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BOOK OF
Welcome to
VIKINGS
BOOK OF
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not be reproduced, whether in whole or in part, without the prior written consent of
Carlton Publishing Limited. © 2016 Carlton Publishing Limited.
The content in this bookazine has previously appeared in the Carlton books Viking
World: The Age of Seafarers & Sagas and The Viking Experience
Part of the
bookazine series
Contents
Prologue
VIKING RAIDERS
Chapter I
ORIGINS OF THE
SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS
Chapter II
EXPLORATION
Chapter III
RAIDING & TRADING
Chapter IV
SETTLEMENT ABROAD
Chapter V
EVERYDAY LIFE
Chapter VI
END OF THE VIKING AGE
Chapter VII
THE VIKING LEGACY
Chapter VIII
EXHIBITS
Prologue
T
8 he great white sail cracked as the
vicious Atlantic wind lashed against
Norse tribesmen as rapists and pillagers is so
prevailing that it’s often forgotten that the word
it, but still the ship sailed on. Long and Viking itself means to go on an expedition. It
sleek, the warship, crafted from mighty oak, is easy to fall into the assumption that these
crashed through the waves, sending a sharp people were nothing more than pirates – taking
spray of water across the deck. The men inside from those too weak to defend themselves. And
rowed as one, their mighty muscles straining as it is undeniable that this happened: the Viking
they plunged the oars deep into the water and invaders sailed from Scandinavia to coasts of
drove the ship forward through the turbulent the British Isles and beyond, invading villages
waves. Their strength alone brought the ship and monasteries, killing the inhabitants and
to land and they poured out onto the beach. stealing their riches. It’s spoken about in first-
Dressed in thick woollen tunics, the warriors hand accounts and it’s still being evidenced
were armed with an array of weapons, from today in the reams of Viking hoards discovered
long sharpened spears to hefty battle-axes. from anxious townsfolk who hurried to hide
With a booming voice one man yelled to the their riches from the merciless invaders.
others, thrusting his sword into the air, and However, this only tells half the story. Two
the rest bellowed in response. Then onward things powered the Viking civilisation: the
he ran, as the united force thundered uphill vicious raids they’re famous for, and something
against the billowing wind. Their destination? else – trade. Not only did Vikings set up new
A coastal monastery bursting full of gold, gems colonies in the lands they invaded, but they also
and hefty food supplies ripe for the taking, and created powerful trade routes that helped their
only a collection of quiet, unassuming monks nation to become one of the most prosperous in
to protect it. the world.
This image of monstrous invaders laying For the majority of the year, the same Vikings
siege to innocent monasteries and pillaging who had pillaged the towns worked the land,
them of their precious items is the first one tirelessly toiling in the field, or creating intricate
that leaps to mind when many are confronted and valuable ornaments and jewellery to fund
with the word ‘Viking’. The portrayal of the their blossoming civilisation.
Viking Raiders
Vicious
Vikings
Meet Scandinavia’s most
terrifying plunderers
Erik the Red 951 – 1003
Infamous for: Being
exiled from Iceland for
murder. He went on to
colonise Greenland
Rodulf Haraldsson
Unknown – 873
Infamous for:
9
Leading raids in
Britain, France
and Germany
Ivar the Boneless
Unknown
Infamous for:
Invading Anglo-
Saxon kingdoms of
England using the
Great Heathen Army
C
enturies before Christopher Columbus meat with water, beer or sour milk to drink.
would stumble upon the land now The sinking of vessels was no great tragedy,
known as America, the Vikings had but rather expected on long journeys. There
claimed the Atlantic Ocean as their own would be no rescue sent as usually nobody
backyard. They had mastered Russia’s river knew about sunken ships for weeks, months
system and reached the Middle East; their or even years. It was not unusual for any
impressive voyages helped them to become number of ships to go missing on voyages
leaders of a rapidly developing world and this across the brutal Atlantic Ocean. When Erik
new Viking civilisation thrived on the power of the Red travelled to Greenland, only 14 of his
a single creation: the ship. original 25 ships managed to arrive safely.
The entire Viking society was built around However, it was the determination and
their ships, which were bigger, lighter and hardiness of the voyagers willing to take
faster than any before. These vessels had been these risks that led the Vikings to valuable
perfected over many years, with the power to and exotic treasures and trade lying along
brave the vicious storms of the Atlantic Ocean, the coastlines of the world. Toward the end
but also the sleek construction to skim through of the 8th century, Viking voyagers began
shallow rivers. These powerful and efficient an invasion of England that would forever
ships enabled their mighty passengers to create determine the fate of the island nation. By 860
10 colonies all over the world, and the building and
maintaining of these vessels became the basis
this pioneering spirit led them to the assault
of Constantinople, then some 20 years later, in
of Viking society. 885, Viking ships attacked the mighty city of
Vikings were using their mighty sea power Paris. Driven by the quest for trade, territory,
to trade around the coast of Europe while plunder and a thirst for adventure, the impact Wooden hull
the British Empire was merely a collection of of these historic voyages can still be felt All Viking ships were made in the
scattered kingdoms unable to defend their around the world today. same way, using planks of oak or pine
shores. The Viking sailors were aware that it overlapped and nailed together. The ships
were then reinforced and made watertight
was often easier to take the same journey by
by using tarred wool or other animal furs
water rather than land, with some journeys
to fill in the gaps between the planks.
taking five days by sea, compared
to a month on land, and they
Frightening figurehead
used this to their advantage.
The front of the ship was often
Longer voyages were carried
decorated with a carving of an
out by those settling in strange animal head, usually a mix
and exciting foreign lands, and the between a dragon and a snake.
Viking civilisation spread to Iceland, These figureheads were removable
Greenland, and even to Canada and and would only be put up when
North America. the ship was approaching land, as
The image of a Viking longboat they risked heavy damage while
crashing through the waves with its out at sea.
fierce dragon figurehead and its long,
sleek curves is certainly an inspiring one,
but for those onboard, life was not quite
so glamorous. With no shelter, at night the
sailors used the sail as a makeshift tent that
they would sleep under, shivering beneath
blankets or animal skin sleeping bags. The
only sustenance would be dried or salted
Viking Raiders
Steering oar
This rudder-like oar, also known
as a ‘steerboard’, was attached
to the back of the ship on the
starboard side. It was used to
steer the ship and would require a
large amount of physical exertion
compared to modern alternatives.
The position of the ‘steerboard’
is where the term ‘starboard’
originated from.
Small hold
The longship was designed for war, so it was vital for
it to be fast. Because of this, they had a small loading
capacity, with room for only high value goods and
booty. The merchant ships would be able to carry far
more cargo, with room for livestock.
Oarports
These were holes for the oars
that ran along the entire
length of the ship on both
sides. The holes would also
be used to tie shields in place,
but only when the ships were
in port as the risk of losing
their vital protection while
the ship was in motion was
too great.
d
A dramatic Viking rai
on the Engli sh coast
T
hey had arrived in the dead of night; and blood as they swung their axes and jabbed treasures was an opportunity too good to miss,
the darkness had been so thick that their swords. One brother alone had managed but for many in England this shocking and
the monks had not seen their ship to escape the massacre. He speedily weaved unprovoked attack marked the beginning of
until it landed on the shore. It was too late, they through the figures and threw himself down the scourge of Viking raids. These sporadic but
all knew it, to call for help. A brother had run into the tall grass outside. He watched as body violent assaults continued across the coasts
into the halls, waking the monks from their after body was thrown from the doors of his of England, and by 855 a force known as the
beds with shrill cries of “The demons are here! home; he watched as men still alive were cast Great Heathen Army had arrived in East Anglia.
They’re coming! They’re coming!” Some of off the high cliff into the sea; and he watched The army made their way across the country,
the brothers began to scream for help, while as the heathens set the holy walls alight with capturing cities as they went, overrunning
others leapt into action, grabbing precious flame. The hot wind lashed against his face and and overpowering the land. The Scandinavian
items and concealing them in the folds of their robes in the flickering darkness. He grasped a warriors also launched invasions across the
cloaks. But already the doors were down and golden chalice in his hands numbly, the only coasts of Ireland and all over mainland Europe.
already the invaders were here. They were huge thing he had been able to rescue before fleeing. These raids even stretched to the Baltic Sea
– bigger than any man the humble brethren The invaders had the rest of it, all the precious and Persia. The initial reasons for such rapid
had ever seen – with their wild blond hair items loaded into sacks on their large ships. expansion are hotly contested between
and mighty weapons grasped in hand. They And almost as quickly as they had arrived, they historians, with some believing the raids were a
leapt upon the monks immediately, hacking slipped away from the shore and returned to brutal response to the spread of Christianity, or
at their bodies with a frenzied ferocity. Some the darkness. that the Scandinavian population grew too large
pleaded for mercy, some did not have time In 793, a Viking crew sailing near northeast for their land or perhaps they were the actions
to plead. There was no time for negotiations; England raided a Christian monastery at of men simply drawn by the thrill of adventure.
how can one negotiate with pure, unbridled Lindisfarne. For the Vikings the strange, Whatever the reasons, the invasions left a
violence? There was only death, destruction exposed building packed full of valuable lasting scar on those who lived to see them.
Viking Raiders
GATHER HORSES
2 VIKING SHIPS were designed to
row up river, but if the target was
some distance away they would leave
their ships and travel by horse. With
no horses on the ships, they would
raid nearby villages for available
mounts. These would be used to
transport themselves and their booty
across the land.
SURPRISE ATTACK
13
3 THE PIOUS and humble
monks did not stand a chance
faced with their fierce opponents
Helmet
Vikings did not, in
fact, have horned
Hair
Long hair was
favoured by both
Armour
Mail shirts or metal
armour would have
Shoes
Shoes were most
often made from
Shield
Round shields were
common and were
armed with superior weapons. The men and women. been very expensive one long piece made from light
helmets. Instead,
well-trained Vikings would launch they were round It would also be for the average of leather sewn wood, such as fir
a sudden furious, vicious attack on with a guard around acceptable to shave raider, as would to the shape of or poplar and were
the monastery, slaying the holy men. the eyes and nose. one’s hair or to leather, so these the wearer’s foot. reinforced with
Some would be stripped naked, and There is only one wear it rolled in a were reserved only Leather straps leather or iron
cast outside, some taken prisoner, and complete Viking tight bun near the for those of high would be used to around the edge.
others thrown into the sea. helmet in existence nape of their neck. status. Ordinary secure the boot Round shields could
– others may have Men would also Vikings likely to the foot, and get as large as
LOOT AND BURN been passed down carefully groom fought wearing their thick woollen socks 120cm in diameter,
NORWAY
ANIMAL SKIN
SWEDEN
SOAPSTONE
SCOTLAND
RUSSIA
DENMARK
ENGLAND
GERMANY
SLAVES
UKRAINE
FRANCE
TURKEY
WINE, SPICES
Viking Raiders
Raiders or traders?
Stuart Perry, or Fastulf
Geraltsson as he is known
to the public, is the Jorvik
Group’s Interactive Team
Leader. He manages a team of
Viking interactives at Jorvik
Viking Centre and archaeology
and history interpreters across
the group’s five attractions
A
with the riches presented in the monasteries lthough raiding and pillaging vicious rapids and battling hostile natives. The
and towns they were so fond of raiding and provided a quick intake of wealth, Vikings continued their trading journey inland,
England became a perfect area for expansion. it was not a stable way to live bringing their goods to Jerusalem and Baghdad.
As for being ‘bloodthirsty raiders’, there is or to build a civilisation. Instead, the The lure of the Silk Road and the exotic riches of the
that element to the culture, yes, but it was
not simply for violence that the Vikings went
Vikings dedicated far more of their time
to building up a prosperous and powerful
East were too good to resist, and Vikings met with
traders from the Far East in their trading centres in
15
raiding. It was for profit. Rarely would the trading network. Because of their Russia, trading fur and slaves for silk and spices.
Vikings destroy an entire settlement, and the superior ship-building skills they were Silver coins were the most common form of
reason is simple; they wanted to come back able to travel to trade in faraway lands, payment, but this was unlike today’s currency
and do it again! Raiding was a job for young obtaining a host of exotic and valuable where different coins are worth a particular value.
impetuous men – but it was not the main focus goods. Their specially designed trading The coins were weighed in scales to determine
of life in early medieval Scandinavia. It is this ships were able to carry up to 35 tonnes of their value; this is because a lot of coins were
message that we convey at every opportunity cargo, including silver and even livestock. melted down and crafted into intricate and
here at Jorvik Viking Centre. Trading markets began to emerge beautiful jewellery to trade on. The great extent of
along the west Baltic Sea in the mid-8th the Viking trade network can be seen today in the
century where people came from far and hoards of silver coins, created in England, which
wide to trade an array of goods. As these markets have been found in Sweden, not to mention the
flourished, traders decided to settle permanently 40,000 Arabic coins and the 38,000 German coins
along the routes and they transformed into trading also uncovered there. Nordic bowls, Mediterranean
towns. Birka in Sweden, Kaupang in Norway and silk and Baltic axe heads have even been
SILVER Hedeby in Denmark all grew to be prosperous and discovered buried under English soil.
bustling trading settlements, with the inhabitants This vast and illustrious trade network
all working as craftsmen and merchants. Prosperous attracted a wealth of eager and talented artists
trading routes also emerged along the British and craftsmen. Viking bead-makers would import
Isles, with York and Dublin two of the ports that glass from Western Europe to create an array of
developed into major trading centres. simple and decorative beads for the wealthy to
As the trade boom increased the Vikings travelled adorn themselves with, while the ample supply
further afield, across the Baltic Sea and along the of amber from the Baltic lands was fashioned
Russian rivers. They founded more trading towns in into pendants and playing pieces. Skilled Viking
Kiev and Novgorod. The Viking traders even went as craftsmen transformed their imported bronze to
SILK, SILVER, SPICES
far as Istanbul, the capital of the mighty Byzantine fine ornaments and mass-produced brooches, and
Empire across the Black Sea. This perilous journey deer antlers could even be used to make delicate
© Sol 90 Images; Abigail Daker; Alamy
was one only the Vikings dared attempt, through and beautiful combs.
Chapter I
ORIGINS OF THE
SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS
D ISCOVER HOW the Scandinavian nations came
to be, and learn about the Viking origin myth,
alongside the reality of the Stone Age settlers.
Chapter I
ORIGINS OF THE
SCANDINAVIAN NATIONS
THE VIKING ORIGIN MYTH STONE AGE AND BRONZE
A
dynasty, known to many from Wagner’s Ring
CCORDING TO Snorri Sturluson, Cycle. Then he travelled to Denmark, where he AGE SCANDINAVIA
writing in the thirteenth century, the established his son Skiöld as king and from him In reality, settlers in Scandinavia first arrived
origin of the Norse gods can be traced the Skiöldung dynasty, which we know from in the Stone Age, following the end of the last
to a Trojan prince called Tror, grandson of King the Old English epic Beowulf, was descended. ice age. These settlers were nomadic hunter-
Priam. Tror’s many times-great grandson was Odin then travelled to Sweden, where he gatherers, who followed the reindeer herds
Woden, whom the Norse called Odin. Odin had established himself before moving on and and exploited the resources of vast territorial
the gift of prophecy and knew that if he travelled setting up sons as rulers of Sweden and Norway. areas up to approximately 100,000 square
to north west Europe he would be remembered Thus, according to Scandinavian legend, all kilometres (39,000 square miles). They had
for all time, so he set off with a large following. rulers in the north were descended from Odin, reached southern Sweden by 14,000 years ago
Odin stopped in Frankia where he fathered and, because of his success, Odin became and, over the following 5,000 years, worked
three sons, who were the origin of the Völsung revered as a god. their way northwards, adapting their lifestyles
HORNED HELMETS
Most people know that Vikings did not wear
horned helmets, yet the myth persists and
the image of a stout Norseman with horned
helmet still appears in, among other things,
advertising and cartoons. This image arose in
the nineteenth century as part of Scandinavian
romanticism and has been credited to Carl
Doepler, who designed the costumes for the
first production of Wagner’s Ring Cycle. Before
this time, and before the coining of the term
“Viking Age” in 1876, horned helmets were
the province of early Germanic warriors. They
had been depicted with these helmets from at
least the sixteenth century onwards, because
early scholars assumed that descriptions of
An iron helmet decorated with bronze plaques.
The helmet was found at Vendel, Sweden, and
Celts wearing adorned helmets also included
dates from the mid-si xth centur y. The plaques the Germanic tribes. So, when the Viking took
depict warrio rs fighting and may represent an centre stage in popular culture, he was quickly
initiation ritual that the wearer underwent. associated with the horned helmet, even
though no examples of Viking Age helmets
to the coastal landscape in which they found Romania, and miniature axes from the with horns have ever been found.
themselves. From c. 8000 BC–6000 BC, the eastern Mediterranean or Bulgaria. Similarly, Horned helmets do exist, however. A Bronze
landscape of Scandinavia changed to resemble Scandinavian amber has been found as far Age statuette of a kneeling figure wearing a
more the landscape we know today, as forests
started to cover the tundra and the sea level
afield as Mycenae and Pylos in Greece. This
clearly shows that the Scandinavians did not
helmet with large curving horns on its sides
was found at Grevensvænge in Denmark. Two 19
rose. Around 4000 BC agricultural practices live in isolation from the rest of Europe and helmets found at Viksø in Denmark, dating
from central Europe began to be adopted, that trade was an important part of life, as it from c. 1000 BC, confirmed that horned
although they did not become important was later too. helmets existed. Many of the Bronze Age
elements of the economy until c. 3100 BC. Ritual life is represented by finds like the
Space for farms was cleared by burning the Trundholm sun chariot (c. 1800 BC–1600
vegetation, crops like wheat and barley began BC) , discovered in Denmark in 1902,
to be cultivated and domesticated animals which consists of a statue of a horse
were kept. and a bronze disc to represent
The Nordic Bronze Age (c. 1700 BC–500 BC) the sun, both mounted on a
began rather later than the Bronze Age in the wheeled carriage. Examples A helmet with horns dating from
rest of Europe. The raw materials of bronze (tin of the lur, a type of curved c. 1000 BC. It, and another like it,
and copper) were not available in Scandinavia bronze horn, have been found was found at Viksø, Denmark. The
helmets were probably used in rituals
and must have been imported from the south. in Scandinavia and are also
rather than in battle, because they show
The domesticated horse was also introduced to depicted in petroglyphs, rock no battle damage.
Scandinavia at this time, quickly becoming an carvings that show various
important part of daily and religious life, as it aspects of Scandinavian life.
continued to be in the Viking Age. Some of these petroglyphs are
Evidence for trade with distant countries thought to include figures who are
in the Bronze Age is present in the form precursors of the gods depicted in
of swords from Germany, Hungary and Norse mythology.
"Most people know that Vikings did not actually wear horned
helmets, yet for some reason the myth persists"
Chapter I
795: 844:
The Vikings 840: The Vikings
begin to attack The Viking attack Spain but
Scotland and 800: city of Dublin are driven away.
Ireland. Vikings settle the is founded in
Scottish islands of Ireland.
Orkney and Shetland, and
discover the Faroe Islands.
c. 958:
Harald Bluetooth
c. 982–85:
becomes king of Erik the Red
discovers and
Denmark. He converts settles Greenland.
to Christianity, and the
religion begins to spread
across Scandinavia.
1016–30: 1046:
1014: The Danish chieftain Harald Hardrada 1066:
Olaf Haraldsson
Cnut becomes king 1042: becomes king of Harald Hardrada, the “last great Viking”,
invades England but is killed in battle. The
of England, and later Danish rule in Norway.
seizes the
king of Denmark and England ends. Normans conquer England. The Viking age
Norwegian
Norway. draws to a close.
throne.
Chapter I
VIKING HISTORY
A LTHOUGH THE Vikings did
not leave behind any written
documents, letters carved on stone
or wood called “runes” provide clues
about their traditions. More detail can
be found in the writings of people
who came into contact with the
Vikings, but since they were often
the victims of raids, their accounts
can be unreliable. The Vikings told
tales of their adventures that were
passed on and eventually written
down by Christian scholars in
24 books called “sagas”. These
writings tell us much about the
Vikings’ spirit of adventure.
e?
What’s i n at nwhaerme
e ab ou
Exp erts disagre m.
ing” com es fro
the word “Vik
is used for lal
To day the word e Viking p erio
d,
d inav ia ns o f th
Scan gr
ors e word vikin t
but the Old N wen
for those who
was used only i viking.
ndering, or
raiding and plu ”,
vik m eant “bay
In Old Nors e, g cam e
e word Vikin
and p erhaps th lay
ut b ecau se ra iders som etim es
ab o eltered
r victi ms in sh
in wait for thei
.
bays and inlets
Origins of the scandinavian Nations
25
Chapter II
EXPLORATION
I NCLUDING JOURNEYS that would take them
across the globe, find out how – and why – the
Vikings spread their wings and discovered new lands
far and wide.
Chapter II
S
was drawn by cats. One particularly
OME VIKINGS travelled extensively. well-decorated wagon was buried with
Others remained at home on their farms, the ship found at the Oseberg farm in
growing crops and fishing to survive, but Norway. This is a four-wheeled wagon
they still needed to travel occasionally, perhaps that was not actually fully functional;
to visit a neighbour or to go to the Althing, the the design prevented the wheels from
yearly assembly. turning properly. Therefore it was
Horses were a common means of transport, probably built specifically for the funeral,
particularly in Iceland, where travel was easier but the construction techniques used
by land. Although the horses used were not are still valuable for understanding how
large and were certainly not war horses like wagons were built.
medieval knights used, they were a means of In the winter, the Vikings used skis
travelling relatively quickly. The Vikings made to cross snow, skates made of bone to
good use of this mobility in their forays abroad. cross iced-over lakes or sledges drawn
When they invaded East Anglia in the ninth by horses to carry themselves and their
century, they promptly sought out stocks of goods or families.
horses so that they could more easily travel and Skis were wooden and the skier propelled
raid with less danger of getting caught by the himself along with a single stick, in a process Jamtaland early in the eleventh century. They
Saxon army. that was much like punting nowadays, unlike were being pursued by enemies but were too
30
Traditionally, it was thought that the Vikings Old Norse literature also mentions a glaciers were the first thing to become visible
used dead reckoning to calculate their position sunstone that helped the Vikings navigate when sailing there on the main route from
when sailing out of sight of land. The magnetic in poor weather. Its existence was doubted Norway. Sanday in Orkney and Sandoy in the
compass was not invented until the twelfth until recently, but new research indicates Faeroe Islands mean “sandy island”. A sailor
century and little evidence was available to that they would probably have used Iceland heading to either of these islands would know
show how else they might have navigated. It spar, a crystal that has polarizing properties. he had arrived because their names described
was assumed that they would have been able to By moving the crystal across the field of what he might expect to see upon reaching
estimate their speed based on their knowledge vision until a yellow pattern is seen, it is his destination. Sailing was such an essential
of the ship they were sailing. Direction would possible to determine, within a few degrees, part of Viking daily life that many places were
have been calculated based on the direction of the direction of the sun in cloudy or foggy named for their appearance from a sailor’s
the sun or stars, and the wind and the sea swell. conditions, or at twilight. perspective. Using these names, it would be
However, a wooden disc found at Uunartoq In addition to these two aids, the Vikings possible to describe to someone the route to
in Greenland in 1948 is now thought to have made use of landmarks when they were in take to a particular destination with some
been a compass. It has gnomonic markings on sight of land. They named many places for reliability, despite the fact that the Vikings had
it and the hole in the centre of the disc would their appearance, which would have aided no charts from which to work out their course.
have held a wooden rod. This device functioned the navigator in determining where the With all this in mind, it is clear that the
like a sun dial; rotating the disc until the sun’s ship was and which direction to sail next. Vikings had relatively sophisticated means of
shadow was aligned with one of the markings Although Flóki Vilgerðarson is said to have navigating at sea. They could calculate where
on it would have shown in which direction the named Iceland for the ice floes in the fjords, it they were by using the sun, even in poor
ship was sailing. is more likely that it was so named because icy weather, and their use of descriptive names for
Exploration
the places to which they travelled made it easier Viking exploration into Asia and through to Vikings could access the interior of Slavic
to identify if they were in the right place. Byzantium and Baghdad. territories via the Oder and Vistula rivers. From
The journeys of Swedish travellers are there, they were able to portage, or carry, their
ACROSS THE BALTIC commemorated in the legendary Saga of ships to the Danube, because the ships were
AND INTO RUSSIA Yngvarr the Far-Traveller, which records the light enough to be dragged around rapids and
While the Norwegians and Danes largely exploration of the river systems to the east waterfalls by their crews. Once onto the Danube
headed west and south, Swedish Vikings of Russia. The saga is replete with fantastical they could sail all the way to the Black Sea and
headed east across the Baltic and into northern detail about the inhabitants along the route, to Byzantium, although they did have to drag
Germany, Poland and the Slavic lands. They including giants and sorcerers, as well as many their ships along some difficult paths to avoid
both raided and traded there. Excavations encounters with pagans. Although the Yngvarr areas of the river they could not sail through.
have shown that the Baltic was a thriving of the saga is a legendary character, a Swedish Some Vikings travelled east through Finland.
market before and during the Viking Age, Viking called Ingvarr did travel to the east Here they encountered plentiful game and
and that trading posts had been established and there are approximately 26 runestones fishing, and were able to trade for furs, which
from early on. Towns like Mecklenburg in that commemorate those who travelled with were always a valuable commodity. As they
Germany and Wolin in Poland were similar to him and failed to return. His voyage is also travelled further inland, they were able to
the major trading centre at Birka in Sweden and mentioned in the Georgian Chronicles, which portage their ships from lake to lake and
would have fulfilled the same function. Wolin are a history of Georgia. Ingvarr’s journey took eventually into the Dniepr and the Volga, and
is the town that the Vikings called Jómsborg place around 1040 and ended with many of his on to the Black Sea. This was important for the
and was the home of the Jomsvikings, a men being killed while others succumbed to settlement of what became Russia, because
famous Viking warrior brotherhood. These disease, as is reflected in the saga. trading posts were established along their main
trading centres were the From the towns on the routes and Scandinavians moved in to settle
jumping-off points for
The Oseb ergship in situ eastern side of the Baltic, the and trade. Staraya Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg in Old
n in 1904.
duri ng exca vatio the ster n
fr om
The vi ew is l
or namented k ee
an d shows the r besi de it.
ri ng oa
with the stee
Chapter II
33
consisted almost entirely of raiders attacked all around the Caspian Sea and
Scandinavian mercenaries stayed in their base among the islands of the
and they fought throughout Naptha coast for many months, doing great
the Empire. Harald Hardrada, harm. It was only on their way home again
who fought and lost at the that the Muslim armies were able to attack and
Battle of Stamford Bridge defeat the Vikings, who were exhausted by their
in 1066, was a member of raiding and burdened by all the loot they had
the Varangian Guard in his taken. Raids like this are recorded throughout
younger days. He is said to the tenth century and in each the Arab writers
have become so involved emphasize the ferocity of the Vikings, their size
in the politics of the court and strength and unwillingness to surrender.
that he had an affair with Arab writers also give us some of the most
the empress, as well as being detailed descriptions of Vikings. Ahmad Ibn
involved in a coup. Fadlan travelled north with a Rus party in
In addition to trading with AD 921. He had been sent on a mission for the
Byzantium, merchants also Caliph of Baghdad to the king of the Volga
traded with the Arab world. Bulgars, and he recorded his impression of the
The importance of this trade is Vikings they met on their travels. He described
demonstrated clearly by the vast them as tall, strong, tattooed with dark green
number of Arab dirhams (silver designs and never parted from their weapons.
coins) that have been found in Although he stood in awe of their size and
Europe. Over 1,000 hoards that strength, he also criticized their cleanliness,
Calcite Iceland Spar, which may
have been used by the Vikings include these coins have been claiming that they all shared one bowl of
to determine the direction of the found and all are valuable because washing water, so that the last to wash received
sun in poor conditions. they make it possible to give an approximate a bowl of filth. Most famously he described the
Eiríksstaoir in Haukadalur,
Iceland. This is a
reconstruction of the Viking
Age house on the site where
Eirik the Red lived.
35
century. After that date it went into rapid
decline, because the silver mines of central Asia "We have many stories of these expeditions, and the memories
were exhausted and there was less reason to
travel that far.
of how these places were discovered have been preserved"
THE NORTH ATLANTIC Norse settlers arrived in the ninth century but settlement in the form of houses and graves. At
AND VINLAND recent archaeological evidence confirms that the same time as the Faeroes were first being
Where the Swedes headed east and the Danes the Faeroe Islands were inhabited before the settled, the Orkney Islands and Shetland were
largely headed south, the Norwegians set Vikings arrived there. A Frankish monk, called also being settled. They had been occupied for
out across the North Atlantic. Their primary Dicuil, wrote in c. AD 825 that the arrival of the thousands of years before the Vikings arrived
route was to Scotland and around to Ireland Vikings led to the departure or extermination and were inhabited by the Picts up to the Viking
and Wales via the Hebrides. However, of the Irish hermits who lived there. If the Age. The fate of the Pictish inhabitants remains
occasionally they sailed off course. During islands Dicuil was describing were actually the unknown – they may have been killed, driven
these misadventures, they discovered Iceland, Faeroes, as seems likely, this means that Norse out or assimilated into the Viking settlements
Greenland and Vinland (an area of North settlers had arrived by that date. Fœreyinga or they may even have left shortly before the
America), and settled not only these but also saga, the Saga of the Faeroe Islanders, informs Vikings came.
Orkney, the Faeroe Islands and Shetland. us that Grímr Kamban was the first settler Like the Faeroes, Iceland may have been
Thanks to the medieval Icelanders, who were there. His second name is of Irish origin, and occupied by Celtic monks when it was
obsessed with writing histories of their country, it may be that he had spent a lot of time in the discovered by the Vikings. As with the Picts and
we have many stories of these expeditions, British Isles before settling in the Faeroes. the hermits on the Faeroe Islands, their fate is
and the memories of how these places were However, a runestone was found on the islands unknown, although in this case Íslendingabók,
discovered have been preserved. dating from the thirteenth century and this the Book of the Icelanders, states that they
Faeroe Islands means “sheep islands”, so records that Torkil Onundarson from Rogaland fled from the Norse settlers. Two people are
called because it is said the Vikings found in Norway was the first to settle the islands. credited with discovering Iceland by accident
sheep when they first arrived there. The first Whoever it was, they left evidence of their in Landnámabók, the Book of Settlements:
Chapter II
ucted Norse
The reco nstr ’Anse aux
at L
lo nghouse ,
ow s, N ewfo un dlan d
Mead an d
irikso n
where Leif E lsefni attempted
fi n n K ar
Thor
D 1000.
to settle c. A
36
Naddoddr, a Norwegian, who was one of he made his home there in what was to become known in Icelandic law as the “lesser outlawry”.
the first settlers in the Faeroes, and Garðar the capital of Iceland. Eirik spent the three years of his outlawry
Svavarsson, a Swede. Flóki Vilgerðarson was The discovery of Greenland is described exploring Greenland, before returning to
the first person to try to settle in Iceland, but in Grœnlendinga saga, the Saga of the Iceland, where he gathered support before
he left after suffering a particularly cold winter. Greenlanders, and Eiriks saga rauða, the setting out to colonize Greenland. The sagas
The Book of Settlements stated that he named Saga of Eirik the Red. Gunnbjörn Ulfsson state that he named it Greenland to make it
Iceland for the ice floes he saw in the fjords. Kráku is credited with first having sighted sound more attractive to prospective settlers.
Ingólfr Arnarson is credited with being the first Greenland. He was blown off course while on Eirik set out with 25 ships but only 14 made
permanent settler. It is said that he threw the his way to Iceland from Norway, and sighted landfall in Greenland. Some returned home
pillars from his high seat overboard into the sea land. Eirik the Red set out to find this land while others were lost at sea, a fate that was
as he approached the land. He then sailed along after he was outlawed in Iceland for his always possible for the Viking sailor. This
the coast until he found them and chose that involvement in some killings. In AD 982 he was the start of the settlement, which was
spot to settle. They landed near Reykjavik, and was banished for three years, which was divided into two, the eastern and western
Exploration
37
settlements, both of which lay close to the Inspired by the tale that Bjarni told, Leif next successful settler. He stayed there for two
southern tip of Greenland. Eiriksson set sail for this new land. When he years, during which time the first Viking child
One ship that set sail with Eirik for arrived there, he sailed down the coast, naming was born in Vinland and he fought two battles
Greenland included Herjólfr, the father of Bjarni the places they saw. Helluland, meaning with the natives, who were called skraelings
Herjólfsson. Herjólfr had settled in Iceland but “flat stone land”, was probably Baffin Island. by the Vikings. The last Viking expedition
then decided to move to Greenland. Bjarni Markland – “wood land” – was probably the to Vinland was led by Leif’s sister, Freydis. It
sailed to Iceland to visit his father in the same Labrador coastline and finally Vínland, where ended in carnage and slaughter, most of which
year that his father set off for Greenland, so he settled, was named for the wild grapes that was caused by or carried out by her. After
Bjarni decided to follow. On the voyage, Bjarni’s grew there. He stayed the winter, and returned this, no more Viking settlement is known.
ship became lost in fog and he ended up sailing home the following year. Leif’s brothers both The excavations at L’Anse aux Meadows in
off the coast of America. He did not land, attempted to settle in Vinland, but Thorvald Newfoundland, Canada, have proven that the
but instead, turned around and managed to was killed by natives and Thorstein died before Vikings did reach America, but not whether it
make his way to Greenland, where he settled. he could get there. Thorfinn Karlsefni was the happened as the sagas tell it.
Chapter II
Th e Vi kin gs in
Icelan d
The first settler to arrive on
the volcanic island of Iceland
was a Norwegian cal led Ingolf
Arnarson. He took his fam ily
ilt
there around 874 AD and bu
a large farm on a bay. This
l,
later becam e Iceland’s capita
Reykj avik. By 930 AD, more
d
than 10,000 Vikings had arrive
inly
on the island. They lived ma
coa st
along the green and fertile
– the harsh interior, with its
ciers,
mountai ns, volcanoes and gla
remained uninhabited.
the
rst di scovered
The Vikings fi d Icelan d, then
an
Fa ro e Islands
ei r way further west to
made th a.
d North Americ
G reen land an
LEIF ERIKSON
P ERHAPS ONE of the most famous explorers of all time, Leif
Erikson is remembered in the sagas as a daring hero. Travelling
across the stormy Atlantic Ocean, he became the first European to
reach North America around 1002 ad. Fellow Vikings believed that
Leif was surely favoured by the gods. The sagas tell that on one sea
voyage Leif rescued a shipwrecked crew, which earned him the name
“Leif the Lucky”.
Born to explore
The Lan d of Win e Leif was born into a family of explorers
Leif grew up hearing about the famed land around 980 AD. His father was the great
40 that lay west of Greenland. As soon as adventurer Erik the Red who first settled
he was able, the young explorer gathered Greenland around 985 AD. Around this
a crew together to retrace Bjarni’s route. time, Erik heard the intriguing tale of an
Along the way, Leif found and named Icelander named Bjarni Herjolfsson who
three lands. Helluland (Flatstone Land) set sail for Greenland but was blown
was probably Baffin Island and Markland far off course. Sailing west, Bjarni
(Land of Woods) was almost certainly was amazed to glimpse a new
Labrador in Canada. Eventually the men coastline and returned
found a suitable place to set up camp to Greenland
and named this lush new land Vinland with the
(Vineland) after the wild grapes growing exciting
there. After several months, Leif and his news.
crew returned safely to Greenland,
but other Vikings later
journeyed to Vinland,
some staying for
years at a time.
EXPLORATION
of a
A reco nstr uctio n
Viki ng ho us e at
do ws.
L’Anse Aux Mea
Chapter III
RAIDING & TRADING
W ITH A reputation as fearless – and often brutal –
warriors, the Vikings spread their empire across
the globe, doing battle with anyone who stood in their
way, often leaving a trail of destruction in their path.
Chapter III
T
depicts the Vikings as HE STEREOTYPICAL Viking is a large
o
fea rso me fighters, wh man with a big beard, who is heavily
fight to the death
wo uld armed (see picture left of Vikings at the
to achieve vi cto ry.
Battle of Stamford Bridge, 1066). Typical images
include a helmet, a coat of mail, a sword, a
shield and often a large axe. In fact, the axe may
well be the most common weapon with which
Vikings are shown. The reality is that, while
axes were used, Vikings aspired to owning good
swords in the same way as we might aspire to
a big house. Bows and spears were common
weapons. Most of our knowledge of Viking
weapons comes from burials and it can be
difficult to differentiate between weapons and
tools in some cases. Axes, for example, were
used as tools and weapons. Where they were
included in burials, they may have been there
as tools. However, sometimes they are clearly
A colourful depiction
with those. The cutting edge of
48
er
This gi lded si lv
trefoil broo ch from
the Hon hoard
de
was probably ma
in Fran ki a an d
way.
impo rted to Nor
Raiding and Trading
51
52
Raiding and Trading
A lithograph of the St
Brice’s Day Massacre, by
Alfred Pearse. One of the
victims was supposed to in AD 866, because the Northumbrians had
have been Gunnhild, sister deposed King Osberht, and taken as king Ælla,
of Svein Forkb eard, and who was apparently not of the royal line. This
this was claimed to be one
reason why he invaded discord meant that the Northumbrians were
England in 1013. slow to respond to the Viking attack on York.
When they did, they were able to break into the
town, but then the Vikings slaughtered them
and killed both their kings in the battle. The
survivors had to make peace.
In AD 867, the Vikings rode to Nottingham,
which was in Mercia. There they occupied
the fortification and the combined might of
Mercia and Wessex could not shift them, so
the English had to broker a peace treaty. The
Great Army returned to York the following
year and then in AD 869 rode once more to
East Anglia, where they took up quarters at
Thetford and fought a battle with Edmund,
the king of East Anglia. They defeated and
captured Edmund, and are said to have
amused themselves after the battle by
shooting arrows at him and then beheading
him, because he would not renounce his
Aethelred died and Alfred succeeded to the succession, but their bribery did not work wish to settle sought easier plunder in France,
kingdom. The Great Army fought several more and the kingdom collapsed when the Great which resulted eventually in the break-up of
battles against the West Saxons that year and Army occupied the royal centre at Repton in the Carolingian Empire in AD 888. Alfred still
won more often than not, so the Saxons sued Derbyshire. A mass grave excavated in the had to contend with Viking raids, but not on the
for peace and presumably had to pay the Great vicarage garden at Repton during the 1980s scale that had previously assailed him.
Army to stay away. This peace treaty ensured contained approximately 250 skeletons, the At home, King Alfred set about reforming his
that Wessex was left in peace for five years. majority those of men in the prime of life, kingdom. He introduced military reforms that
In subsequent years, the Mercians were while a small number were women. The would enable his son Edward the Elder and his
afflicted by the Great Army. They too bought dating evidence suggests that this mass grave grandson Aethelstan to conquer England. The
their peace at great price two years in was for members of the Great Army who had reforms included establishing a network of forts
succumbed to disease while the army was (burhs in Old English) to protect Wessex. Alfred
overwintering there. began building a fleet to defend his realm at
With Mercia and Northumbria in Viking sea and he introduced educational reforms to
hands, it was only to be expected that Wessex ensure that as many people as possible could
would follow. Half the Great Army chose to read. Alfred also began translating books into
settle on the lands they had conquered, but his own language. At some point shortly after
the other half chose to attack Wessex. This conquering London in AD 886, Alfred also
army was led by Guthrum. It marched through drew up a treaty with Guthrum that defined
Wessex and seized Wareham in Dorset. Alfred the Danelaw, the kingdom where Danish law
in turn besieged the army but could not force prevailed. The boundary between the two
it to surrender. In the end a treaty was agreed kingdoms was to be along the Thames to the
and the Vikings swore on a sacred arm ring to Lea, from the Lea to Bedford and then up the
uphold the peace. Alfred, a Christian king, had Ouse to Watling Street. South of this line was
sought to use the Vikings’ own pagan ritual Wessex, north was the Danelaw.
55
Olaf’s voyage was not the first in the resurgence reserves in the Middle East. Arabic silver had raiding England, and Olaf himself returned
of raiding, but it is certainly one of the best been a mainstay of the Scandinavian economy just three years later in company of Svein
documented, not least because it culminated in but, as it ran out, so did the eastern trade routes Forkbeard, King of Denmark. They had
his baptism and conversion to Christianity. This and new sources of wealth had to be found. 94 ships and attacked London itself. They
raiding voyage was part of a new era of raiding Combined with the weakness of the English were driven off from London, but continued
that was to cause significant political problems crown, conditions were perfect for a renewed to harry the countryside until King Aethelred
for England. assault following 26 years of relative peace. offered them 7,250 kilograms (16,000 pounds)
The second series of Viking raids on Britain Raids started to occur once more in the AD of silver and the provisions they needed in
was probably partially a result of increasing 980s and increased in size to the extent that return for leaving.
centralization of power in Scandinavia and Olaf’s raid in AD 991 was said to consist of 93 Olaf never returned to attack England, but
partially a result of the exhausting of silver ships. Paying Olaf off didn’t prevent others from others, including Svein, were continued to
Chapter III
elfth-centur y
The late tw estr y depicts
ap
Baldi shol T s of the year.
so nifi cati on
p er an
le ft, the yo ung m s
On the er rep resent
ow
holdi ng a fl ri ght, the
e
Ap ri l. On th sents May.
orse m an re p re
h
56
raid and extort Danegeld from the English. extent of this massacre is sparse: a charter of Danes is not present, which suggests the
The raids reached such a peak that King to St Frideswide’s Abbey in Oxford refers to massacre was more localized. It also seems
Aethelred, fearing a conspiracy to oust him Danes being slaughtered and the bodies of unlikely that Aethelred’s orders would have
from his throne, ordered that all the Danish 34–38 young men, who died around this time, been carried out at all within the Danelaw
men in England be slaughtered on St Brice’s were found at St John’s College, Oxford, in areas. Legend tells us that Svein Forkbeard’s
Day (13 November) in 1002. Evidence for the 2008. Other evidence for wholesale massacre sister was one of the victims and that his later
Raiding and Trading
to
This stone from Lindisfar ne is thought
show Viking raide rs attacking the islan d’s
monastery in 793 AD.
58
The speed and brutality of the Vikings’ attacks made it difficult for their
victims to fight back.
59
An eighth-century Anglo-Saxon
helmet from York, a city which was
conquered by the Vikings.
Chapter III
60
A bloodthirsty murderer
The eldest and favourite son of his father, Eric earned his
fearsome nickname by slaying his four brothers in order to take
the Norwegian throne for himself. However, he was a ruthless
and unpopular king, and his surviving brother, Hakon the Good,
sailed from England to Norway to claim the throne. Eric fled to
England where he became king of Northumbria with a palace
in the capital city of York.
raiding and trading
King of Northumbria
In 947 AD, Eadred, King of England, launched
an attack on Northumbria to fight off his Viking
rival. As Eadred’s soldiers moved south again,
Eric Bloodaxe’s soldiers caught up with them and
slaughtered many. In revenge, Eadred promised to
destroy Northumbria and succeeded in persuading
its people to reject Eric’s rule. However, when the
Dublin Viking Olafr Sigtryggson took control of
Northumbria in 952 AD, Eric Bloodaxe responded
furiously by seizing the throne for a second time.
His rule did not last long though, and in 954 AD
he was killed at the battle of Stainmore. His
death marked the end of Viking rule at York.
61
Egill Skallagrim
ss
an d po et, an d a on was a great Viki ng wa rrio r
swor n en em y of
W hen he fell into Eric
Eric’s hands, Eg Bloodaxe.
own life by co mp ill sa ved hi s
osing a po em in
prai se of the ki ng
.
Chapter IIII
ARMOUR
U NLIKE MODERN soldiers, Viking warriors did not wear
a uniform but dressed and armed themselves. Many wore
leather tunics and hard leather caps for battle, although these
would not have prevented injury from sharpened swords and
arrows. Chain-mail shirts made from interlocking iron rings and
metal helmets gave much better protection, but were expensive
and probably only worn by rich and powerful leaders.
Raiding and trading
63
WEAPONRY
A WARRIOR’S most treasured possession was
undoubtedly his sword, though he needed to
be trained to fight with a variety of weapons. Dead
Vikings were often buried with their weapons – a
beautiful sword, richly decorated with silver and gold,
showed that its owner was wealthy and powerful.
Raiding And Trading
Battle axes
The Vikings used a variety of axes in battle. Some could
be thrown from a distance, and others were used to hack
at an enemy in close hand-to-hand fighting. Axes were
long-handled with broad blades. When used with two
hands, the axe was a weapon of terror for it could cut
through armour, and slice off heads and limbs.
Knives
Most warriors carried a small, single-edged knife with a
handle made from bone or wood. This was usually carried in
a leather sheaf attached to a belt. The knife was an essential
everyday tool but could also be used in close fighting.
Chapter III
SWORDS
W ARRIORS TREASURED their swords and often gave them
names such as “Leg-biter” or “Fierce”. A Viking sword had
a double-edged blade that was strong as well as flexible, meaning it
would not shatter when struck by the enemy. The sword’s
hilt (handle) was often beautifully decorated.
68
In Viking society, power was held by the jarls. Most people were karls who owned or rented
some land. The thralls at the bottom of the heap had no freedoms at all.
Family feuds
A Viking’s honour and good name were highly
Vikings take part in a valued, and family ties were very important. Men
discussion at the Thing. were prepared to fight to the death if it meant
protecting their family’s reputation, and disputes
were often settled by duels. Violent blood-feuds
between families often lasted for generations.
69
Crime and
punishment
People suspected of crim es
were som etim es forced to
take tests called “ordeals”.
Stones had to be picked out of
boi ling water or red-hot iron
carried for several seconds.
The Vikings bel ieved that the
gods would help the innocent
nged
and so those who failed the
Thi s eng raved arm ring belo tests were considered gui lty.
to a high-ranking Viking.
The Thing usually decided a
crim inal’s punishm ent – he or
she might be fined, banished
from society or forced to
becom e a slave.
Chapter IV
SETTLEMENT ABROAD
O N THE lookout for new places to call home, the
Vikings travelled overseas in order to establish
new colonies, often to the displeasure of the existing
inhabitants which often led to conflict.
Chapter IV
ABROAD
T
HE NORSE did not go abroad only to raid also have supplied driftwood. Most of the
or trade as Vikings, they also settled and archaeological finds of household and luxury
founded Norse colonies in various parts items were imported from Norway, Shetland
of the Viking world. Some of the areas they or England. The Viking settlers were very well
settled were relatively uninhabited, like Iceland, connected to the rest of the Viking world. In
while others required a lot of contact with the early phase of the settling, farmsteads
the existing population, resulting in a certain and outhouses were built further up the hills
amount of assimilation, such as in England. for seasonal use, and in the eleventh century
the descendants of the Norse settlers built a
THE NORTH ATLANTIC: wooden church.
THE FAROE ISLANDS, The Vikings discovered Iceland in the mid-
ICELAND AND to late-ninth century. They found a practically
GREENLAND uninhabited land, with good pastures and
In the early to mid-ninth century, the fishing grounds. There also were, like today,
Vikings reached the Faroe Islands in the natural hot-water basins and spectacular
alta r
A vi ew from the island were of course familiar to Norwegian
d of th e ch ur ch at
en of
e Br ou gh Vikings and, contrary to popular belief, the
Bi rsay. Th
rsay wa s in ha bited by Vikings did find trees there. The forests were,
Bi
pi cture
Pi cts, who left a orse however, much less sustainable than in
ne th er e, un til N
sto Norway and, as trees were felled to serve as
sp la ced them.
settlers di
or se an d timber for houses and fuel, the soil eroded so
The church is N
in s of N or se that the wooded areas could not recover from
the rema
us es ar e vi si bl e on the deforestation. The land was quickly surveyed
ho
tio ns
Brough. Exca va s of a and the settlers claimed fjords, valleys and
ve sh ow n re ma in
ha headlands for themselves.
gr av eyar d beneath
Pi cti sh
ch . Two important books were written
the Norse chur about this period in the twelfth century.
Íslendingabók (The Book of the Icelanders)
and Landnámabók (The Book of Settlements)
mention who the first settlers were and how
they divided the land. There was no substantial
native population the Vikings had to interact
with, but they still made some changes to
their customs and culture, most notably in
how they organized themselves politically
in the new country. It seems the first settlers
The Ring of Brodga r at Ste
nness, Ork ney, would have
been a lan dmark for Ork ney
Vikings. Thi s Neolithic
henge would have been kno
wn to the Ork ney pilg rims
mention ed in Ork neyinga sag
a. On e of the stan ding
ston es is car ved with a run
ic inscription in twi g-r unes
similar to those in Maeshowe
, but it is uncertain if this
is a genuin e inscription from
the Viking Age or early
Middle Ages.
73
This meant that from the mid-ninth century were able to win large parts of the country proceeded to plough and support themselves”.
the Vikings became a permanent presence relatively quickly. Just over a decade later, All the while the Vikings were also trying
d is visible in the
A Viking Age cord roa on in Dubli n, Irelan d.
av ati
foreground of thi s exc at the Battle of Clon
tarf
ng defeated
Even after bei Irelan d.
continued to live in
in 1014, the Vikings
This stone cross at St Mary’s church,
Gosforth, was carved in the tenth century.
The area saw an influx of Viking settlers
arriving in the ninth and tenth centuries.
Norse influence on Anglo-Saxon stone
sculpture is visible in the decoration, which
includes scenes from Norse mytholog y as
well as the crucifixion of Christ.
Chapter IV
80
coins were, like the Anglo-Saxon tradition, much more secular and included a wider well-organized production centre and its place in
struck in name of patron saints, but some section of society. The Viking influence the Viking Age trading network grew.
designs also incorporate images of a sword and a took the stone sculpture out of the monastic It remained in Viking hands even after the
Thor’s hammer. context. Memorial stones and grave English had taken the Five Boroughs – these
Despite the violent colonization process, monuments were now carved by secular were the five main towns of Mercia: Derby,
the Vikings integrated quickly in their new professionals who also served a wider, though Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham and Stamford –
Anglo-Saxon homelands. They converted to still elite, clientele. Scandinavian art styles and by AD 920 it was all the Danish Vikings
Christianity and soon adopted the customs and motifs were introduced and new shapes had left since they had lost more and more of
and conventions. This quick integration, and forms of monument were developed. their territory to the English under the reign
however, does not mean the Scandinavian The most conspicuous of these new of King Edward and his sister Aethelflaed. In
culture was totally dissolved. On the contrary, monument types are gravemarkers called subsequent decades, while the rest of England
there are many indications that a new Anglo- hogbacks. They seem to originate in Yorkshire, was mostly under English rule, York repeatedly
Scandinavian culture emerged. and they are mostly found in that region, changed hands between Dublin Vikings and
The most striking result of this is but there also are a few in Derbyshire, Scotland the English, until Eric Bloodaxe was defeated
demonstrated by stone sculptures, which and Ireland. at Stainmore in AD 954. Although the whole of
shows remarkable innovation. Anglo-Saxon York was a significant town for the Viking England was now united under one English king,
stone monuments were produced in a settlers. It was important for controlling the descendants of the Great Army remained an
monastic context for the upper ranks of the north-west England and was already an important part of the population, and close to a
Church and the aristocracy. By contrast, the established trading centre. The town was century of Viking rule left marks in the language,
Scandinavian memorial stone tradition was developed further under Viking reign as a landscape and culture.
Chapter IV
DUKE ROLLO AND his mint, and a flourishing trading centre THE KIEVAN RUS
NORMANDY that was well connected to the international In the late ninth century the Rus state had
In the early tenth century, the Viking presence trading networks. The place-name evidence expanded southwards from the Novgorod
on the river Seine was becoming so disruptive from Normandy suggests that some of the region to include Kiev as its capital. The
that the Frankish ruler made the strategic settlers were Vikings from Scandinavia, population of the Rus state was predominantly
decision to grant land to the leader of one of the particularly Denmark, and some were Slavic, but the rulers had Norse names. In
bands of Vikings if they would settle there and actually Vikings from Ireland. The the early- and mid-tenth century the Kievan
defend Frankia against attacks by other Viking archaeological material shows that, as in Rus tried to expand further into Byzantium
troops. Hrólfr, or Rollo in French, and his men England, the settlers were rather quick to by attacking Constantinople, but they had to
settled accordingly on their land in the east of convert to Christianity, which undoubtedly settle for treaties which gave them trading
what is now called Normandy. Subsequently, helped with the rapid assimilation between privileges. In AD 988 the Kievan ruler converted
Rollo and, after him, his son William Longsword the Scandinavians and the Frankish to Greek Orthodox Christianity and married the
and their Vikings expanded their territory via population. This part of the Frankish Empire Byzantine emperor’s sister, which improved the
political negotiation and raiding and defined remained under Viking rule, which soon Rus’ relations with Byzantium even more, and
modern Normandy. merged into Norman rule, and the duchy of by this time the Rus already had a much more
Rouen was a very important administrative Normandy grew strong enough to conquer Slavic than Scandinavian identity. This even
centre, where William Longsword established England in 1066. happened in the settlements of Staraja Ladoga,
Gorodice and the town of Novgorod,
which were situated much closer
to Scandinavia. The latter town
especially knew a sophisticated, rich
artisan and merchant milieu with
a well organized political system.
The Scandinavian early Rus mostly
An eleventh-centur y fresco
in the Cathedral of Sai nt
Sophia in Kie v. It depicts
a fight between two
war riors, one masked and
stripped to the wai st. The
fresco probably reco rds the vis
it of the Pri ncess Olga
to Byzantium in AD 953,
when Viking Rus war riors
performed a swo rd dan ce as
entertainment. The masked
man may be one of the only
depictions we have of a
Viking berserk er.
Öxará Waterfall near
Thingvellir, Iceland. The
waterfall lies a little to the north
of the Althing site.
83
Chapter IV
A S RAIDERS, traders
and explorers, the
Vikings ventured far
beyond their Scandinavian
homelands. They
attacked monasteries and
towns across Europe,
and crossed vast areas
of unknown waters to
84 explore and settle lands
in the west. In the East,
the Vikings made long
and dangerous journeys
along the rivers of central
Europe into Russia, finally
reaching the great cities of
Constantinople (the heart
of the Byzantine empire)
and Baghdad.
Wherever they settled,
the Vikings left behind
not only archaeological
remains and artefacts
but a rich legacy that
can be seen today in
place names, folk tales
and local customs.
settlement abroad
85
Chapter IV
O NE OF the most feared rulers in Europe, Harald Hardrada was the king
of Norway from 1046 to 1066. His true name was Harald Sigurdsson,
but the king’s reputation for crushing enemies earned him the nickname
Hardrada or “the Ruthless”. Harald ruled his kingdom with an iron first
but first and foremost he was a warrior, a man who showed no mercy to
those he conquered.
86
Harald the Ruthless
Harald was the half-brother of the
Norwegian king Olaf Haraldsson. In
1030, when he was just 15, he fought
with his brother at the battle of
Stiklestad where Olaf was defeated.
Harald escaped from Norway to the
Russian state of Kiev and became a
military commander. Later, he fought
for the Byzantine Empire and made a
fortune through raiding. In 1045, Harald
returned to his homeland and became
joint ruler with his nephew, King
Magnus. When Magnus died in 1047,
Harald became all-powerful and now
made a claim for Denmark’s throne. He
spent the next 20 years raiding that
country’s coast and repeatedly fighting
its king.
settlement abroad
87
Battle relics
Just outside the Viking city of York
, clos e to
the road that led to Ful ford, a church
cem etery
was discovered containing 11 skeleto
ns of young
men. Up on their bones were the terr
ible scars of
battle injuries. Might these be the rem
ains of the
Anglo-Saxon soldiers who died def
ending their
land from Harald Hardrada’s Viking
army? If so,
a mystery surrounds their burial: mo
re than 1,500
probably died on the battlefield, so
why have
so few graves been discovered?
Chapter IV
This reconstructed
Viking village is at
Hedeby, Germany. Once
part of Denmark, Hedeby
was a great Viking town.
Tow n life
lem ents grew up near rivers and
Viking sett
loaded.
The Viking settlement of the sea where ships could be easily
y in
Som e trading centres such as Hedeb
Jarlshof in Shetland was
discovered after storm
am e
damage revealed a number Denmark and Dublin in Ireland bec
streets
of stone walls.
bustling towns. The narrow, muddy
lined
would have been crowded and noisy,
goo ds.
with houses and market stal ls sell ing
wel ls
Fresh water cam e from springs and
smelly
but towns must have been dirty and
mp ed
places. Farm ani mals were kept in cra
s would
conditions, smoke from household fire
age was
have hung thick in the air, and sew
cesspits.
thrown into holes in the ground and
89
RUNES
T HE VIKINGS developed a way of writing
using marks or letters called runes. The 16
letters were made up of straight and diagonal
f u th a
91
Rune stones
often celebrated
the glory of dead Vikings.
This stone was put up by a
man named Varin for
his son Vermod.
EVERYDAY LIFE
THE SCANDINAVIAN location in the Baltic Sea, the island had a assemblies held at set times at a central
COUNTRIES IN THE distinctly individual culture. There is, for place, often a mound – were an important
VIKING AGE instance, the unique type of memorial stones, institution. This is where people would gather
N
ORWAY, SWEDEN and Denmark albeit related to the runestones of mainland to discuss important decisions
did not exist as clearly defined Scandinavia: the Gotlandic picture stones. The and pass laws.
countries until the late Viking Age. jewellery also differs from that worn in the The southern parts
The social and political organization could rest of Sweden. The northern half of Sweden, of modern Sweden,
vary by region and the varying landscapes and Finland and north Norway were the territory Skåne and Halland, were
different contacts with other peoples made the of the Sámi (previously also called Lapps). part of Denmark, which
“Scandinavian” culture in the Viking Age less There were distinct similarities between also included the part of
homogenous than it is often thought to be. certain beliefs and rituals of the Sámi and the northern Germany that
In Sweden, the regions of Götaland in the Germanic Scandinavians. Archaeology and is now Schlewig-Holstein.
south, Svealand (central Sweden, Blekinge, written sources show that there was extensive Jutland was the centre
part of the coastal region to the north and interaction between them that went beyond of a strong centralized
Öland) and Norrland in the north had their trading. Examples of cross-cultural marriages power already in the
own leaders throughout the Viking Age. are known and graves with both Sámi and eighth century. This
The island of Gotland was practically Nordic characteristics have been found. is demonstrated
independent from the Scandinavian The different regions had their own social by large-scale
mainland. Through its offshore and legal organization. The local things – defences and
94
Visito rs walk alo ng a cor
d road,
made of logs, past a rec
onstructed
Viking house at Hedeby,
an area that
is now in Germany but
which was in
Denmark in the Viking
Age.
they refer to the chieftain’s or king’s farm free man, well-off enough to commemorate his imported silks and the famous tapestries. The
among other farms, assembly places, sacred former master when he died. grave had been disturbed (probably robbed,
groves, cult sites, smithies and so on. Women played an important role in running for there were no precious metals left) and any
Although not all farmers were also the farm and household, since men could be clues as to the relation between the younger
landowners, they were still free men. Other away for most of the year. It is assumed that and the older woman have been lost. Other
free men were merchants, craftsmen, hunters, this role is symbolized by the iconic keys pre-Christian burials, together with written
fishers or poets, or a combination of any of that are often found as part of a woman’s sources, indicate that Viking Age women could
these with farmer and/or Viking. Chieftains and attire. Women were fairly independent: they also be cult leaders and prophetesses. Towards
kings held households, which could include could own and inherit landed property and the later Viking Age, some women – like men
bodyguards and stewards, and kings liked to they could choose as well as divorce their – commissioned runestones to commemorate
employ one or more skalds (poets). Kings could husbands. Several written sources mention husbands, sons and daughters. From these
call upon local chieftains to provide them a woman called Aud the Deep-minded, who inscriptions we also read that they were proud
with ships and men if needed for battles or went to Iceland as one of the early settlers in Christians, who had bridges and causeways
expeditions. It could be a good career for young the late ninth century to claim land after her built and went on pilgrimage.
adventurous men to find fame and fortune in husband’s death. There are several extremely Among kings and chieftains it was common
the retinue of a king or jarl before taking over rich Viking Age female burials, testifying that to have a son fostered by another family.
the family farm. women could be as highly placed as men, This was a good way to forge and strengthen
The people lowest in rank were slaves. Slaves sometimes perhaps even higher. The most diplomatic bonds between families. Otherwise
were mostly traded, but wealthy landowners famous of these graves is the Oseberg ship children were prepared for their future roles
could afford to have a slave work for them on burial, which was more impressive than any in society at home. Much of what children
their farm. A runestone in Hørning, Denmark, male burial in that region. Two women were played with would have been made from
was raised by a man called Toki the smith, to buried in the large ship, accompanied by a natural materials such as wood, bone and cloth.
commemorate Thorgisl who “gave him gold and wealth of grave goods, including richly carved None of these survive very well, but some
freedom”. This is a case of a slave who became a sleighs, an elaborately decorated wagon, miniature objects have been found and these
Everyday Life
Ha rald Fai rhair, the kin
g who united
No rway in the ninth cen
tur y, at sea with
his wa rriors. Hi s hai r is
unk
shag g y because he vo wed empt and
not to comb his
hai r until he ruled over
all of No rway.
Illustration by Mo rri s
Meredith Wi lliams.
are interpreted as childrens’ toys. There are The Edda contains tales
wooden dolls, horses and ships and child-size about Odin, Thor, Frey,
wooden swords. Freyja and other gods,
Adults also liked a good game. Gaming pieces giants, and trolls. Snorri
for board games of different materials, quality also presents a history of
and wealth have been found. One memorial Viking mythology and
stone from Sweden even has a depiction of a detailed description of
two men sitting at the games table with their the mythological world,
drinking horns. Another favourite pastime was with different realms for
probably sports. People from the highest social gods, men, giants, and an
strata went hunting with birds for leisure. In the underworld, all centred
long, dark winter, people entertained each other round the tree of life. This
by telling stories and reciting poetry. is very much influenced by
how the Christian religion
THE VIKING BELIEFS was presented, which Snorri,
AND RITUALS as a learned Christian scholar,
Viking Age spirituality and beliefs were very was familiar with. This
much part of daily life, interwoven with all reconstructed mythology
aspects of Viking culture. For a long time, does not reflect the place
a book compiled by Snorri Sturluson in the of the Viking Age beliefs
early thirteenth century was taken as a sort in daily life. We must look
of bible of pagan Viking religion, but this is to other sources such as
now considered to be an outdated approach. burial customs, place-names
Although Snorri’s Edda contains a compilation and runestones to clarify
of stories about Viking gods and heroes
and a general introduction to Viking Age
and complete the picture.
Snorri writes about Odin 97
mythology, he tells these stories as part of as the main god, but in
the broader purpose of the book: as reference Sweden, for instance, there
and instruction for poets to retain the art are many more place-names
of skaldic poetry. Many of the kennings, or containing the element
circumlocutions, that are used in skaldic poetry “thor” while many finds
describe things or people with reference to have been made of amulets
these mythological and legendary stories. that take the form of small Thor’s hammers.
Snorri wanted to stimulate young poets to keep A handful of runestones also call upon this
the old skaldic art alive, so knowledge of these god to consecrate or protect the monument
stories was as important for understanding (or possibly the family involved in raising it).
and composing the poetry as knowledge of the Clearly, not every god played the same role
intricate metres and rhyme-schemes, which he throughout Viking Age Scandinavia.
also explains. There was also an enormous
diversity in the Viking Age burial
,
m Jutlan d, Denmark
The Mammen Axe fro decora tive arts of
of the
is a sup erb example
de of iro n inlaid with
the Vikings. It is ma tur y.
dates to the tenth cen
silver, an d probably
Chapter V
by
An upright loom, as would have been used
Vikin gs, withi n the recon structed hall at
the
Borg in Lofoten, Norway.
on the iconic Viking Age stone monuments Another common genre of runic inscription love letters and exchanges of glee about rude
called runestones. These memorial inscriptions consists of names on objects. This can be graffiti. Some of the more official letters use
generally state who had the monument made the name of the owner, of the producer, and phrases that were common in the letters and
in memory of whom and often information sometimes of the object itself. Sometimes they charters of medieval Europe. Although a very
is added about lands that were owned by the added protective phrases – for example, against small number of runic sticks have survived
deceased (possibly as claim to inheritance), theft as on a copper box for storing scales found from Viking Age Hedeby, there is not enough
expeditions, battles or pilgrimages they were in Sigtuna in Sweden. comparable material from the Viking towns
involved in, or they mention that a to conclude that the runic script
causeway or road was constructed "Although there were many conventions in how to was used for administrative and
as part of the monument. Some informal writing to the same extent
runestones explicitly record the carve a runic inscription, there was no standardized as later in the medieval towns.
Christianization of certain areas,
and many of the eleventh-century
spelling and words were written how they sounded" A common misconception
is that runes were considered
runestone inscriptions end with a Christian Because of their angular shape, runes were magic characters in the Viking Age. This
prayer for the soul of the commemorated. The also very good for carving in wood and bone misunderstanding seems to stem from the
majority of the runestones from the later period and this is how less monumental messages fact that many of the inscriptions in the
are also decorated with a Christian cross. At the were exchanged. From the early medieval Older Futhark have a ritual character and
same time there is a handful of runestones town of Bergen an enormous number of runic a connection between Odin and runes in
that invoke the god Thor to consecrate or sticks – pieces of wood with runic inscriptions – mythology. Also in the Viking Age a rune-
protect the monument or that are decorated have survived. Among the messages are official carver could, for instance, invoke Thor in an
with a Thor’s hammer. letters about politics and affairs as well as secret inscription on a memorial stone. This, however,
in this howe;
Never again shall such a battle-hardened
sea-warrior (Viourr-of-the-Carriage of [the
Sea-king]
Endill’s mighty dominion ( = God of the
vessels of the sea) ),
rule unsurpassed over land in Denmark.
does not make the runic script itself any more Most information was transmitted not onto vellum in the Middle Ages had their roots
magical than writing a spell in our modern in written form, however, but orally. News in Viking poems; these are called the Eddic
Roman alphabet would. To those who could travelled by word of mouth and lawspeakers poems. Another type of poetry is more about
not read the runes, the symbols may have had played an important role in the Scandinavian current events, praises kings and leaders and
a mystic character and we do not know how legal system. These officials had as their main records the outcome of battles. These poems
much of the population could read runes. Still, task to remember the law codes and recite were composed by professional (court) poets,
in the Viking Age runic writing was mainly these every year when judgement was to be skalds, whose names are often transmitted with
used on memorial stones and objects to record passed at the assembly. their verses as they were quoted as sources in
and boost ownership, provenance and purpose In this largely oral society, story-telling and medieval sagas. The skalds used an extremely
and only to a lesser extent to invoke certain reciting of poetry were important. Many of intricate poetic form with a strict metre and
powers, Christian as well as pagan. the mythological poems that were recorded complex poetic language such as kennings.
Everyday Life
This tight poetic form ensured accurate in an animal head), “gripping-beast” and “Great
transmission of the content, because the one Beast” (a creature similar to a dragon), make up "Vikings not only appreciated
cannot be changed without corrupting the the various phases of animal ornament. Other
other. Skaldic poetry is not only about recording popular pictorial elements were naturalistic well-wrought verse, they are also
and transmitting information correctly; there is,
for example, also love poetry. Using the skaldic
or stylized human faces or full-body human
figures. There are also narrative scenes that
known for their love of artistic
metre and diction both correctly and originally can combine several human figures, animals, decoration and skill in producing
was a challenge that made the poets highly ships, buildings or other objects. Some of the
appreciated artists. recurring figures and scenes from Viking art beautiful objects"
can be identified. The female figures with
ART AND CRAFTS trailing dresses and often a drinking horn characteristics, birds of prey, dogs and wolves.
Vikings not only appreciated well-wrought have been interpreted as valkyries. We can These motifs and scenes were used to decorate
verse, they are also known for their love of recognize Sigurd the Dragonslayer a number of a wide range of objects and materials, from
artistic decoration and skill in producing times, as well as Thor fishing for the Midgard brooches and helmets to ships and from
beautiful objects. From the late eighth century Serpent and possibly Odin at Ragnarök. metalwork and wood to wall hangings. In
to the mid-twelfth century the Oseberg, Borre, Christian motifs and scenes were also popular. particular, Thor’s hammers and valkyrie
Jelling, Mammen, Ringerike and Urnes art For instance, small cross pendants with a figurines were cast as amulets. There are also
styles – named after the finding places of crucified Christ were produced and the large small statuettes that may represent gods: Frey
significant objects – succeeded each other runestone at Jelling, on which King Harald from Rällinge, Sweden; Thor from Eyrarland,
with, of course, a notable degree of overlap Bluetooth proclaims he has Christianized Iceland; Freya from Lejre, Denmark; and an
and regional variation. The Viking Age all of Denmark, is decorated with a large armed valkyrie from Hårby, Denmark.
Scandinavian art styles are characterized by figure of Christ in a crucified position. Other The specialized craftsmen who produced
interlacing zoomorphic motifs, which partly common motifs and scenes include armed these decorated objects and their plain
goes back to a pan-Germanic style of animal men and riders on horseback in hunting or counterparts used a variety of techniques.
ornament. In the subsequent Scandinavian
styles the “ribbon-animal”, (long ribbons ending
warrior context, crewed ships, processions,
figures that have human as well as animalistic
Archaeological finds show that there was a
market for mass-produced objects as well 101
THE VIKINGS
AT HOME
M OST VIKING families lived in long, low
farmhouses consisting of one main room.
Depending on the region and materials available,
houses were built of stone, wood or turf, and
often had thatched or turf roofs. Floors
consisted of flattened earth, and
walls could be made of “wattle”
(branches woven together),
which was smeared
with mud or dung
104 to keep out the
wind and rain.
Home comforts
Most Viking homes would have been very crowded
with three or more generations living under one roof.
Houses were dark and smoky with only a dim light
given out by the cooking fire and lamps hung on
ropes. In the bitterly cold winters, many families were
forced to share their living space with farm animals
that were penned in at one end of the house.
A reconstructed Viking
home in Iceland. Houses
here were usually built
from stone and turf.
105
e hearvarth
Aro unbuidldinthg mat ied,
Although erials
ss
the layout of houses was sim ilar acro
the
the Viking world. At the centre of
a hol e in
hom e was a large fireplace with
ke
the ceil ing above through which smo
alon g the
could escape. Raised platforms
ping.
walls were used for sitting and slee
Food was prepared in clay
cooking pots like this one.
Wealthier hom es usually had sma ller
that
rooms on each side of the mai n hal l
e roo ms
could be used as bedrooms, stor
might
or kitchens, and the richest Vikings
apo ns
own wooden chairs and beds. We
valued
and tools were hung from the roof,
ed che sts,
belongi ngs hidden away in lock
.
and foo dstuffs were stored in barrels
Chapter V
FAMILY LIFE
I N VIKING times, family ties were
strong. A man was head of his
household, but women took charge when
their husbands were away. Children
didn’t go to school, but instead helped
in the fields and with cooking, weaving
and spinning. Families and communities
needed to provide for themselves,
and children learnt
important skills
from a young age.
106
Ba rley
Fish an d m
ea
in the sun t were salted an d d
to p reserv ri ed
e them.
Chapter V
THE VIKING
UNIVERSE
T HE VIKINGS believed the universe was
ruled over by many gods and goddesses, and
that amazing creatures lived in its various parts.
At the centre of the universe was Yggdrasil, an
ash tree that held everything together. Humans
lived in Midgard, which was surrounded by
an ocean containing a giant serpent. The gods Vanaheim, the world
of the “Vanir” gods
were found in Asgard and Vanaheim, while
giants, trolls and other dreadful beings lived in
separate kingdoms. At the bottom of the tree was
108 Niflheim, an icy place of eternal darkness.
re usually
Religiou
ap ons and jewellery
op en air. Gi fts such as we
and these have been
were offered to the go ds .
where they were thrown
found preserved in bogs to
le were also sacrificed
Animals and even peop
ve been found to contain
the go ds. Some graves ha
o were probably kil led to
the bo dies of people wh
ing buried.
accompany the person be
Jotunheim, the
land of the giants
SAGAS AND
LEGENDS
T HE VIKINGS loved to tell each other thrilling legends of gods
and monsters, and tales of heroic warriors and battles. Some
stories recounted the adventures of kings while others were gripping
accounts of ordinary families. The legends weren’t written down by
the Vikings themselves – it was not until the thirteenth century that
writers began to record these stories in books called sagas.
The Theft of
Thor’s Hammer
One morning the mighty god
Thor awakes to discover that his
powerful hammer, Mjollnir, has
been stolen. The thief is Thrym,
king of the giants, who says he
will only return the hammer if the
beautiful goddess Freya marries
him. The gods hatch a plan and
agree that Thor should dress as
Freya with Loki disguised as her
bridesmaid. The two set out for
Thrym’s castle where they are
welcomed with a feast. Thor almost
gives himself away by consuming an
entire ox but Loki assures Thrym
that Freya is just hungry. When
the giant lifts his bride’s veil to kiss
her, he is alarmed at her burning
eyes. However, Loki tells Thrym
that Freya is merely tired – excited
about her wedding, she has not
slept or eaten for eight days. As
the giant fetches the magic hammer
to bless the marriage, Thor seizes
his prized weapon and sets about
beating Thrym and several other
giants to death.
ooking
Lindholm Hoje is a dramatic burial site overl
the Danish city of Aalbo rg. It contai ns nearly 700
graves from the Iron and Viking Ages.
everyday life
I
include a Christian prayer for the soul of the combination of evangelisation, legislation and
N THE late Viking Age, Christianity came dead and often, especially on eleventh-century force. The local chieftains resisted conversion
to Scandinavia, but Vikings had known runestones, the decoration includes carvings of because Christianity was better suited for a
about the Christian religion for a long time, Christian crosses. centralized power structure than the old faith.
as the rest of Europe had been Christian since Missionaries had come to Scandinavia from Vikings were happy to be baptized abroad for
the early Viking Age. Vikings first became the eighth century onwards. The Frankish diplomatic reasons, but living in a Christian
familiar with Christianity abroad, and Christian emperor Louis the Pious supported the country would diminish their independence.
merchants frequented the Scandinavian exiled Danish king Harald Klak, who had Iceland was an independent republic, but
trading centres. Vikings regularly chose to converted to Christianity, and helped him still bound to Norway through family ties
be baptized on expeditions when trade or onto the Danish throne twice (ad 812–814 and and trade. The Norwegian kings had enough
diplomatic contacts were at stake. They were AD 819–827), sending missionaries with him. power to influence the Christianisation there.
not exactly converted: Christ, the holy trinity Ansgar, later archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, Íslendingabók, the twelfth-century Icelandic
300 ships, of which they needed only 24 to take settlers in England had in the meantime
the survivors of the battle home. integrated in the cultural melting pot of the
King Harold Godwinson of England only Anglo-Saxons. A ston e mould used by a Vik
ing smith to
had a little time to recover, for William of King Magnus Barelegs of Norway (who cast both crosses and Thor’s
hammers. Thi s
illustrates a ver y pragmatic
app
the co-existence of the Christi roach to
Normandy, a descendant of the Viking reigned 1093–1103) brought the independent
ruler Rollo, had similar ambitions to Harald earldoms and kingdoms in the Northern and an reli gio n
and pre-Ch ristian beli efs.
Hardrada. If the winds had been different that Western Isles (Orkney, the Hebrides and the
September, history might have taken a different Isle of Man), most ruled by descendants of
course. Harald and William had prepared their the independent Viking settlers, under century, the unstable political situation in
fleets at the same time, but William could Norwegian rule. In subsequent centuries, Iceland gave the Norwegian king Håkon IV
not sail out until after the battle at Stamford however, the various islands changed hands the opportunity to subject the republic to
Bridge, at which the English army suffered between Manx, Scottish and Norwegian his rule. The profitable Greenland colony
severe losses. When they faced the Norman kings, until they were all, with Orkney last, fell under his reign too. In the following
army just over a fortnight later near Hastings eventually sold or mortgaged to the Scottish centuries a combination of climate change
on 14 October, King Harold nevertheless put kings in the course of the twelfth to the and new sources for the luxury goods like
up a fierce defence. William’s host, however, fifteenth centuries. ivory and furs that had been exported from
was stronger and after his victory at Hastings The Scandinavian countries never were Greenland led to the abandonment of the
the rest of England was conquered quickly. truly feudal states. But, following on from colony and thus the gateway across the Atlantic
The story of the victory was embroidered on a the new centralized power structure crafted to the far west.
commemorative tapestry in Bayeux, probably with the introduction of Christianity, the The conditions that created the opportunities
ordered by bishop Odo, who was William’s half- tithe system (already in practice in the rest of for raiding and taking lands for settlements had
brother. The Norman conquest was the end of medieval Europe) was introduced to Denmark changed. The surplus of men and the element
Scandinavian rule over England. In subsequent in the twelfth century. Taxes were collected of surprise had gone and the advantage of
years, attempts to reclaim parts of England and obligations to Church and king became having innovative fast boats was not enough.
failed because the Scandinavian armies were
too depleted after decades of internal power
connected to landownership. The kings
granted lands in exchange for military
Instead, the Scandinavian countries had
established themselves as worthy partners in 121
struggles and by Harald Hardrada’s final services. Soon, the same development took the political, religious and trade networks of the
campaign. The descendants of the Viking place in Norway and Sweden. In the thirteenth medieval world.
yeux
A scene fro m the Ba
sh owing the No rman
Tap estry
nd .
invasion of Engla
The End Of The Viking Age
This Ch ri
stia
cross has a n
dragon’s h
ea
the old Vik d -
in
b eliefs wer g
slo w to die
e 123
out.
As Christianity took
hold in Scandinavia,
wooden churches
The Gosfo rt began to appear built
h from upright planks
Cross mixes
scen es from (staves). This is the
the Bible Borgund Stave Church
with Viking in Norway dating from
m ytholog y. around 1180.
Chapter VII
THE VIKING LEGACY
F AR FROM disappearing into the annals of time,
the Vikings left a lasting legacy that lives on today,
from archeological material to the legendary myths that
still prove popular nowadays.
Chapter VII
B
cake for your guests? Then you speak Old Norse! first named after the Vikings and the second
Y THE end of the Viking Age, the with a Viking as their trademark, both create a
Scandinavians who had settled in The landscape in the Scandinavian connection between their ferry service and the
the British Isles had been mixing with homelands is scattered with archaeological seamanship of the Vikings.
the people there for a couple of generations. material from the Viking Age. There are The strong sentiment connected to
The result was a distinct Norse influence in remains of buildings, cemeteries (most well identifying Viking heritage also lies behind
regions where many Vikings had settled, preserved is Lindholm høje, which is north the interest in participating in genetic studies.
such as the former Danelaw and the Northern of the city of Aalborg in Denmark), assembly Major academic research into Viking ancestry
Isles. We can still see this in, for example, the sites (the largest is Thingvellir in Iceland) has been undertaken using DNA sampling.
dialects and place-names in those regions. and many runestones, especially in central In combination with information from
Norn is an extinct language closely related to Sweden. The Viking heritage is also exploited archaeology, surnames and place-names, it
the Old Norse of the Vikings settlers. It was in the Scandinavian tourist industry and is is now possible to draw conclusions about
spoken in the Northern Isles and the far often expressed in local arts and crafts. This the history of Viking immigration in a region.
north of Scotland and declined only in the can be in a reinvented form, where historical This research confirms, for instance, that
late fourteenth century when it was superseded accuracy is less important than the creation the English Wirral Peninsula and west
by Scots. and expression of a cultural identity. Lancashire were heavily settled by Norse
Norn actually continued to be spoken up Many products and companies choose Vikings. A Norse ancestry can be recognized
of the Shetlan d
Up Helly Aa is a celebration
e, whi ch has tak en place
Islands’ Viking heritag
finale is the bur ning
each Januar y sin ce 1870. Its
of a Viking longship.
Chapter vii
VIKING CRAFTS
T HE VIKINGS were skilled craftsmen, expert at shipbuilding,
metalworking and woodwork. In every home, essential tools
were made and repaired while women spun and wove to make the
family’s clothes. Both men and women wore jewellery and many
beautifully crafted pieces have been discovered. Gold and silver
were a sign of wealth, while cheaper pieces were made from bronze,
copper, carved animal bones and coloured glass.
132
Viking gold
Both men and women wore rings like
this gold piece (right). This mount to
put a horse’s bridle on (left), is made
of bronze covered in gold leaf.
Animal bone
Skilled craftsmen carved intricate
patterns into animal bone. This
carving from Denmark is thought
to be the bone handle of a
walking stick.
the viking legacy
133
Metalwork
This stunning brooch is from
Aker, Norway. It’s made
from silver-plated iron inlaid
with precious stones.
Chapter vii
the viking legacy
THE JELLING
STONE
T HIS DETAIL (below) is a copy from
one of two rune stones discovered at
Jelling in Jutland, Denmark. The three-
sided stone was raised by the Danish king
Harald Bluetooth in honour of his royal
parents over 1,200 years ago. An inscription
on one side reads: “King Harald commanded
this monument to be made in memory of
Gorm his father and in memory of Thyre his
mother – that Harald who won the whole of
Denmark for himself and made the Danes
Christian”. The figure shown here is the
earliest Scandinavian image of Jesus Christ –
Harald became a Christian around 960 AD.
Chapter VIII
EXHIBITS
T HIS COLLECTION of rare documents provides
a fascinating insight into the Viking culture and
lifestyle, including drawings, maps and manuscripts,
along with translations.
Chapter VIII
138
SKÁLHOLT MAP
In the sixteenth century Sigurd Stefansson from Skálholt marked the sites of the ancient Norse discoveries on a
map. His original map has not survived, but a copy made in 1690 by Thordur Thorlaksson is in the Danish Royal
Library. Stefansson’s positioning of Vinland encouraged archaeological digs at L’Anse Aux Meadows in the 1960s.
139
Chapter VIII
140
ONICLE
EXHIBIT III: ANGLO SAXON CHR
latio n.
With thanks to Studiemeesters for the trans
Exhibits
141
142
Exhibits
143
145
146
Exhibits
147
Chapter VIII
148
Chapter VIII
150
The Icelandic thirteenth-century Codex Regius contains a large collection of Norse mythological and legendary
poems, called the Poetic Edda. For many of the poems this manuscript is the only source. The poems were thus
preserved in a thirteenth-century written form, but they go back to much older oral traditions, which can be
shown through linguistic analysis and literary parallels.
Exhibits
151
Chapter VIII
EXCAVATION PLAN OF
BUCKQUOY SETTLEMENT
The settlement at Buckquoy,
facing the Brough of Birsay,
was excavated in 1970–71.
Remains from the Norse
phase of the settlement
include a mid- to late-tenth-
century grave dug into the
mound that was formed by
the ruins of three successive
Norse long-houses. The man
was buried with, among other
things, a bronze ring-pin
and half of a silver penny of
Edmund (AD 940–6), while
the finds from the houses
include bone combs, flat
spindle whorls and a stone
game-board.
152
Exhibits
EXHIBIT XIII -
VIKING GRAVEYARD
154
FLATEYJARBOK
Most of the Icelandic sagas
about Norse Kings are
collected in this fourteenth-
century manuscript. The
first page shows the end of
the Saga of Eirik the Far-
farer, who is supposed to
have travelled to Byzantium
and India. The red text with
the illuminated initial H
annouces that the Saga of
Olaf Tryggvason begins
here. The picture is of
Harald Fairhair and the saga
begins with a short history
of his reign. The second
page describes the birth
and baptism of Olaf. The
illuminated initial shows
his mother Astrid in the bed
with the infant Olaf.
Exhibits
155
Chapter VIII
156
EXHIBIT XV - VINLAND MAP
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