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Indian Political
System
India is a Sovereign, Secular, Democratic Republic with a Parliamentary form of Government.
The Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November 1949 and came
into force on 26th November 1950. The Constitution advocated the trinity of justice, liberty and
equality for all the citizens. The Constitution was framed keeping in mind the socioeconomic
progress of the country. India follows a parliamentary form of democracy and the government is
federal in structure.

In Indian political system, the President is the constitutional head of the executive of the Union
of India. The real executive power is with the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
According to the Article 74(1) of the constitution, the Council of Ministers under the leadership
of the Prime Minister is responsible to aid and assist the President in exercising the Presidents
function. The Council of ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the House of People. In states
the Governor is the representative of the President, though the real executive power is with the
Chief Minister along with his Council of Ministers.

For a given state the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible for the elected legislative
assembly of the state. The Constitution administrates the sharing of legislative power between
Parliament and the State Legislatures. The Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution.

President of India
The President of India is the constitutional head of India and is the supreme commander of the
nation¶s armed forces. The President is elected by members of an Electoral College consisting of
elected members of both the Houses of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of the states, with
suitable weightage given to each vote. His term of office is for five years. Among other powers,
the President can proclaim an emergency in the country if he is satisfied that the security of the
country or of any part of its territory is threatened by the following situations. A war or external
aggression, an armed rebellion within the country and collapse of state machinery in terms of
economic and political crisis. Hence when there is a failure of the constitutional machinery in a
state, the President can assume all or any of the functions of the government of that state.

Vice-President
The Vice-President of India is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of
members of both Houses of Parliament. The method of electing the Vice President is the system
of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. He like the President holds
office for five years. The Vice-President also happens to be Ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya
Sabha and presides over its proceedings.

Council of Ministers
The Council Of Ministers is the supreme governing body in the country and is selected from the
elected members of the Union Government. The Council of Ministers comprises of Cabinet
Ministers, Minister of States and Deputy Ministers. Prime Minister heads the Council of

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Ministers and communicates all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to administration
of affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation to the President. Generally, each department
has an officer designated as secretary to the Government of India to advise the Ministers on
policy matters and general administration. The Cabinet Secretariat has an important harmonizing
role in decision making at the highest level and operates under the bearing of the Prime Minister.

Parliament
The Parliament is the legislative arm of the Union. It consists of the President, Rajya Sabha or
the Upper House and Lok Sabha or the Lower House. All bills to be made into law require the
consent of both the houses of parliament. However, in case of money bills, the Lok Sabha is the
supreme authority.

Rajya Sabha
The Rajya Sabha consists of not more than 250 members. Of these, 233 represent states and
union territories and 12 members are nominated by the President. Elections to the Rajya Sabha
are indirect. Members to the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of Legislative
Assemblies of the concerned states. The members of the Upper House put forth the interests of
their respective state in the Parliament. The Rajya Sabha is not subject to dissolution in contrast
to the Lok Sabha and one third of its members retire every second year.

Lok Sabha
The Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the
basis of universal adult franchise. As of today, the Lok Sabha consists of 545 members with two
members nominated by the President to stand for the Anglo-Indian Community. Unless
dissolved under circumstances like failure of the leading party to prove clear majority or a no-
confidence motion, the term of the Lok Sabha is for five years.

State Governments
The system of government in states closely resembles that of the Union. In the states as well
there are two major governing bodies - the legislative assembly and the legislative council. For
the Legislative assembly direct elections are held and the political party receiving the majority
votes forms the Government in the state. There are 28 states and seven Union territories in the
country. Union Territories are administered by the President through a Governor or administrator
appointed by him. Till 1 February 1992, the Union Territory of Delhi was governed by the
Central government through an Administrator appointed by the President of India. Through a
Constitutional amendment in Parliament, the Union Territory of Delhi is called the National
Capital Territory of Delhi from 1 February 1992 onwards. General elections to the Legislative
assembly of the National Capital Territory were held in November 1993. Since then after every
five years the state underwent general elections maintaining the democratic process in Delhi.

Political Parties In India

In India a recognized political party is categorized either as a National Party or a State Party. If a
political party is recognized in four or more states and is either the ruling party or is in the
opposition in these states, it is considered as a National Party. The Congress, Bharatiya Janata
Party, Janata Dal, Communist Party of India and Communist Party of India (Marxist) are the
prominent National Parties in the Country. Some of these parties have existed before the

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independence of the country while few of these emerged after political dynamism flourished in
the country in post independent years.

Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, Asom Gana Parishad in Assam, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha in
Bihar, Maharashtra Gomantak Party in Goa, National Conference in Jammu and Kashmir,
Muslim League in Kerala, Shiv Sena in Maharashtra, Akali Dal in Punjab, All-India Anna
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in Tamil Nadu, Bahujan Samaj
Party and Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh and All-India Forward Block in West Bengal are the
prominent state parties which are the major political players in their respective states. In fact in
most of the states where the regional parties have come to the fore understanding the nuisance of
their respective state better, there the scope of National parties emerging victorious is barely
present.

Indian Political
System
India is a Sovereign, Secular, Democratic Republic with a Parliamentary form of Government.
The Constitution was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th November 1949 and came
into force on 26th November 1950. The Constitution advocated the trinity of justice, liberty and
equality for all the citizens. The Constitution was framed keeping in mind the socioeconomic
progress of the country. India follows a parliamentary form of democracy and the government is
federal in structure.

In Indian political system, the President is the constitutional head of the executive of the Union
of India. The real executive power is with the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.
According to the Article 74(1) of the constitution, the Council of Ministers under the leadership
of the Prime Minister is responsible to aid and assist the President in exercising the Presidents
function. The Council of ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the House of People. In states
the Governor is the representative of the President, though the real executive power is with the
Chief Minister along with his Council of Ministers.

For a given state the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible for the elected legislative
assembly of the state. The Constitution administrates the sharing of legislative power between
Parliament and the State Legislatures. The Parliament has the power to amend the Constitution.

President of India
The President of India is the constitutional head of India and is the supreme commander of the
nation¶s armed forces. The President is elected by members of an Electoral College consisting of
elected members of both the Houses of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies of the states, with
suitable weightage given to each vote. His term of office is for five years. Among other powers,
the President can proclaim an emergency in the country if he is satisfied that the security of the
country or of any part of its territory is threatened by the following situations. A war or external
aggression, an armed rebellion within the country and collapse of state machinery in terms of
economic and political crisis. Hence when there is a failure of the constitutional machinery in a

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state, the President can assume all or any of the functions of the government of that state.

Vice-President
The Vice-President of India is elected by the members of an electoral college consisting of
members of both Houses of Parliament. The method of electing the Vice President is the system
of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. He like the President holds
office for five years. The Vice-President also happens to be Ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya
Sabha and presides over its proceedings.

Council of Ministers
The Council Of Ministers is the supreme governing body in the country and is selected from the
elected members of the Union Government. The Council of Ministers comprises of Cabinet
Ministers, Minister of States and Deputy Ministers. Prime Minister heads the Council of
Ministers and communicates all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to administration
of affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation to the President. Generally, each department
has an officer designated as secretary to the Government of India to advise the Ministers on
policy matters and general administration. The Cabinet Secretariat has an important harmonizing
role in decision making at the highest level and operates under the bearing of the Prime Minister.

Parliament
The Parliament is the legislative arm of the Union. It consists of the President, Rajya Sabha or
the Upper House and Lok Sabha or the Lower House. All bills to be made into law require the
consent of both the houses of parliament. However, in case of money bills, the Lok Sabha is the
supreme authority.

Rajya Sabha
The Rajya Sabha consists of not more than 250 members. Of these, 233 represent states and
union territories and 12 members are nominated by the President. Elections to the Rajya Sabha
are indirect. Members to the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of Legislative
Assemblies of the concerned states. The members of the Upper House put forth the interests of
their respective state in the Parliament. The Rajya Sabha is not subject to dissolution in contrast
to the Lok Sabha and one third of its members retire every second year.

Lok Sabha
The Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of the people chosen by direct election on the
basis of universal adult franchise. As of today, the Lok Sabha consists of 545 members with two
members nominated by the President to stand for the Anglo-Indian Community. Unless
dissolved under circumstances like failure of the leading party to prove clear majority or a no-
confidence motion, the term of the Lok Sabha is for five years.

State Governments
The system of government in states closely resembles that of the Union. In the states as well
there are two major governing bodies - the legislative assembly and the legislative council. For
the Legislative assembly direct elections are held and the political party receiving the majority
votes forms the Government in the state. There are 28 states and seven Union territories in the
country. Union Territories are administered by the President through a Governor or administrator

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appointed by him. Till 1 February 1992, the Union Territory of Delhi was governed by the
Central government through an Administrator appointed by the President of India. Through a
Constitutional amendment in Parliament, the Union Territory of Delhi is called the National
Capital Territory of Delhi from 1 February 1992 onwards. General elections to the Legislative
assembly of the National Capital Territory were held in November 1993. Since then after every
five years the state underwent general elections maintaining the democratic process in Delhi.

Political Parties In India

In India a recognized political party is categorized either as a National Party or a State Party. If a
political party is recognized in four or more states and is either the ruling party or is in the
opposition in these states, it is considered as a National Party. The Congress, Bharatiya Janata
Party, Janata Dal, Communist Party of India and Communist Party of India (Marxist) are the
prominent National Parties in the Country. Some of these parties have existed before the
independence of the country while few of these emerged after political dynamism flourished in
the country in post independent years.

Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, Asom Gana Parishad in Assam, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha in
Bihar, Maharashtra Gomantak Party in Goa, National Conference in Jammu and Kashmir,
Muslim League in Kerala, Shiv Sena in Maharashtra, Akali Dal in Punjab, All-India Anna
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam in Tamil Nadu, Bahujan Samaj
Party and Samajwadi Party in Uttar Pradesh and All-India Forward Block in West Bengal are the
prominent state parties which are the major political players in their respective states. In fact in
most of the states where the regional parties have come to the fore understanding the nuisance of
their respective state better, there the scope of National parties emerging victorious is barely
present.

Indian Agriculture
Before Independence
Mr. R.Strachey who headed the 1880
Famine Commission, suggested the setting up of a department of agriculture in every province.
Thus a new secretariat was formed in the centre in 1881.Following which some prominent
provinces like Bombay, Madras, UP, Bengal, Assam and Punjab paid greater attention to
agriculture and other related fields. The agriculture sector was backward and lacked scientific
approach. To improve the condition of the agricultural sector the centre appointed Mr. JA
Voeleker in 1889 as agricultural chemist. Years of extensive research resulted in the setting up of
Agricultural Research Institute at Pursa, Bihar (in 1903).

In spite of the best efforts by the government, the productivity remained low. So the government
set up the Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1926.Based on their findings the Imperial
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) was formed and during the period agricultural
flourished. But during the period from World War II to Independence agricultural suffered
setbacks. The famine of 1943 resulted in the death of millions.

After Independence

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The partition of the country in 1947 had a negative impact on Indian agriculture. But the
formation of Planning Commission in 1950 and the ad vocation of economic planning through
five year plans, gave greater importance to agricultural growth and the agricultural sector gained
in prominence. The government backed the agricultural sector by the way of research and by
setting up Commodity Committees. The first agricultural university was set up in 1961 at
Pantnagar in UP.

In the 1950' and 1960's improved agricultural practices, better seeds and use of fertilizer, soil and
water conservation, land development, land consolidation, agricultural credit and marketing and
price incentive resulted in improved agricultural productivity.

Green Revolution
The Green Revolution is referred to the period between 1967 to 1978.The population was
growing faster than the rate of food grain production at that period. The government realized the
need for dramatic improvement in food grain production. This resulted in the Green Revolution.
The Green Revolution concentrated on:

àc Continuous Increase Of Farming Areas.

àc Double Cropping Existing Farmland.
àc Using genetically modified seeds.

During the 1980's in spite of three years of scanty rainfall and a drought during the middle of the
decade, India managed without large scale food imports, because of the increase in food grain
production and the existence of a large buffer stock insulating against any agricultural crisis. By
the 1990's India had attained self sufficiency in food grain production, because the rate of
increase in food grain production has kept pace with the increase in population. This is directly
the result of Green Revolution, improved seeds and fertilizers, better irrigation and increased
awareness among the farmers. But on the flip side the Indian agriculture is still dependant on the
monsoon and the fortunes of the agriculture sector vary according to the monsoon.
Political structure
The Indian Union currently is constituted by 28 states and seven centrally administered Union
Territories. The largest democratic nation as prescribed in the Constitution of India is a
Sovereign, Socialist, Secular Democratic Republic. It is on the basis of these guidelines that the
country is governed by elected representative of the state voted to power on the basis of
Universal Adult Suffrage. The state is governed at various levels with separate roles assigned to
the Executive, Legislature and the Judiciary. Read further to get a basic know-how of the State of
India.

Form of government - Parliamentary Government, based on universal adult franchise.

Legislature - The Parliament of India is headed by the President and constitutes the two Houses,
known as Rajya Sabha or Upper House (Council of States) and Lok Sabha or Lower House
(House of the People).

Executive - Consists of the President heading the Republic of India, Vice-President and Council
of Ministers led by the Prime Minister.

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·udiciary - The Apex Judiciary body in the country is the Supreme Court followed by the High
Courts of the state. The Judiciary is independent of the executive.

Federal System
The Indian Union as mentioned above is a Sovereign, Secular, Democratic Republic with a
Parliamentary system of Government. India enjoys a federal form of government with the Union
Government heading the state of India led by the Prime Minister. The twenty eight states of India
are governed by elected local governments having independent charge and free from interference
of the Central Government. Nonetheless the state and Union Government work in harmony for
the progress of the country as a whole. The Indian polity is governed according to the
Constitution, which was framed by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949 and came
into force on 26 January 1950. The Union Executive consists of the President, the Vice-President
and Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head to aid and advise the President.

The President of India is the constitutional head of Executive of the Union and is the supreme
commander of the armed forces of the country. The real executive power vests in the Council of
Ministers with the Prime Minister as its head. It is mentioned in the Article 74(1) of the
Constitution that there shall be a Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister to aid and
advise the President who shall, in exercise of his functions, act in accordance with such advice.
The Council of Ministers are the directly elected members of the state on the basis of Universal
Adult Franchise and hence are the true representative of the people of the country. This makes
the Council of Ministers collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha which is the House of the
People.

In the states also a similar power structure is enforced as is applied at the Union level. The
Governor, as the representative of the President, is the head of State, but real executive power
rests with the Chief Minister who heads the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers are
collectively responsible to the elected legislative assembly of the state which looks after the
affairs of state interest. In the Constitution of India it is clearly outlined that it is mandatory to
share legislative power between Parliament and the State Legislatures, and provides for the
vesting of residual powers in Parliament. The power to amend the Constitution solely vests in the
Parliament.

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Political Structure
Federal Republic

India has a parliamentary form of government. The executive authority is responsible to the
elected representatives of the people in the Parliament for all its decisions and actions.
Sovereignty rests ultimately with the people. The Parliament is bi-cameral.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States): The Council of States consists of not more than 250
members, of whom 12 are nominated by the President of India and the rest elected. It is not
subject to dissolution because one-third of its members retire at the end of every second year.
The elections to the Council are indirect.

Lok Sabha (House of the People): The House of the People consists of 552 members. Of these,
530 are directly elected from the 25 States and 20 from the seven Union Territories. Two
members are nominated by the President to represent the Anglo-Indian community.

President of India: Dr. A. P.·.AbdulKalam

The President is the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He
is elected by an electoral college composed of members of both the Houses of Parliament and
the legislatures of the nation¶s constituent States. The President holds office for five years and
can be re-elected.

The Vice-President : Mr Bhairon Singh Shekhawat.

The Vice President is elected jointly by the members of both the Houses of Parliament.The
vice ± president is ex-officio chairman of Rajya Sabha .

Prime Minister of India: Dr Manmohan Singh

The President does not normally exercise any constitutional powers on his own initiative.
These are exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, which is
responsible to the elected parliament. The person enjoying majority support in the Lok Sabha
is appointed Prime Minister by the President. The President then appoints other ministers on
the advice of the Prime Minister.

The States
The states have elected Legislative Assemblies. The Head of the States are called governors.
Appointed by the President, the Governor of the state holds the Executive Power.Council of
Ministers with Chief Minister as head, aids and advises the Governor in exercise of his
functions.

The following are links to India¶s states..

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Independent India
India acquired independence on 15 August 1947 though sections of the country were carved out
and stitched together to create another new country, Pakistan. The ³institutional´ road to
independence was perhaps laid down by the Government of India Act of 1935, where the gradual
emergence of India as a self-governing entity had first been partly envisioned. Following India's
independence in 1947, the Constituent Assembly deliberated over the precise constitutional
future of India. On 26 January 1950, India became a Republic, and the Constitution of India was
promulgated. Jawaharlal Nehru had become the country¶s first Prime Minister in 1947, and in
1952, in the country¶s first general election with a universal franchise, Nehru led the Indian
National Congress to a clear victory. The Congress had long been the principal political party in
India, providing the leadership to the struggle for independence, and under Nehru¶s stewardship
it remained the largest and most influential party over the next three decades. In 1957, Nehru was
elected to yet another five-year term as a member of the Lok Sabha and chosen to head the
government. His µregime¶ was marked by the advent of five-year plans, designed to bring big
science and industry to India; in Nehru's own language, steel mills and dams were to be the
temples of modern India. Relations with Pakistan remained chilling, and the purported friendship
of India and China proved to be something of a hoax. China¶s invasion of India's borders in 1962
is said to have dealt a mortal blow to Nehru.

Nehru was succeeded at his death on 27 May 1964 for a period of two weeks by Gulzarilal
Nanda (1898-1998), a veteran Congress politician who became active in the non-cooperation
movement in 1922 and served several prison terms, principally in 1932 and from 1942-44 during
the Quit India movement. Nanda served as acting Prime Minister until the Congress had elected
a new leader, Lal Bahadur Shastri, also a veteran politician who came of age during the Gandhi-
led non-cooperation movement. Shastri was the compromise candidate who, perhaps
unexpectedly, led the country to something of a victory over Pakistan in 1965. Shastri and the
vanquished Pakistani President, Muhammad Ayub Khan, signed a peace treaty at Tashkent in the
former Soviet Union on 10 January 1966, but Shastri barely lived to witness the accolades that
were now being showered upon him since he died of an heart attack the day after the treaty was
signed. Shastri¶s empathy for the subaltern classes is conveyed through the slogan, ³Jai Jawan,
Jai Kisan´, ³Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer´, which is attributed to him and through which he
is remembered at Vijay Ghat, the national memorial to him in New Delhi in the proximity of
Rajghat, the national memorial to Mohandas Gandhi.

On Shastri¶s death, the Congress was once again engulfed by an internal struggle. Gulzarilal
Nanda once again served as the acting Prime Minister, again for a period of less than a month,
before being succeeded by Indira Gandhi, Nehru's daughter. By the late 1960s, Indira Gandhi
had engineered a split in the Congress, as the only means to ensure her political survival, and the
Congress party, which with every passing year was losing something of its shine, now went into
a precipitous decline. In 1971, India crushed Pakistan in a short war that also saw the birth of
Bangladesh, and Indira was now at the helm of her powers. But the Congress was now a mere
shadow of its former self, and as domestic problems mounted and popular movements directed at
Indira Gandhi began to show their effect, she resorted to more repressive measures. An internal

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emergency, which placed almost the entire opposition behind bars, was proclaimed in May 1975,
and only removed in 1977; and the same opposition, which hastily convened to chart its strategy,
achieved in delivering the Congress party its first loss in national elections. This government,
serving various political interests and led by the victorious Janata Party, which had been formed
out of various opposition parties, lasted a mere three years. It was led by the controversial
Gandhian and Congress stalwart, Morarji Desai, for two years, and for another year by
Chaudhary Charan Singh (1902-1987), who came from a Jat farming community with roots in
Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. The Lok Sabha or Lower Assembly never met during Charan
Singh¶s Prime Ministership and the political alliance crumbled. Indira Gandhi rode a spectacular
wave of victory in 1980. But she did not live to complete her term: shot by her own Sikh
bodyguards, who sought to avenge the destruction unleashed upon the Golden Temple, the
venerable shrine of the Sikh faith, by Indian government troops given the task of flushing out the
terrorists holed in the shrine, she was succeeded by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, in late 1984.

In the December 1994 Lok Sabha elections, Rajiv Gandhi and the Congress party won a
landslide election. But Rajiv¶s premiership was to be marked by numerous political disasters,
and Rajiv¶s own name was tainted by the allegation that he had received huge bribes from a
Swedish firm of Bofors, manufacturers of a machine-gun for which the Indian army placed a
large order. His own finance minister, V. P. Singh (1931-), once a Indira Gandhi loyalist who
had been picked by her in 1980 to serve as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, was to turn
against Rajiv; and in 1989, V. P. Singh led the Janata Party to an electoral rout over the
Congress. However, the revived Janata party mustered only 145 votes, and it had to take the
support of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), led by L. K. Advani and Atal Behari Vajpayee, in
order to form a government. It is at this juncture that India truly entered the era of coalition
governments. V. P. Singh would soon be brought down by two disputes: one over the status of
the Babri Masjid, a sixteenth-century mosque that Hindu militants claimed had been built over
the Ram Janmasthan [birthplace], and the second over the recommendations of the Mandal
commission pertaining to quotas for various elements of India¶s underprivileged masses. On 7
November 1990, by a vote of 356-151, V. P. Singh lost the confidence of the Lok Sabha, and
some days later Chandra Sekhar (1927-), with the support of Rajiv Gandhi¶s Congress, was
sworn in as the next prime minister. However, Congress withdrew its support in March 1991,
and elections were called in May.

On 21 May 1991, as intense electioneering was taking place, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by
a Sri Lankan suicide bomber. The mantle of Congress leadership fell on the veteran P. V.
Narasimha Rao (1921-2004), who led the party to triumph, even as the BJP raised the number of
its seats in Parliament from a little over 80 to 120. On 6 December 1992, acting in defiance of
Supreme Court orders, Hindu militants destroyed the Babri Masjid, and so initiated one of the
most intense crises in India¶s post-independent history. Rao weathered many a storm, and
presided over the liberalization of the economy -- the architect of which was Manmohan Singh,
then Finance Minister and, since 2004, the Prime Minister of India. But Rao could not keep the
BJP and its friends in check. In the general elections of 1996, the BJP emerged as the largest
party, but its 194 seats were not enough to give it a working majority in the 545-seat Lok Sabha,
and Atal Behari Vajpayee¶s first government lasted a mere twelve days. A 13-party coalition of
the United National Front and the Indian left was brought into power, and Deve Gowda, the

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Chief Minister of Karnataka, was raised to the office of the Prime Minister; but after less than a
year in office, he resigned and was succeeded by Inder Kumar Gujral, whose main contribution
in office was to bequeath ³the Gujral doctrine´ ± a reference to his genuine attempts to mend
India¶s relations with its South Asian neighbors, based on the principle that as the largest
country, India could afford to be generous, and did not have to require reciprocity for all its
munificent actions.

But Gujral¶s government similarly lasted less than a year; and in the general elections of
February 1998, the BJP emerged again as the single largest party, this time with 200 seats.
Vajpayee was invited to form a government, and did so with a coalition of several parties,
including the AIADMK, led by Jayalalitha. Nothing that the BJP did was so ripe with
consequences as the decision to turn India into a nuclear state with a series of nuclear tests in
May 1998. The coalition, not unpredictably, broke down; but the general elections of September
1999, in which the BJP again emerged as the single largest party, and the Congress had a poor
showing at the polls, despite being led by Sonia Gandhi, a scion of the µNehru dynasty¶, were to
reinforce the impression that regional parties and politics have fundamentally altered the state of
Indian politics. Under Vajpayee, the BJP presided over the country¶s destiny until 2004, even
though it was becoming inescapably clear that the dominance of any one party is no longer a
foregone conclusion and that coalition politics appears to be the way of the future. Many
commentators were rightfully alarmed by various ominous developments that transpired during
the BJP¶s years in office, such as the coercive Hinduization of the country, the inability of the
state to guarantee the rights of religious minorities, and other obvious manifestations of an utter
disregard for human rights, such as state-sponsored killings in Kashmir, the north-east, and
elsewhere, or the oppressions unleashed upon Christians and women. On the other hand,
Vajpayee and the BJP are not only credited with having administered a crushing blow to
Pakistan¶s adventurism on the Himalayan mountain tops at Kargil, but with having spearheaded
a rapid expansion of the Indian economy.

In provincial elections held in several states in late 2003, the BJP registered impressive triumphs
and the party leadership was led into thinking that, in calling for early elections, it could
consolidate its gains with a magisterial showing in national elections. The BJP waged a
campaign on the slogan of ³India Shining´, trumpeting the emergence of India as a major power.
However, the Indian electorate once again showed that it was not to be taken for granted, and the
BJP and its allies lost to a coalition headed by the Congress party. [See India¶s Moment:
Elections 2004.] The Fourteenth Lok Sabha convened on 17 May 2004 and Manmohan Singh
(1932-) assumed the office of the Prime Minister at the head of what is known as the UPA
(United Progressive Alliance) government. The UPA is supported by the Left Front, a coalition
of parties headed by the CPM, or the Communist Party of India (Marxist).

Public Interest Litigation

Though the Constitution of India guarantees equal rights to all citizens, irrespective of race,
gender, religion, and other considerations, and the "directive principles of state policy" as stated

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in the Constitution obligate the Government to provide to all citizens a minimum standard of
living, the promise has not been fulfilled. The greater majority of the Indian people have no
assurance of two nutritious meals a day, safety of employment, safe and clean housing, or such
level of education as would make it possible for them to understand their constitutional rights
and obligations. Indian newspapers abound in stories of the exploitation -- by landlords,factory
owners, businessmen, and the state's own functionaries, such as police and revenue officials -- of
children, women, villagers, the poor, and the working class.

Though India's higher courts and, in particular, the Supreme Court have often been sensitive to
the grim social realities, and have on occasion given relief to the oppressed, the poor do not have
the capacity to represent themselves, or to take advantage of progressive legislation. In 1982, the
Supreme Court conceded that unusual measures were warranted to enable people the full
realization of not merely their civil and political rights, but the enjoyment of economic, social,
and cultural rights, and in its far- reaching decision in the case of PUDR [People's Union for
Democratic Rights] vs. Union of India [1982 (2) S.C.C. 253], it recognized that a third party
could directly petition, whether through a letter or other means, the Court and seek its
intervention in a matter where another party's fundamental rights were being violated. In this
case, adverting to the Constitutional prohibition on "begar", or forced labor and traffic in human
beings, PUDR submitted that workers contracted to build the large sports complex at the Asian
Game Village in Delhi were being exploited. PUDR asked the Court to recognize that "begar"
was far more than compelling someone to work against his or her will, and that work under
exploitative and grotesquely humiliating conditions, or work that was not even compensated by
prescribed minimum wages, was violative of fundamental rights. As the Supreme Court noted,

The rule of law does not mean that the protection of the aw must be available only to a fortunate
few or that the law should be allowed to be prostituted by the vested interests for protecting and
upholding the status quo under the guise of enforcement of their civil and political rights. The
poor too have civil and political rights and rule of law is meant for them also, though today it
exists only on paper and not in reality. If the sugar barons and the alcohol kings have the
fundamental right to carry on their business and to fatten their purses by exploiting the
consuming public, have the chamars belonging to the lowest strata of society no fundamental
right to earn an honest living through their sweat and toil?

Thus the court was willing to acknowledge that it had a mandate to advance the rights of the
disadvantaged and poor, though this might be at the behest of individuals or groups who
themselves claimed no disability. Such litigation, termed Public Interest Litigation or Social
Action Litigation by its foremost advocate, Professor Upendra Baxi, has given the court
"epistolary jurisdiction".

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One-third the area of the United States, the Republic of India occupies most of the subcontinent
of India in southern Asia. It borders on China in the northeast. Other neighbors are Pakistan on
the west, Nepal and Bhutan on the north, and Burma and Bangladesh on the east.

The country can be divided into three distinct geographic regions: the Himalayan region in the
north, which contains some of the highest mountains in the world, the Gangetic Plain, and the
plateau region in the south and central part. Its three great river systems²the Ganges, the Indus,
and the Brahmaputra²have extensive deltas and all rise in the Himalayas.

Government

Federal republic.

History

One of the earliest civilizations, the Indus Valley civilization flourished on the Indian
subcontinent from c. 2600 B.C. to c. 2000 B.C. It is generally accepted that the Aryans entered
India c. 1500 B.C. from the northwest, finding a land that was already home to an advanced
civilization. They introduced Sanskrit and the Vedic religion, a forerunner of Hinduism.
Buddhism was founded in the 6th century B.C. and was spread throughout northern India, most
notably by one of the great ancient kings of the Mauryan dynasty, Asoka (c. 269±232 B.C. ), who
also unified most of the Indian subcontinent for the first time.

In 1526, Muslim invaders founded the great Mogul Empire, centered on Delhi, which lasted, at
least in name, until 1857. Akbar the Great (1542±1605) strengthened and consolidated this
empire. The long reign of his great-grandson, Aurangzeb (1618±1707), represents both the
greatest extent of the Mogul Empire and the beginning of its decay.



 

 
 
  


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Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese explorer, landed in India in 1498, and for the next 100 years the
Portuguese had a virtual monopoly on trade with the subcontinent. Meanwhile, the English
founded the East India Company, which set up its first factory at Surat in 1612 and began
expanding its influence, fighting the Indian rulers and the French, Dutch, and Portuguese traders
simultaneously.

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After World War I, in which the Indian states sent more than 6 million troops to fight beside the
Allies, Indian nationalist unrest rose to new heights under the leadership of a Hindu lawyer,
Mohandas K. Gandhi, called Mahatma Gandhi. His philosophy of civil disobedience called for
nonviolent noncooperation against British authority. He soon became the leading spirit of the
Indian National Congress Party, which was the spearhead of revolt. In 1919, the British gave
added responsibility to Indian officials, and in 1935, India was given a federal form of
government and a measure of self-rule.

In 1942, with the Japanese pressing hard on the eastern borders of India, the British War Cabinet
tried and failed to reach a political settlement with nationalist leaders. The Congress Party took
the position that the British must quit India. Fearing mass civil disobedience, the government of
India carried out widespread arrests of Congress Party leaders, including Gandhi.




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Gandhi was released in 1944 and negotiations for a settlement were resumed. Finally, in Aug.
1947, India gained full independence. The victory was soured, however, by the partitioning of
the predominantly Muslim regions of the north into the separate nation of Pakistan. The Muslim
League, led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, demanded a separate nation for the Muslim minority to
prevent Hindu political and social domination. Indian Hindus, however, had hoped for a unified
rather than balkanized Indian subcontinent. Lord Mountbatten as viceroy partitioned India along
religious lines and split the provinces of Bengal and the Punjab, which both nations claimed. The
partition of Pakistan and India led to the largest migration in human history, with 17 million
people fleeing across the borders in both directions to escape the bloody riots occurring among
sectarian groups. Armed conflict also broke out over rival claims to the princely states of Jammu
and Kashmir.

Jawaharlal Nehru, nationalist leader and head of the Congress Party, was made prime minister.
In 1949, a constitution was approved, making India a sovereign republic. Under a federal
structure the states were organized on linguistic lines. The dominance of the Congress Party
contributed to stability. In 1956, the republic absorbed former French settlements. Five years
later, the republic forcibly annexed the Portuguese enclaves of Goa, Damao, and Diu.

Nehru died in 1964. His successor, Lal Bahadur Shastri, died on Jan. 10, 1966. Nehru's daughter,
Indira Gandhi, became prime minister, and she continued his policy of nonalignment.

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In 1971, the Pakistani army moved in to quash the independence movement in East Pakistan that
was supported by India, and some 10 million Bengali refugees poured across the border into
India, creating social, economic, and health problems. After numerous border incidents, India
invaded East Pakistan and in two weeks forced the surrender of the Pakistani army. East Pakistan
was established as an independent state and renamed Bangladesh.

In May 1975, the 300-year-old kingdom of Sikkim became a full-fledged Indian state. Situated in
the Himalayas, Sikkim was a virtual dependency of Tibet until the early 19th century. Under an
1890 treaty between China and Great Britain, it became a British protectorate and was made an
Indian protectorate after Britain quit the subcontinent.




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In the summer of 1975, the world's largest democracy veered suddenly toward authoritarianism
when a judge in Allahabad, Indira Gandhi's home constituency, found Gandhi's landslide victory
in the 1971 elections invalid because civil servants had illegally aided her campaign. Amid
demands for her resignation, Gandhi decreed a state of emergency on June 26 and ordered mass
arrests of her critics, including all opposition party leaders except the Communists.

Despite strong opposition to her repressive measures, particularly resentment against compulsory
birth control programs, in 1977 Gandhi announced parliamentary elections for March. At the
same time, she freed most political prisoners. The landslide victory of Morarji R. Desai unseated
Gandhi, but she staged a spectacular comeback in the elections of Jan. 1980.

In 1984, Gandhi ordered the Indian army to root out a band of Sikh holy men and gunmen who
were using the most sacred shrine of the Sikh religion, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, as a base
for terrorist raids in a violent campaign for greater political autonomy in the strategic Punjab
border state. The perceived sacrilege to the Golden Temple kindled outrage among many of
India's 14 million Sikhs and brought a spasm of mutinies and desertions by Sikh officers and
soldiers in the army.

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On Oct. 31, 1984, Indira Gandhi was assassinated by two men identified by police as Sikh
members of her bodyguard. The ruling Congress Party chose her older son, Rajiv Gandhi, to
succeed her as prime minister for four years. While running for reelection, Rajiv Gandhi was
assassinated on May 22, 1991, by Tamil militants who objected to India's mediation of the civil
war in Sri Lanka.

The ruling Congress Party lost the parliamentary elections of May 1996, and its waning resulted
in a period of political instability. The Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) then
became the dominant force in politics, with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as prime minister.




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In May 1998, India set off five nuclear tests, surprising the international community, which
widely condemned India's pronuclear stance. Despite international urging for restraint, Pakistan
responded by conducting several nuclear tests of its own two weeks later. India has resisted
signing the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty for nuclear weapons and has been slapped with
sanctions by the U.S. and other countries. Less than a year later, in April 1999, both India and
Pakistan tested nuclear-capable ballistic missiles.




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India and Pakistan have held various talks about the disputed territory of Kashmir, which is the
issue at the base of their chronic antagonism and their displays of nuclear strength. India controls
two-thirds of this Himalayan region, which is the only Indian state that is predominantly Muslim.

The Indian Air Force launched air strikes on May 26, 1999, and later sent in ground troops
against Islamic guerrilla forces in Kashmir. India blamed Pakistan for orchestrating violence in
Kashmir by sending soldiers and mercenaries across the so-called Line of Control that divides
Kashmir between India and Pakistan. Pakistan countered that the guerrillas were independent
Kashmiri freedom fighters struggling for India's ouster from the region. Most international
sources agreed with India's assumption that Pakistan was arming the soldiers. In Aug. 1999,
Pakistan was forced to withdraw, but fighting continued sporadically during the coming year.

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In Oct. 2001, violence again broke out in the region when a suicide bombing by a Pakistan-based
militant organization killed 38 in India-controlled Kashmir. India retaliated with heavy shelling
across the Line of Control. India, angered by Washington's sudden coziness with Pakistan
following the Sept. 11 attacks, took the opportunity to point out that, while Pakistan might be
helping the U.S. fight terrorism on the Afghan front, it was simultaneously supporting terrorism
on its own borders with India. On Dec. 13, 2001, suicide bombers attacked the Indian parliament,
killing 14 people. Indian officials blamed the deadly attack on Islamic militants supported by
Pakistan.

Hope for a peaceful solution to the conflict in Kashmir was raised in Nov. 2002, when a newly
elected coalition government in India-controlled Jammu and Kashmir vowed to reach out to
separatists and to improve conditions in the state. But hopes were dashed in March 2003,
following the slaughter of 24 Hindus in Kashmir. Officials blamed the massacre on Islamic
militants. Days after the violence, both India and Pakistan test-fired short-range missiles capable
of carrying nuclear warheads. Two bombs exploded in Mumbai (Bombay) in August, killing
more than 50 people and injuring about 150. Indian officials blamed Lashkar-e-Taiba, a
Pakistan-based militant Islamic group. But in Nov. 2003, India and Pakistan declared their first
formal cease-fire in 14 years. The cease-fire applied to the entire Line of Control dividing
Kashmir. Relations between the two countries have continued to thaw, though no real progress
has been made.




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In one of the most dramatic political upsets in modern Indian history, the Indian National
Congress Party, led by Sonia Gandhi, prevailed in parliamentary elections in May 2004,
prompting Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee to resign. Although the country prospered
economically under Vajpayee's rule, a substantial number of India's poor felt they had not
benefitted from India's economic growth. Sonia Gandhi, the Italian-born widow of former prime
minister Rajiv Gandhi, dealt a further shock to the country when she refused to become prime
minister. The BJP had vociferously protested Gandhi's expected elevation to prime minister
because of her foreign birth. The Congress Party instead chose former finance minister
Manmohan Singh, who became India's first Sikh prime minister.

On Dec. 26, 2004, a tremendously powerful tsunami ravaged 12 Asian countries. Nearly 11,000
people perished in India.

President Bush announced in March 2005 that he would allow American companies to provide
India with several types of modern combat weapons, including F-16 and F-18 fighter jets. The
announcement was seen as an attempt to balance Bush's offer to sell Pakistan about two dozen F-
16s.

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In March 2006, President Bush and Prime Minister Singh agreed to a controversial civil nuclear
power deal that permitted the sale of nuclear technology to India despite the fact that India has
never signed the international Nuclear Nonproliferation agreement. Since 1998, the U.S. has
imposed sanctions on India for undertaking nuclear tests. Critics of the deal contend that
allowing India to circumvent the international treaty will make it more difficult to negotiate with
Iran and North Korea and their nuclear ambitions. In September 2008, the Nuclear Suppliers
Group, comprised of representatives from 45 countries, voted in favor of the deal, bringing it a
step away from implementation. The U.S. Congress approved the deal in Oct. 2008; it was the
last hurdle for the implementation of the controversial agreement. India's Bharatiya Janata Party,
which opposes the deal, called it a "nonproliferation trap." The deal could be scrapped if India
uses the fuel for its weapons program.

Pratibha Patil, of the governing Congress party, was elected president in July 2007, becoming the
country's first woman to hold the post. She defeated Bhairon Singh Shekhawat, of the opposition
Bharatiya Janata Party.

Prime Minister Singh survived a confidence vote in July 2008, taking 275 votes to the
opposition's 256. Eleven members of Parliament abstained. He had lost the support of
Communist parties as he sought to seal the deal that has the U.S. providing India with nuclear
technology and fuel for civilian purposes.

Squirmishing along Kashmir's Line of Control broke out over the summer of 2008, after more
than four years of relative calm. The problems arose after authorities in Indian-controlled
Kashmir transferred 99 acres of land to a trust that runs a Hindu shrine, called Amarnath.
Muslims launched a series of protests. The government rescinded the order, which outraged
Hindus. About 40 people were killed in the protests and counterdemonstrations, which involved
several hundred thousand people. Despite the hostilities, a trade route between India and
Pakistan across the line of control opened in October for the first time in 60 years.




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Religious and ethnic clashes that pitted Muslims against Hindus and Hindus against Christians
broke out throughout India in the summer and fall of 2008. The violence was exacerbated by a
series of terrorist attacks largely blamed on Islamic militants, including one in the northern state
of Assam that killed at least 64 people and wounded hundreds in October. In total, well over 200
people died in the attacks.

c
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India launched its first unmanned spacecraft in October 2008 for a two-year mission to map a
three-dimensional atlas of the Moon and search for natural resources on the Moon's surface.

About 170 people were killed and about 300 wounded in a series of attacks that began on Nov.
26 on several of Mumbai's landmarks and commercial hubs that are popular with foreign tourists,
including two five-star hotels, a hospital, a train station, and a cinema. Indian officials said ten
gunmen carried out the attack, which was stunning in its brutality and duration; it took Indian
forces three days to end the siege. India's police and security forces were ill-prepared for such an
attack, which many inside India are calling their own September 11. In fact, Indian sharpshooters
were not equipped with telescopic sights, and therefore withheld firing in fear of killing hostages
rather than terrorists. In addition, a 2007 report to Parliament warned that India's shores were
particularly vulnerable. (The perpetrators reportedly arrived in Mumbai by boat.)

Indian and U.S. officials said they have evidence that the Pakistan-based militant Islamic group
Lashkar-e-Taiba was involved in the attack. Lashkar-e-Taiba, which translates to Army of the
Pure, was established in the late 1980s with the assistance of Pakistan's spy agency, Inter-
Services Intelligence, to fight Indian control of the Muslim section of Kashmir. The accusation
further strained an already tense relationship between the two countries. India's home minister in
charge of security, Shivraj Patil, resigned after the tragedy. While Pakistani president Zardari
first denied that Pakistani citizens were involved in the attack, in December, Pakistan officials
raided a camp run by Lashkar-e-Taiba in Muzaffarabad, the capital of Pakistan-controlled
Kashmir, and arrested several militants. Muhammad Ajmal Qasab, a Pakistani and the only
attacker who survived the Mumbai attack, was found guilty of murder and sentenced to death in
May 2010 by an Indian court.

Between April 16 and May 13, 2009, India held general elections. The Indian National Congress
won 206 seats and will lead a governing coalition called the United Progressive Alliance. The
Bharatiya Janata Party came in second with 116 seats. Analysts attributed Congress's repeat
victory to the party's ability to balance the concerns of poor farmers in the rural provinces and
the urban middle class. Manmohan Singh remains the prime minister.

New Delhi's highest court overturned the ban on homosexuality in India in July 2009.
Homosexuality was illegal in India since 1861. Court justices declared the old law to be a
violation of human rights and equality outlined in India's constitution.




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