Tacit knowledge
“Tacit” redirects here. For the software company, see ple, work with their mentors and learn craftsmanship not
Tacit Software. through language but by observation, imitation, and prac-
tice.
Tacit knowledge (as opposed to formal, codified or
explicit knowledge) is the kind of knowledge that is dif-
ficult to transfer to another person by means of writing
it down or verbalizing it. For example, that London is in
the United Kingdom is a piece of explicit knowledge that
can be written down, transmitted, and understood by a re-
cipient. However, the ability to speak a language, knead
dough, play a musical instrument, or design and use com-
plex equipment requires all sorts of knowledge that is not
always known explicitly, even by expert practitioners, and
which is difficult or impossible to explicitly transfer to
other users.
1 Definition
The term “tacit knowing” or “tacit knowledge” is at-
tributed to Michael Polanyi in 1958 in Personal Knowl-
edge. In his later work The Tacit Dimension he made the
assertion that “we can know more than we can tell.”[1]
He states not only that there is knowledge that cannot be
adequately articulated by verbal means, but also that all
knowledge is rooted in tacit knowledge.
Tacit knowledge can be defined as skills, ideas and ex-
periences that people have in their minds and are, there-
fore, difficult to access because it is often not codified and
may not necessarily be easily expressed (Chugh, 2015).[2]
With tacit knowledge, people are not often aware of the
knowledge they possess or how it can be valuable to oth-
ers. Effective transfer of tacit knowledge generally re-
quires extensive personal contact, regular interaction[3]
and trust. This kind of knowledge can only be re-
vealed through practice in a particular context and trans-
mitted through social networks.[4] To some extent it is
"captured" when the knowledge holder joins a network
or a community of practice.[3]
Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge
are: riding a bike, playing the piano, driving a car, hitting
a nail with a hammer.[5] and putting together pieces of a
complex jigsaw puzzle, interpreting a complex statistical
equation (Chugh, 2015).[2]
In the field of knowledge management, the concept of
tacit knowledge refers to a knowledge which can not be
fully codified. Therefore, an individual can acquire tacit
knowledge without language. Apprentices, for exam-
1
The key to acquiring tacit knowledge is experience.
Without some form of shared experience, it is ex-
tremely difficult for people to share each other’s thinking
processes[6]
Tacit knowledge has been described as "know-how" – as
opposed to “know-that” (facts). This distinction is usually
taken to date back to a paper by Gilbert Ryle, given to the
Aristotelian society in London in 1945.[7] In this paper
Ryle argues against the (intellectualist) position that all
knowledge is knowledge of propositions (“know-that”),
and the view that some knowledge can only be defined
as “know-how” has therefore, in some contexts, come
to be called “anti-intellectualist”. There are further dis-
tinctions: “know-why” (science), or “know-who” (net-
working). Tacit knowledge involves learning and skill but
not in a way that can be written down. On this account
knowing-how or embodied knowledge is characteristic of
the expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth with-
out explicitly reflecting on the principles or rules involved.
The expert works without having a theory of his or her
work; he or she just performs skillfully without deliber-
ation or focused attention[4] Embodied knowledge repre-
sents a learned capability of a human body’s nervous and
endocrine systems (Sensky 2002).[8]
Tacit knowledge vs. explicit knowledge:[9] Although it
is possible to distinguish conceptually between explicit
and tacit knowledge, they are not separate and discrete
in practice. The interaction between these two modes of
knowing is vital for the creation of new knowledge.[10]
2 Differences with explicit knowl-
edge
Tacit knowledge can be distinguished from explicit
knowledge[11] in three major areas:
• Codifiability and mechanism of transferring
knowledge: while explicit knowledge can be cod-
ified (an example of that is 'can you write it down'
or 'put it into words’ or 'draw a picture'), and eas-
ily transferred without the knowing subject, tacit
knowledge is intuitive and unarticulated knowledge
that cannot be communicated, understood or used
without the 'knowing subject'. Unlike the transfer of
2 4 EXAMPLES
explicit knowledge, the transfer of tacit knowledge
requires close interaction and the buildup of shared
understanding and trust among them.
• Main methods for the acquisition and accumula-
tion: Explicit knowledge can be generated through
logical deduction and acquired through practical ex-
perience in the relevant context. In contrast, tacit
knowledge can only be acquired through practical
experience in the relevant context.
• Potential of aggregation and modes of appropri-
ation: Explicit knowledge can be aggregated at a
single location, stored in objective forms and ap-
propriated without the participation of the know-
ing subject. Tacit knowledge in contrast, is personal
contextual. It is distributive, and cannot easily be
aggregated. The realization of its full potential re-
quires the close involvement and cooperation of the
knowing subject.
The process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit
or specifiable knowledge is known as codification, ar-
ticulation, or specification. The tacit aspects of knowl-
edge are those that cannot be codified, but can only be
transmitted via training or gained through personal ex-
perience. There is a view against the distinction, where
it is believed that all propositional knowledge (knowl-
edge that) is ultimately reducible to practical knowledge
(knowledge how).[12]
3 Nonaka
In Ikujiro Nonaka's model of organizational knowledge
creation, he proposes that tacit knowledge can be con-
verted to explicit knowledge. In that model tacit knowl-
edge is presented variously as uncodifiable (“tacit aspects
of knowledge are those that cannot be codified”) and
codifiable (“transforming tacit knowledge into explicit
knowledge is known as codification”). This ambiguity is
common in the knowledge management literature.
Nonaka’s view may be contrasted with Polanyi’s origi-
nal view of “tacit knowing.” Polanyi believed that while
declarative knowledge may be needed for acquiring skills,
it is unnecessary for using those skills once the novice
becomes an expert. And indeed, it does seem to be
the case that, as Polanyi argued, when we acquire a
skill we acquire a corresponding understanding that de-
fies articulation[4]
4 Examples
• One of the most convincing examples of tacit
knowledge is facial recognition. We know a person’s
face, and can recognize it among a thousand, indeed
a million. Yet we usually cannot tell how we recog-
nize a face we know, so most of this cannot be put
into words. When you see a face, you are not con-
scious about your knowledge of the individual fea-
tures (eye, nose, mouth), but you see and recognize
the face as a whole[6]
• Another example of tacit knowledge is the notion of
language itself – it is not possible to learn a language
just by being taught the rules of grammar – a native
speaker picks it up at a young age, almost entirely
unaware of the formal grammar which they may be
taught later. Other examples are how to ride a bike,
how tight to make a bandage, or knowing whether a
senior surgeon feels an intern may be ready to learn
the intricacies of surgery; this can only be learned
through personal experimentation.
• Collins showed[13] that Western laboratories long
had difficulties in successfully replicating an experi-
ment (in this case, measuring the quality, Q, factors
of sapphire) which the team led by Vladimir Bragin-
sky at Moscow State University had been conducting
for twenty years. Western scientists became suspi-
cious of the Russian results and it was only when
Russian and Western scientists conducted the mea-
surements collaboratively that the trust was reestab-
lished. Collins argues that laboratory visits enhance
the possibility for the transfer of tacit knowledge.
• Another example is the Bessemer steel process –
Bessemer sold a patent for his advanced steelmaking
process and was sued by the purchasers who couldn't
get it to work. In the end Bessemer set up his own
steel company because he knew how to do it, even
though he could not convey it to his patent users.
Bessemer’s company became one of the largest in
the world and changed the face of steel making.[14]
• When Matsushita started developing its automatic
home bread-making machine in 1985, an early prob-
lem was how to mechanize the dough-kneading pro-
cess, a process that takes a master baker years of
practice to perfect. To learn this tacit knowledge, a
member of the software development team, Ikuko
Tanaka, decided to volunteer herself as an appren-
tice to the head baker of the Osaka International
Hotel, who was reputed to produce the area’s best
bread. After a period of imitation and practice,
one day she observed that the baker was not only
stretching, but also twisting the dough in a particular
fashion (“twisting stretch”), which turned out to be
his secret for making tasty bread. The Matsushita
home bakery team drew together eleven members
from completely different specializations and cul-
tures: product planning, mechanical engineering,
control systems, and software development. The
“twisting stretch” motion was finally materialized in
a prototype, after a year of iterative experimentation
by the engineers and team members working closely
 3

together, combining their explicit knowledge. For
example, the engineers added ribs to the inside of
the dough case in order to hold the dough better as it
is being churned. Another team member suggested
a method (later patented) to add yeast at a later stage
in the process, thereby preventing the yeast from
over-fermenting in high temperatures.[15]
[3] Goffin, K.; Koners, U. (2011). “Tacit Knowledge,
Lessons Learnt, and New Product Development”. Journal
of Product Innovation Management. 28 (2): 300–318.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-5885.2010.00798.x.
[4] Schmidt, F. L.; Hunter, J. E. (1993). “Tacit knowl-
edge, practical intelligence, general mental ability, and
job knowledge”. Current Directions in Psychological Sci-
ence. 2: 8–9. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770456.

[5] Engel, P. J. H. (2008). “Tacit knowledge and Visual

5 See also Expertise in Medical Diagnostic Reasoning: Implica-
tions for medical education”. Medical Teacher. 30 (7):
• Activity theory e184–e188. doi:10.1080/01421590802144260. PMID
18777417.
• Cognitive apprenticeship
[6] Lam, A. (2000). Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learn-
• Concept map ing and Societal Institutions: An Integrated Framework.
Organization Studies 21(3), 487–513.
• Consensus reality
[7] Ryle, G. (1945). Knowing How and Knowing That. Pa-
• Cultural studies pers from the Aristotelian Society, 1945-46.

• Decision making [8] Sensky, Tom (2002). “Knowledge Management”. Ad-

vances in Psychiatric Treatment. 8 (5): 387–395.
• Descriptive knowledge doi:10.1192/apt.8.5.387.

• Dispersed knowledge [9] Lam, A. (2000). Tacit Knowledge, Organizational Learn-

ing and Societal Institutions: An Integrated Framework.
• Hidden curriculum Organization Studies 21(3), 487–51.

• Intuition [10] Angioni, G., Fare, dire, sentire: l'identico e il diverso nelle
culture, Il Maestrale, 2011, 26–99
• Knowledge by acquaintance
[11] Polanyi, M, (1958) Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-
• Knowledge tagging Critical Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN
0-226-67288-3
• Logical consequence
[12] Hetherington, S, (2011) How to Know: A Practical-
• Phronesis ist Conception of Knowledge, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN
9780470658123.
• Procedural knowledge
[13] Collins, H.M. “Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sap-
• Situated knowledge phire” Social Studies of Science' pp. 71–85 31(1) 2001
• Text and conversation theory [14] J.E. Gordon, “The new science of strong materials”, Pen-
guin books.
• Threshold knowledge
[15] Nonaka, Ikujiro; Takeuchi, Hirotaka (1995), The knowl-
• Unsaid edge creating company: how Japanese companies create
the dynamics of innovation, New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, pp. 284, ISBN 978-0-19-509269-1.
6 References
[1] Polanyi, Michael (1966), The Tacit Dimension, University 7 Further reading
of Chicago Press: Chicago, 4.

[2] Chugh R. (2015). Do Australian Universities En-

courage Tacit Knowledge Transfer?. In Proceed-
ings of the 7th International Joint Conference on
Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and
Knowledge Management, ISBN 978-989-758-158-8,
pages 128-135. DOI: 10.5220/0005585901280135 (
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286920454_
Do_Australian_Universities_Encourage_Tacit_
Knowledge_Transfer
• Angioni G., Doing, Thinking, Saying, in Sanga &
Ortalli (eds.), Nature Knowledge, Berghahm Books,
New York-Oxford 2004, 249–261.
• Bao, Y.; Zhao, S. (2004), “MICRO Contracting
for Tacit Knowledge – A Study of Contractual Ar-
rangements in International Technology Transfer”,
in Problems and Perspectives of Management, 2,
279–303.
4 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Brohm, R. “Bringing Polanyi onto the theatre stage: • Wenger E. Communities of practice: learning, mean-
a study on Polanyi applied to Knowledge Manage- ing and identity, Cambridge University Press, New
ment”, in: Proceedings of the ISMICK Conference, York 1998.
Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands,
1999, pp. 57–69. • Wilson, Timothy D. 2002. Strangers to ourselves:
discovering the adaptive unconscious. Harvard Uni-
• Brohm, R. (2005), Polycentric Order in Organi- versity Press, Cambridge MA. ISBN 0-674-01382-
zations, Erasmus University Rotterdam: Published 4
dissertation ERIM, hdl:1765/6911
• Castillo, J. (2002). “A Note on the Concept of
Tacit Knowledge,” Journal of Management Inquiry,
8 External links
March 11: 46-57
• Collins, H.M. “Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of
Sapphire” Social Studies of Science' p. 71–85 31(1)
2001
• Dalkir, Kimiz (2005) “Knowledge Management in
Theory and Practice” pp. 82–90
• Gladwell, Malcolm 2005. Blink: the power of think-
ing without thinking. Little, Brown: New York.
• Gourlay, Stephen, “An Activity Centered Frame-
work for Knowledge Management”. In Claire
Regina McInerney, Ronald E. Day (2007), Rethink-
ing knowledge management, Springer, ISBN 3-540-
71010-8
• Nonaka, Ikujiro; Takeuchi, Hirotaka (1995), The
knowledge creating company: how Japanese compa-
nies create the dynamics of innovation, New York:
Oxford University Press, p. 284, ISBN 978-0-19-
509269-1
• Patriotta, G (2004). “Studying organizational
knowledge”. Knowledge Management Research and
Practice. 2 (1).
• Polanyi, Michael. “The Tacit Dimension”. First
published Doubleday & Co, 1966. Reprinted Peter
Smith, Gloucester, Mass, 1983. Chapter 1: “Tacit
Knowing”.
• Reber, Arthur S. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit
knowledge: an essay on the corgnitive unconscious.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510658-X
• Sanders, A. F. (1988). Michael Polanyi’s post criti-
cal epistemology, a reconstruction of some aspects of
'tacit knowing'. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
• Smith, M. K. (2003) 'Michael Polanyi and tacit
knowledge', the encyclopedia of informal education,
www.infed.org/thinkers/polanyi.htm.© 2003 Mark
K. Smith
• Tsoukas, H. (2003) 'Do we really understand tacit
knowledge?' in The Blackwell handbook of or-
ganizational learning and knowledge management.
Easterby-Smith and Lyles (eds), 411–427. Cam-
bridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
 5

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