,
grows in strength territory...even were destroyed and distant
economically and tually Isfahan communities. The
militarily-particul will be taken Akbar’s policy of Han ‘feudatories’
arly in terms of by the toleration was were provided
sea power Afghani) abandoned as direct control
Mughal leaders over the fiefdoms.
Lasted longer Similar to the were convinced By 1672, emperor
than the Mughals Ottomans and by the Kangxi perceived
and Safavids; Mughals, the conservatives them as a threat
came to an end empire will and offered them
following World decline as As the the option to
War I with the Western bureaucracy retire. Instead the
formation of Europe grows becomes corrupt, generals began a
modern-day in strength many peasants rebellion to
Turkey economically and urban overthrow the
and workers begin to Qing and restore
Janisarries tried militarily-parti revolt and protest the Ming. It took
to mount coups cularly in their living eight years for
against the terms of sea conditions. Kangxi’s army to
Sultans (tension power defeat stifle the
between the Similar to the rebellion.
military elite and Tension Ottomans and
absolutist rulers) between the Safavids, the Zunghar Mongols
military elite Mughals will
Battle of Lepanto and absolutist decline as Boxer Rebellion
Spaniards/Veneti rulers Western Europe (Empress Cixi)
ans strengthens itself
economically and White Lotus
“Sickman of militarily-particul Rebellion
Europe” arly in terms of (government had
sea power to kill of around
Grew less 100,000 people)
 tolerant of Tamail Kings
non-Muslims British/French
(Slavery Reversal of
continued into religious
the twentieth toleration
century)

Were Turkic Turkish group; The Mughals The Manchus Peter the Great instituted
Religion/Cul nomadic people, Shiite Muslims were another were a tribes numerous reforms
tural comprised of Turkish group of descended from regarding to remodelling
aspects  aggressive and Imams and people, claimed to the Jurchen Jin of Russia after the
warlike people Mullahs be a descent from who had ruled western world in order to
who raided controlled the Mongols north China since be successful after the
agricultural education the Song dynasty stepback imposed by
people efforts, spread Empire was Mongol reign.
the Shia comprised mainly Due to the fact
Constantinople ideology of Hindus since that the Manchus Borrowed the Mongol
became Istanbul, they unified the were a minority postal system to facilitate
central capital of Under Shah Indian group ruling an communication across
the empire, Abbas, he built subcontinent ethnic majority, the empire.
Byzantine a magnificent they sought to
cathedrals were capital at Akbar invited bridge this gap by Peter relocated the capital
converted into Isfahan and Christian, Hindu, instituting from Moscow to a new
mosques turned it into a and Muslim Chinese practices location in the Baltic Sea.
center for scholars to such as the civil (Window on the West:
Istanbul became Persian arts, peaceful open service Confucian St. Petersburg)
a hub of trade, and debates about the bureaucracy and Its architecture was
east/west trade culture merits of their the emperors European
overland as religion adopted the
coffee houses Shah Abbas Chinese title Son St. Basil’s Cathedral, an
developed where was tolerant of Created his own of Heaven. architectural symbol of
a developing non-Muslims syncretic religion 1) Practiced the union of the state and
merchant and (Armenians) called “the divine Confucian rituals church
artisans class and even built faith” which drew to gain political (Built under Ivan IV
gathered to them their own on Islamic, legitimization after he pushed the
interact (These homes on the Hindu, and from the Chinese Mongols out of Kazan;
coffeehouses edge of his Zoroastrian 2) Each year they he told the soldiers that
continued; and capital mainly beliefs would plot the they were marching as
served as a because they first furrow of soldiers of Christ)
meeting place for ran his Taj Mahal and ground in front of
poets and economy and Shah Jahan the Temple of Enlightenment ideals
scholars from trade (Syncretism of Agriculture were not widespread until
across Asia Islam and Catherine the Great
where they Hinduism) Forced the became tsar in 1762
discussed about Chinese to forgo
Aristotle and Aurangzeb Ming style robes The Russian rulers tried
other Greek inserted European in favor of unsuccessfully to
philosophers influences into Manchu garments assimilate ethnic groups
along with India such as Ukrainians and
several works by Allowed Belarusians
Arabic scholars.) Both Shah Jahan Christian
(Ibn Khaldun) and Janaghir missionaries Under Catherine the
continued Akbar’s (Jesuits) Great, she set a precedent
Restoration of tolerance policy. for smallpox inoculations
some of the most Forced the
glorious Tensions between Chinese to adopt
buildings in the military elite the Manchu
Constantinople and the absolutist hairstyle which
(Ex: Saint rulers was to shave the
Sophia) front of their head
and braiding the
Turks became back into a queue
artistically
known for their Cao Xueqin ​The
poetry and rug Dream of the Red
making Chamber

Transition from The Journey to

Persian/Arabic to the West
Turkish occurred
in literary Emperor
exploits Qianlong had
imposed several
They were Sunni military
Muslims campaigns to the
When the West
Mamluck (Result:
Dynasty Annexation of
declined, Istanbul Xinjiang and
became a center raids into Tibet
of Islam along with the
imposal of the
Agricultural Dalai Lama)
villages were
burdened with Ming pottery
the upkeep
officers and Manchu
troops woodblock prints
 Tolerant of
Jews/Christians

Economies Government Under Shah Akbar removed Emperor Kangxi The Petrine Reform
regulated all Abbas, he the religious tax ended the Military reforms:
aspects of trade reduced taxes on non-Muslims restrictions with 1) Built an army by
and manufacture and didn’t tax trade being offering better pay
non- Previous system limited to certain2) Drafted peasants for
Similar to earlier Muslims of taxation with ports service as professional
Muslim societies, similar to the Zamindars who soldiers
they taxed Mughals under acted as landlords But later, 3) Created a navy by
non-Muslims that the reign of and collected Emperor importing western
absorbed into Akbar taxes from Qianlong would engineers and craftsmen
their empire peasants and sent proclaim to build shipyards
Shah Abbas a set quota to the Guangzhou as the 4) Invited experts to
Rulers forced had Armenians state (much of the only place in teach naval tactics to
people in run his revenue never which Europeans recruits
occupied areas to economy and made it to the could trade 5) Introduced modern
send monetary trade emperor) Economy was firearms and gunpowder
tribute as well as (Religiously focused more on brought success to
goods to the tolerant) Akbar reformed agriculture than Russian military
central bureaucracy by commerce; city of campaigns
government in requiring taxes to Guangzhou
Istanbul be paid in cash (Canton) in south Building of
rather than in kind China was the Infrastructure:
The Ottoman as Indian Ocean only location Army was useless
navy allowed pepper trade where trade with without roads and
traders to serve a increased Europe was communication (Peasants
middlemen, permitted were brought to work on
handling goods in Peasants were roads and other services)
both directions required to sell Foreigners were
(European styles their grain in only able to Expansion: Peter
and furnishings markets towns reside there defeated the Swedish
became popular and ports for cash during the trading army and captured the
in the empire) where oversight season Baltic sea
of taxation would (He also expanded to the
Due to the be more regulated Trade was east to Siberia and
control over the handled by the reached the Bering Strait
North African Zamindars as tax government with across from Alaska
coast, the collecting around ten
Ottoman sultan landlords Guangzhou Honey/Caviar
controlled the decreased businesses called Traded Furs/Forest
trade in gold and ‘Co Hong’ who products
slaves. British East India were permitted to
company and trade with
The Ottomans Dutch VOC foreigners under
had distinctive encourage government
rugs, pottery, and Mughal leader to regulation.
textiles supplement
pepper exports On the Western
Levied taxes on with cotton side there was the
peasants and sent textiles as the British East India
local officials and price of spices company and the
tax collectors eventually Dutch East India
declined company.
Trade agreements (Cotton textiles (Government
with France; became popular in regulated as well)
would ultimately Europe)
diminish their The First Opium
profits Aurangzeb war and the
promoted the Treaty of Nanjing
Problems from trade of Indian (1842)
the neighboring textiles Result:
Safavid empire Canton system
led to a reduction was abolished
in silk production and the Chinese
opened up five
ports to foreign
trade
(Guangzhou/Shan
ghai)

Population
increase due to
new crops from
the new world
such as maize,
sweet potatoes,
and peanuts and
large farmland
Result:
Eventually, as the
population
tripled, resources
were outpaced
(The average land
 owned by the
average family
shrank as growth
was concentrated
in the countryside
and not in cities
such as Europe)

Instituted a tax on
traded goods

The British
weren’t satisfied
with the
limitations and
asked for more
trading rights in
1793
Qianlong wrote a
letter to King
George III stating
that there wasn’t
any need for
British
manufactured
goods

Four Classes Military Elite Similar to the Despite the fact Czar had absolute
Social Ottomans, the that they authority
Structure “Men of pen” Women were Mughals had a instituted the civil
including (Lawyers/Judges) still veiled and religious tax on service Confucian Legal differences
Gender restricted to non-Muslims untilbureaucracy, the between the classes,
Structure  “Men of Sword” their Akbar removed it Manchus especially between the
(Warriors) movements, as maintained the serfs and nobles
Was the was traditional Akbar prohibited highest position
aristocracy as in the region, Sati, encouraged a in the government In addition, as Peter the
they conquered they had widow to remarry for themselves. Great enforced European
lands, enslaved access to rights and tried to customs upon the
people, and provided by prohibit them to Maintained their nobility, the tension
began a feudal Islamic law for jump onto the cultural integrity between the two classes
system of inheritance, funeral pyres of by banning increased
control; Sultans and in extreme their husbands marriage between
based their cases, divorce. and setup special them and the Women had few legal
empires on market days for Chinese. rights
 constant warfare Were barely women secluded
and expansion as mentioned in by purdah The Hundred Not much was seen in the
they spent their local Safavid (Unfortunately, Days of Reform improvement of the lower
money lavishly histories after he died, was led by class; many peasants sank
and had huge many of his emperor Guangxu deeper into serfdom as a
harems Didn’t have reforms and his and his supporters result of increased
much of a religion died with in the aftermath taxation and forced labor
“Men of political him) of China’s defeat to build shipyards and
Negotiation” influence by Japan roads
(merchants, tax Later, as the
collects, traders, status of women Women Under Catherine the
and store owners) at court increased,continued to have Great, girls could attend
the status of a lower status school
“Men of ordinary women than men; they
Husbandry” decreased weren’t permitted
(Farmers/Herders to engage in
) Sati returned; formal education,
Millets: widows were divorce was
non-Muslims prohibited to illegal, and
Within these remarry, forced widows were
millets they were child marriages encouraged not to
organized into increased, births remarry or
quarters or of female children commit suicide
ghettos in a became a burden
town/city, the for society Traditional foot
people had their binding still
own leaders, Military elite determined a
were responsible woman’s social
for their own status
education, and
certain legal
matters

Harems

Parts of Saudi Modern-day Much of All of China Siberia

Location of Arabia, Southern India and Iran present-day India, Mongolia
Entire Europe, Pakistan, and Taiwan After Ivan III (The Great)
Empire  Southeast Asia, All of Perisa Afghanistan Tibet married the niece of the
and Northern and most of last emperor of the
Include any
colonies
Africa Iraq (Ismail a Created tributary Byzantine Empire, he
sufi and later system with claimed continuity with
Modern-day Shah was Vietnam, Verma, both imperial Rome and
Turkey and the stopped in the Korea the Byzantine Empire.
Balkan areas of Battle of 1) Moscow was
Europe Chaldiran; proclaimed as the “Third
Shi’ism would Rome”
Under Mehmed only be 2) Constantinople as the
II, captured confined to the “Second Rome”
Constantinople in above 3) Exploited close ties
1453, ending the mentioned with the Orthodox church
Byzantine areas) which gave him
Empire legitimacy to expand with
his wars (drew more
land)

Later: Czars encouraged

peasants to migrate east
to Siberia in order to
strengthen their ties with
new frontier settlements
to the east
(They were provided with
incentives such as grain,
seeds, and farming tools;
many sought to create a
better and more
independent life)

Fur trappers would also

migrate to the eastern
frontier
 Maritime - Based Empires-A Comparison
(1500-1750)
Portuguese Spanish Dutch British French

Lacked Viceroy was the The Dutch West Jamestown: Patterns of

Government/ manpower and highest ranking India Company, First established settlement
Military  the ships official, powers chartered to by the Virginia resembled Spain
necessary for the was due to their bring the Dutch Company in 1606 and Portugal;
(How they built
enforcement and proximity over wars against committed to
and managed
their empires)
maintenance of a the land (were Spain to the In 1624, it was missionary work
large trade empire placed as act as New World taken over by the and they
administrators English crown emphasized the
Rampant and governors extraction of
corruption among for the Spanish Colonial South natural
government crown America was the resources-fur
officials most hierarchical
Audiencias or society in British Aggressive
royal courts were North America expansion to the
established to west and south,
monitor the Massachusetts: established a
Viceroys’ Political institution second fur-trading
decision and were derived from colony in
policies the terms of its Louisiana (1699)
charter
Spanish crown Elected governor Didn’t have an
tried to exert 1650 Lower effective
direct control legislature house legislative body
over its (Estates general
American Pennsylvania: didn’t meet once)
colonies through Proprietary colony
a supervisory for Quakers More absolute
office called the
Council of the
Indies.
 Treaty of Slave resistance As rivalries Jamestown: Fur Conflict between
Resistance/Ri Tordesillas and rebellions emerged trade with the nobility and
valries  would be brought between the Amerindian the king over
under control but Dutch, English, deer-hunters led governance.
several and French, the to: (Ex: Even with
individuals French and 1) Overhunting the absolute
would run away English 2) Amerindian monarchy under
and form groups eliminated dependence on king Louis XIV of
that would Dutch European goods France, power
defend competition 3) Ethnic was limited under
themselves for from the conflict between the will of the
years. Americas by Amerindians over nobility)
defeating the hunting grounds
Creoles begin Dutch in a series 4) Series of As Catholic
clamoring for of wars between unsuccessful missionaries such
independence 1652 and 1678 Amerindian as the Jesuits tried
from the Spanish attacks English to convert
crown as they colonies in the Amerindians, they
gained political early 1700s were met with
dominance indigenous
Not Jamestown: resistance
Stono rebellion in
1739 led to Expansion to the
repressive policies west and south led
on slaves to war with
throughout the England in which
Southern colonies the French
defeated in 1759,
In the latter half of were forced to
the seventeenth yield Canada to
century the British the English and to
crown tried to cede Louisiana to
control colonial Spain
trading and
manufacture Similar to Russia,
(smuggling) by had royal
passing a series of ambitions to
Navigation Acts expand
and by suspending
the elected
assemblies of the
New England
colonies.
 Result:
Colonists resisted
by overthrowing
the governor of
New York and
Massachusetts and
by removing the
Catholic proprietor
of Maryland, thus
setting the stage
for future
confrontational
politics

Eighteenth
century: Economic
growth and new
immigration into
the British
colonies was
accompanied by
increased
urbanization and a
more stratified
social structure.

Introduced Catholic Church Contacts with Enslaved Africans Committed to

Religion/Cultu sugarcane played an Afro-Eurasia and their missionary work
ral aspects  cultivation to essential role in and the descendants form
Brazil European Americas the majority Catholic
language, brought population and missionaries such
Under Prince culture, and dramatic developed their as the Jesuits,
Henry, there was Christian beliefs changes own culture attempted to
the institution of to the New (Result: Strain convert the
schools that World. on water The Pilgrims Amerindian
focused on At first, resources, desired to break population of
improving tools individuals from deforestation, away from the French America,
or innovations for various parts of soil depletion, Church of but turned their
navigation: Africa retained and more England, attention towards
their different concentrated established the French
Improved the cultural areas of Plymouth settlements as
Compass identities. pollution) company in 1620 they were met
based on the (In time, their with resistance
knowledge gained culture will blend The Puritans
 from the Chinese with European desired to reform Center of baroque
and Amerindian the Church of arts, fashion, and
Improved the languages and England, formed a literature
Astrolabe based beliefs to form chartered
on the Greeks distinct local joint-stock Enlightenment
cultures) company (the ideas flourished
Caravel Ships Massachusetts Bay
were a Introduced Company)
combination of sugarcane established the
lateen and cultivation to the Massachusetts Bay
triangular sails; West Indies colony in 1630
had cannons for shortly after
combat, was more 1500
durable and faster
than the three Ferdinand
masted ships of Magellan
England and the (was able to
Gallies used in establish links
Mediterranean between the
(had rectangular Americas and
sails) Asia across the
Pacific ocean)
Vasco Da Gama
Christopher
Columbus

Economies Portugal was able Spanish-born The Dutch Tobacco Plantation The extraction of
to expand trade dominated the traded economy with a natural
and cultural highest levels of Manhattan dispersed resources-furs
exchange between government, Island for the population and no
India and Europe church, and last island that city of any French expansion
businesses. produced significant size was driven by the
Profited from Creoles nutmeg. after the English Fur trade
sugar (Brazil) controlled crown took over in Results:
mining and Had taken 1624 1) Depletion of
agriculture. control of 1,000 (Jamestown) beaver and deer
miles of population
After 1713, sugar-producing Initially relied on 2) Increased
Spain’s new Brazilian coast English indentured Amerindian
Bourbon dynasty after the Dutch servants but then dependence on
undertook a West India turned to slaves European goods
series of Company, 3) Provided
administrative chartered to Fur trade with Amerindians with
reforms: bring the Dutch Amerindian deer firearms that
1) Expansion on wars against hunters increased the
intercolonial Spain to the violence of the
trade New world Southern part of wars that they
2) New the Carolinas that fought over the
commercial Over a was settled by hunting grounds
monopolies on fifteen-year planters from 4) When firearms
certain goods period the Dutch Barbados reached the horse
3) A stronger improved the functioned on frontier in the
navy efficiency of slave-labor early eighteenth
4) Better policing Brazilian sugar plantation that century, they
of the trade in industry and produced rice and increased the
contraband brought slaves indigo military power
goods to the from Elmina and Massachusetts: and hunting
Spanish colonies Luanda (also Due to their efficiency of the
seized from climate and soil, indigenous
Result: portugal) to they moved from peoples of the
1) Were Brazil and the their dependence American West
detrimental to the West Indies on fur, forest and slowed the
interests of products, and fish pace of European
grazing and When Portugal to being dependent settlement
agricultural reconquered the on commerce and
export Brazil in 1654, shipping French
economies, the Dutch (Diversified trade settlements were
which were brought the across the Atlantic dependent on fur
increasingly Brazilian system made Boston the -trade and were
linked with to the English largest city in small and grew
illegitimate trade and French British North slowly
with the English , Caribbean America in 1740)
French, and Islands After 1600 French
Dutch. New York: colonies were
2) Raised Served as Became a based on tobacco
opposition from middlemen in commercial cultivation
the Creole elites Western Europe shipping center as
whose only gain it was an outlet for
from these Dutch merchants the export of grain
reforms was their brought furs to the Caribbean
role as leaders of from trappers and Southern
militias that were and tobacco Europe
intended to from Virginia
counter the threat planters Pennsylvania:
of war with Became a wealthy
England grain exporting
3) Contributed to colony with
Amerindian Philadelphia as its
uprisings, major commercial
including that led city (In contrast to
by the Peruvian the South
Amerindian Carolina’s slave
leader Tupac agriculture,
Amaru II Pennsylvania’s
(The rebellion grain was
was suppressed produced by free
after more than family farmers,
two years and including a
cost the Spanish number of
colonies over Germans.
100,000 lives After 1600,
and enormous English colonies
amounts of were based on
property tobacco cultivation
damage)
In the British
Brazil underwent colonies, even
a period of though sugar was
economic dominant in the
expansion and economy, there
administrative were few sugar
reform in the plantations
1700s.
Only very wealthy
Economic man could afford
expansion fueled the capital to
by gold, invest in land,
diamonds, machinery, and
coffee, and slaves needed to
cotton establish a sugar
underwrote the plantation
pombal reforms,
paid for the Free black
importation of population from
nearly 2 million manumission and
African slaves, runaway slaves,
and underwrote a known in the
new wave of Caribbean as
British imports maroons

Profited from
Silver
 Peninsulares Elite: Small In Indonesia, the Jamestown: French
Social amount of Dutch were at English Crown settlements
Structure Creoles Spanish the top of the allowed
including immigrants and social hierarchy Run by a crown Amerindians in
Gender Mestizos large amount of appointed French America
Structure  American-born Middle: Chinese governor and The to enjoy a greater
Mulattos descendants middle men House of degree of
(Creoles) Burgesses, independence
Native American Lower: selected from than they could in
Indians Middle: Mixed Indigenous leaders and the Spanish,
Amerindian and people representatives of Portuguese, or
African Slaves European town meetings British colonies.
descent (Developed as a
(Mestizos) Democratic Legal social
representation at classes divided
Lower: Mixed the same time as into three estates
European and slavery was
African descent growing) Women had few
(Mulattos) legal rights
Slaves
Outcasts: Mixed
Amerindian and South America:
African descent Elite: Wealthy
(Castas) planter class

Middle: Farmers,
merchants,
cattlemen, artisans,
and fur-traders

Lower: Mixed
English-
Amerindian and
English-African
background and
slaves

Massachusetts:
Normal gender
balance, rapid
increase in
population, more
homogenous, and
less hierarchical
 than the southern
colonies

Portugal Brazil New York Ireland France

Location of Brazil Spain (Hudson River) Virginia Louisiana
Entire Empire  Louisiana South Carolina (Will be ceded to
New England Spain)
Include any
Massachusetts
colonies
New York
Pennsylvania
Philadelphia
Canada