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Course: Elementary Education (8623)
Level: B. Ed (1.5 year)
Semester: Autumn 2017
Assignment No: 2
Q 1. Information Communication Technology has revolutionized the field of instruction’. Discuss and elicit its education
value.
Answer:
Schools use a diverse set of ICT tools to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.(6) In some
contexts, ICT has also become integral to the teaching-learning interaction, through such approaches as replacing
chalkboards with interactive digital whiteboards, using students’ own smartphones or other devices for learning during class
time, and the “flipped classroom” model where students watch lectures at home on the computer and use classroom time
for more interactive exercises.
When teachers are digitally literate and trained to use ICT, these approaches can lead to higher order thinking skills, provide
creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings, and leave students better prepared to deal
with ongoing technological change in society and the workplace. ICT issues planners must consider include: considering the
total cost-benefit equation, supplying and maintaining the requisite infrastructure, and ensuring investments are matched
with teacher support and other policies aimed at effective ICT use.
From podcasts and downloads to apps and virtual interactive learning, there are several factors that have contributed to how
education has changed and moved online over the past few years. Whether you're at home, on your commute or traveling,
you won't miss a beat if you take an educational course online. The following are three ways in which education has changed
radically and moved to the Web:
1. Flexibility
Flexible learning options are now available, opening up education to people from a range of educational backgrounds and
careers. Students can now create their own integrated learning schedule that includes online learning and some traditional
face-to-face methods. This can suit individuals who may wish to save money on transportation or child care and do not want
to be locked in to regularly
attending class on campus. This also allows students to take classes at home and schedule time to work at their own pace.
For most online courses, students just have to log in on a set number of days per week, ensure they complete assignments on
time and communicate virtually with classmates and instructors.
2. Lifelong Learning
Technology has also revolutionized education by normalizing lifelong learning. Online learning is a great way to facilitate
today's knowledge-driven society and the ongoing demands for continuous professional development. The nature of
employment has changed, and keeping one job for life is no longer expected. As a result of globalization, educational
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institutions around the world are now integrating technologies into all elements of their courses, from learning tools to using
online methods for administration and student support. When examining how education has changed, it is now apparent that
online education has become part of mainstream teaching and learning, since students now have access to a wide range of
increasingly impressive online resources.
3. Technology Leads the Change
The current range of technology-based educational tools shows just how teaching has changed. Edibles have now become
very popular in educational institutions and provide information for students on everything from classroom instruction to
educational policies.
Podcasts are another popular learning method, with hundreds of free educational programs now available online. With just a
few clicks, students can learn about any subject that interests them. Web-based chat rooms have been available for many
years, but they are now gaining popularity in education because they directly connect students with their instructors and
classmates, promoting real-time discussions and interactions.
ICT and Teacher Professional Development: Teachers need specific professional development opportunities in order to
increase their ability to use ICT for formative learning assessments, individualized instruction, accessing online resources, and
for fostering student interaction and collaboration. Such training in ICT should positively impact teachers’ general attitudes
towards ICT in the classroom, but it should also provide specific guidance on ICT teaching and
learning within each discipline. Without this support, teachers tend to use ICT for skill-based applications, limiting student
academic thinking. To support teachers as they change their teaching, it is also essential for education managers, supervisors,
teacher educators, and decision makers to be trained in ICT use.
Ensuring benefits of ICT investments: To ensure the investments made in ICT benefit students, additional conditions must be
met. School policies need to provide schools with the minimum acceptable infrastructure for ICT, including stable and
affordable internet connectivity and security measures such as filters and site blockers. Teacher policies need to target basic
ICT literacy skills, ICT use in pedagogical settings, and discipline-specific uses. Successful implementation of ICT requires
integration of ICT in the curriculum. Finally, digital content needs to be developed in local languages and reflect local culture.
Ongoing technical, human, and organizational supports on all of these issues are needed to ensure access and effective use of
ICT.
Resource Constrained Contexts: The total cost of ICT ownership is considerable: training of teachers and administrators,
connectivity, technical support, and software, amongst others. When bringing ICT into classrooms, policies should use an
incremental pathway, establishing infrastructure and bringing in sustainable and easily upgradable ICT. Schools in some
countries have begun allowing students to bring their own mobile technology (such as laptop, tablet, or smartphone) into
class rather than providing such tools to all students—an approach called Bring Your Own Device. However, not all families
can afford devices or service plans for their children. Schools must ensure all students have equitable access to ICT devices for
learning.
Inclusiveness Considerations
Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to disparities of digital media and internet access both within and across countries, as
well as the gap between people with and without the digital literacy and skills to utilize media and internet. The digital divide
both creates and reinforces socio-economic inequalities of the world’s poorest people. Policies need to intentionally bridge
this divide to bring media, internet, and digital literacy to all students, not just those who are easiest to reach.
Minority language groups: Students whose mother tongue is different from the official language of instruction are less likely
to have computers and internet connections at home than students from the majority. There is also less material available to
them online in their own language, putting them at a disadvantage in comparison to their majority peers who gather
information, prepare talks and papers, and communicate more using ICT. Yet ICT tools can also help improve the skills of
minority language students—especially in learning the official language of instruction—through features such as automatic
speech recognition, the availability of authentic audio-visual materials, and chat functions.
Students with different styles of learning: ICT can provide diverse options for taking in and processing information, making
sense of ideas, and expressing learning. Over 87% of students learn best through visual and tactile modalities, and ICT can
help these students ‘experience’ the information instead of just reading and hearing it.) Mobile devices can also offer
programmes (“apps”) that provide extra support to students with special needs, with features such as simplified screens and
instructions, consistent placement of menus and control features, graphics combined with text, audio feedback, ability to set
pace and level of difficulty, appropriate and unambiguous feedback, and easy error correction.
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Q 2. a) Discuss different types of behavior problems usually seen in children at elementary level.
Answer:
Behavior problems can develop into big issues for kids in elementary school. Our parenting articles have tips on behaviors like
O.D.D., separation anxiety, and more. Elementary school children are a unique group. They are creative, fun and
independent, but they can be challenging, especially in the classroom. Behavior problems in school with this age group are
common as they learn to test their limits and assert their independence. Understanding the causes of misbehavior and how
to deal with them can make a classroom flow more smoothly.
Causes of Misbehavior
Some students misbehave because they are bored or do not understand the rules and expectations. Others act out to get
attention from other students, their
parents or the teacher. Some students have learning disabilities that may show up as misbehavior, and others act out in
response to or as a way to cope with a negative home environment. Still others may see their parents or siblings behave in
certain ways and copy that behavior.
Types of Behavior Problems
According to the Parent Institute, common discipline issues for elementary school children include talking out of turn,
disrupting class, being irresponsible or careless, disobeying rules and whining. Some behaviors, such as bullying, fighting,
defiance and lying, can start out small but escalate into more serious problems if not dealt with properly.
Effects of Behavior Problems
In a survey done in 2012, Scholastic found that 62 percent of educators said that behavior issues are interfering with
teaching, and 53 percent said they would like to spend less time on discipline issues and student supervision. They stated that
behavior problems are a distraction to the learning environment, and disruptions cased by misbehavior take away time that
could otherwise be spent on classroom instruction.
Reducing Misbehavior
Working together, teachers and parents can take steps to reduce misbehavior. According to the Institute of Education
Sciences, pinpointing what causes students to act out can help the teacher intervene before it happens, possibly avoiding bad
behavior altogether. Positive reinforcement by praising students when they behave properly and minimizing downtime by
keeping children engaged in activities are also good strategies. Establishing rapport and clear, consistent rules and
expectations also can cut down on behavioral problems.
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b) How can the teachers be prepared to tackle these problems Backtalk: What to do with the Resounding
No!
c) Hearing your child say "No!" when you have asked her to do something can be a shocker. It can also
leave you wondering where to go from there. Do you force your child to do what you have asked? Just what is
the best way to handle defiance? Knowing the answers to these questions can nip this age-old problem in the
bud.
Biting Nails: Is There Really a Cure?
Let's face it, most everyone bites their nails from time to time, but it's definitely not a behavior you want to encourage as a
parent. You may have noticed your child biting her nails and realized that it is happening more than just once in a while. Nail
biting is an extremely common habit, affecting one-third to one-half of all children. There are several reasons why children
excessively bite their nails; comfort, boredom, to relieve stress, just habit. Your child may have developed the behavior from
you or from someone else in the family and now unconsciously practices it.
Blankets and Bears?
As every parent has likely encountered at some point, toddlers love security items. Most kids seem to have something that
makes them feel safe. Maybe it's a pacifier, a blanket, or a favorite bear. And, while most kids give up these security items by
the time they reach the 6-9 age group, there are still quite a few who tote these items around longer. So, just how long is it
okay for your child to have a security item?
Children Stealing
Every parent dreads hearing that their child has committed a crime. Young kids in elementary school may engage in
shoplifting. While it may make your heart sink, it is a common problem with young kids, and one that you can usually
successfully address. Many kids this age simply take things because they have a hard time controlling themselves. Still, you'll
want to put a stop to this behavior right away to avoid future problems.
Helping Kids with Separation Anxiety
Most parents have witnessed bouts of separation anxiety when their children were toddlers. The first time you tried to sneak
away and get some errands done, your child cried like crazy! And while it is a normal developmental phase that all
younger children to go through, some elementary-aged kids may continue to have difficulty or experience stress when
separated from a parent or caregiver.
Helping the Shy Child Bloom
Shyness is intricately linked to temperament. And some aspects of temperament are hereditary. In many cases, a shy child
has at least one parent who is shy. But, not to worry, a shy child does not always grow into a shy adult. Shyness in children is
normal. For the most part, it's nothing to worry about. Many children suffer from occasional bouts of shyness, especially in
new situations. But, most parents quickly see their children blossom into social creatures that readily interact with their
peers.
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Q 3. a) Differentiate between management, control and discipline.

Answer:
A key component of teaching is effective classroom management. This is the set of steps you follow to ensure that your
students pay attention, don't distract each other and generally stay on task. This is different from discipline, which is just one
part of classroom management. Where discipline describes the consequences you give students for not following the rules,
classroom management describes a more general set of procedures, most of which are aimed at avoiding problems rather
than responding to them.
Classroom Setup
The classroom setup is an example of classroom management that is not discipline. After a few weeks of teaching, it becomes
fairly clear which students should not be sitting near one another, as certain friends (and enemies) will distract one another
and the children around them for the entire lesson. Discipline would be punishing these children every time they disrupt the
class; classroom management is moving them somewhere else to keep the disruption from happening in the first place.
Rules
Another example of the difference between discipline and classroom management is the classroom rules. Classroom
management is when you make the rules clear to the children, either through discussion or by teaching throughanother
method. Posting these rules in a prominent place is another way to help manage your classroom -- by making the rules clear
to children and making them visible, you make it less likely that the rules will be violated.
Discipline is how you respond to violations of these rules. This makes rules an excellent way to highlight these differences --
classroom management is the front end of the rules and discipline is the back end.
Occupying Students
Classroom management is also a matter of keeping students occupied, either in a lesson, discussion or activity. When
children have something to focus on, they are less likely to create their own stimuli by "zoning out" or misbehaving. So,
particularly for younger years, it is strongly recommended that teachers overplan their lessons in order to always give the
children something to do.
Discipline is a matter of dishing out consequences when students go off task, whether the lesson is well-planned or not. In
general, the more thoroughly occupied students are, the less discipline they will need.
Tone Setting
A final example of a difference between classroom management and discipline is the general tone you set. You set a tone in
classroom management by your confidence, the way you present yourself and how well you relate to students. If you do
these well, your classroom will be well-managed because it will be clear to students who is in control.
Discipline also requires tone-setting. Once you've made the rules clear, you need to follow through the minute someone
violates them. This is basically setting an example. It's often not enough to simply have rules; rather, you need to let students
know you're serious. This concept and that mentioned above are examples of setting a tone in which the teacher is in control
and creating a positive learning environment.
When you initially walk into a classroom, you do not access its effectiveness based on the students’ grades, writing skills, or
state test scores. Instead, you look to see how effective the classroom management is. Such as how well the students
conduct themselves, how well they can work collaboratively with each other, and how effective the teacher’s discipline is on
them.
All of these factors are a result of effective classroom management, and every great teacher will tell you that you must first
learn how to maintain classroom discipline before honing in on students’ academic goals and needs. After all, how can you
effectively teach and learn in an ineffective environment? If you are a teacher, or in charge of a group of students, let’s take a
look at ways to manage a classroom effectively and some helpful techniques that are going to come in handy if you are
faced with managing your own classroom.
Importance of Classroom Management
First off, why is classroom management important?
 It engages students: Students who are engaged in lessons and the learning material will be able to register the
information better and be able to apply their knowledge when it comes to test taking.
 It keeps students prepared: When teachers and students are prepared to learn, lessons and learning will be easier to
be administered and the results will be more effective.
 It boosts confidence: In an effective classroom, teachers are able to give more attention to each student and
structure lesson plans to meet certain needs. All of these factors will help in boosting the confidence of students.
How to Manage a Classroom Effectively
Effective classroom management is being to implement and maintain classroom discipline in an effective manner. Let’s take
a look at what you can do as a teacher or leader to help maintain discipline and management in your classroom.
1. Have rules: It is important to have a basic set of rules for students to follow. These regulations will help maintain
classroom management and discipline. These rules do not have to be anything advanced; they can be as simple as making
sure that all students adhere to timely attendance and making sure that everyone knows the consequences of missing or
late assignments.
2. Have expectations: If your students know what you want from them, they are more likely to exhibit the type of
behavior you want. Start out the day with
explaining what you expect from your students and how they are expected to behave. Be detailed and positive.
3. Make students aware of the rules: Every school has its own disciplinary rules that students should be expected to
flow. Make sure that your students are aware of the rules and the consequences if the rules are not adhered to.
4. Make the rules known to parents as well: Student’s parents should also be aware of the management techniques that
you are implementing in the classroom. You should ask parents to go over these rules with the students at home so that
everyone is on the same page, and so that students know that their parents expect this behavior from them as well.
5. Review rules regularly: The thing with children is that you need to be consistent. Remind your students regularly
about the rules and expectations for their behavior to aid in proper classroom management. Ask them if they have any
questions and allow them to voice their opinions.
6. Be firm and consistent: When you make your rules to manage your classroom, make sure that they are realistic and
void of any inconsistencies. Approach the rules in a positive manner so that students do not associate any negativity with
it. Feel free to reward students for their positive behavior when you see that they are contributing to effective classroom
management.
7. Be professional: An effectively managed classroom is conducted with professionalism and adequate structure.
Students who are presented with a good authority figure who has a plan and follows it will fit in to the structure nicely.
8. Have a printed packet: In case you are unable to attend class one day, make sure that you have a printed packet of
your classroom management techniques handy for a substitute. Your classroom should be aware that, even in your
absence, they should still be able to manage themselves wisely and that all rules still apply. If students show structure
and compliance in your absence, it will make both you and your classroom look well-managed and efficient.
9. Deal with troublemakers: No matter how great your plan or classroom management techniques are, there are always
going to be students that want
to disrupt your class or not follow rules. Speak with these students early on and discuss plans of action with higher
authority, such as school administrators or principals. Early detection and dealing with these types of students will make
the rest of the classroom know that you mean business.
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b) It is observed that some teachers do not have to impose discipline in their classroom. What is about their teaching
that seems to keep their classes free of disciplinary problems?
Answer:
Classroom discipline and management causes the most fear and consternation in new teachers. However, this is a skill that is
not only learned but practiced daily. Here are ten tips that can lead to successful classroom management and greater
discipline in schools. These tips can help you cut down on discipline problems and leave you with fewer interruptions and
disruptions.
1. It's Easier to Get Easier
Many teachers make the mistake of starting the school year with a poor discipline plan. Students quickly assess the situation
in each class and realize what they will be allowed to get away with. Once you set a precedent of allowing a lot of disruptions,
it can be very hard to start better classroom management and discipline techniques. However, it is never tough to get easier
as the year goes on. While you don't have to follow the adage, "Never smile until Christmas," it does have its merits.
2. Fairness is Key
Students have a distinct sense of what is and what is not fair. You must act fairly for all students if you expect to be
respected. If you do not treat all students equitably, you will be labelled as unfair students will not be keen to follow your
rules. Make sure that if your best student does something wrong, they too get punished for it.
3. Deal with Disruptions with as Little Interruption as Possible
When you have classroom disruptions, it is imperative that you deal with them immediately and with as little interruption of
your class momentum as possible. If
students are talking amongst themselves and you are having a classroom discussion, ask one of them a question to try to get
them back on track. If you have to stop the flow of your lesson to deal with disruptions, then you are robbing students who
want to learn of their precious in-class time.
4. Avoid Confrontations in Front of Students
Whenever there is a confrontation in class there is a winner and a loser. Obviously as the teacher, you need to keep order
and discipline in your class. However, it is much better to deal with discipline issues privately than cause a student to 'lose
face' in front of their friends. It is not a good idea to make an example out of a disciplinary issue. Even though other students
might get the point, you might have lost any chance of actually teaching that student anything in your class.
5. Stop Disruptions with a Little Humor
Sometimes all it takes is for everyone to have a good laugh to get things back on track in a classroom. Many times, however,
teachers confuse good humor with sarcasm. While humor can quickly diffuse a situation, sarcasm may harm your relationship
with the students involved. Use your best judgment but realize that what some people think as funny others find to be
offensive.
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Q 4. a) Discuss teacher made achievement tests.

Answer:
Meaning of Teacher Made Test:
Carefully constructed teacher-made tests and standardised tests are similar in many ways. Both are constructed on the basis
of carefully planned table of specifications, both have the same type of test items, and both provide clear directions to the
students.
Still the two differ. They differ in the quality of test items, the reliability of test measures, the procedures for administering
and scoring and the interpretation of scores. No doubt, standardised tests are good and better in quality, more reliable and
valid.
his local needs, may not be readily available, may be costly, may have different objectives. In order to fulfill the immediate
requirements, the teacher has to prepare his own tests which are usually objective type in nature. Teacher-made tests are
normally prepared and administered for testing classroom achievement of students, evaluating the method of teaching
adopted by the teacher and other curricular programmes of the school.
Teacher-made test is one of the most valuable instrument in the hands of the teacher to solve his purpose. It is designed to
solve the problem or requirements of the class for which it is prepared. It is prepared to measure the outcomes and content
of local curriculum. It is very much flexible so that, it can be adopted to any procedure and material. It does not require any
sophisticated technique for preparation.
Taylor has highly recommended for the use of these teacher-made objective type tests, which do not require all the four
steps of standardised tests nor need the rigorous processes of standardisation. Only the first two steps planning and
preparation are sufficient for their construction.
Features of Teacher-Made Tests:
1. The items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty.
2. These are prepared by the teachers which can be used for prognosis and diagnosis purposes.
3. The test covers the whole content area and includes a large number of items.
4. The preparation of the items conforms to the blueprint.

5. Test construction is not a single man’s business, rather it is a co-operative endeavour.
6. A teacher-made test does not cover all the steps of a standardised test.
7. Teacher-made tests may also be employed as a tool for formative evaluation.
8. Preparation and administration of these tests are economical.
9. The test is developed by the teacher to ascertain the student’s achievement and proficiency in a given subject.
10. Teacher-made tests are least used for research purposes.
11. They do not have norms whereas providing norms is quite essential for standardised tests.
Steps/Principles of Construction of Teacher-made Test:
A teacher-made test does not require a well-planned preparation. Even then, to make it more efficient and effective tool of
evaluation, careful considerations arc needed to be given while constructing such tests.
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b) Construct six items of each, short answers completion true false, matching multiple choice and essay type from the
English class VII (Public Sector).
Answer:
The following steps may be followed for the preparation of teacher-made test:
1. Planning:
Planning of a teacher-made test includes:
a. Determining the purpose and objectives of the test, ‘as what to measure and why to measure’.
b. Deciding the length of the test and portion of the syllabus to be covered.
c. Specifying the objectives in behavioural terms. If needed, a table can even be prepared for specifications and weightage
given to the objectives to be measured.
d. Deciding the number and forms of items (questions) according to blueprint.
e. Having a clear knowledge and understanding of the principles of constructing essay type, short answer type and objective
type questions.
f. Deciding date of testing much in advance in order to give time to teachers for test preparation and administration.
g. Seeking the co-operation and suggestion of co-teachers, experienced teachers of other schools and test experts.
2. Preparation of the Test:
Planning is the philosophical aspect and preparation is the practical aspect of test construction. All the practical aspects to be
taken into consideration while one constructs the tests. It is an art, a technique. One is to have it or to acquire it. It requires
much thinking, rethinking and reading before constructing test items. Different types of objective test items viz., multiple
choice, short-answer type and matching type can be constructed. After construction, test items should be given lo others for
review and for seeking their opinions on it. The suggestions may be sought even from others on languages, modalities of the
items, statements given, correct answers supplied and on other possible errors anticipated. The suggestions and views thus
sought will help a test constructor in modifying and verifying his items afresh to make it more acceptable and usable.
After construction of the test, items should be arranged in a simple to complex order. For arranging the items, a teacher can
adopt so many methods viz., group-wise, unit-wise, topic wise etc. Scoring key should also be prepared forthwith to avoid
further delay in scoring. Direction is an important part of a test construction. Without giving a proper direction or instruction,
there will be a probability of loosing the authenticity of the test reliability. It may create a misunderstanding in the students
also.
Thus, the direction should be simple and adequate to enable the students to know:
(i) The time for completion of test,
(ii) The marks allotted to each item,
(iii) Required number of items to be attempted,
(iv) How and where to record the answer? and
(v) The materials, like graph papers or logarithmic table to be used.
Uses of Teacher-Made Tests:
1. To help a teacher to know whether the class in normal, average, above average or below average.
2. To help him in formulating new strategies for teaching and learning.
3. A teacher-made test may be used as a full-fledged achievement test which covers the entire course of a subject.
4. To measure students’ academic achievement in a given course.
5. To assess how far specified instructional objectives have been achieved.
6. To know the efficacy of learning experiences.
7. To diagnose students learning difficulties and to suggest necessary remedial measures.
8. To certify, classify or grade the students on the basis of resulting scores.

9. Skillfully prepared teacher-made tests can serve the purpose of standardised test.
10. Teacher-made tests can help a teacher to render guidance and counseling.
11. Good teacher-made tests can be exchanged among neighbouring schools.
12. These tests can be used as a tool for formative, diagnostic and summative evaluation.
13. To assess pupils’ growth in different areas.
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Q 5. a) Discuss the initiatives taken by the government for universalization of education?

Answer:
If the Pakistani government wants to increase literacy and numeracy rates, it must urgently address the problem of primary
school dropouts. On an individual basis, the reasons for dropping out vary, but generally there are two main categories of
factors that lead to this problem: out-of-school and in-school.
The main out-of-school reason for leaving primary school is financial. Pakistani studies have shown poverty to be the main
reason forcing children out of school. One 1977 study indicated that 79 percent of dropouts are from low-income
households.
In these families, children also play the role of breadwinner. Changes in labor market conditions or household composition
can mean the indirect costs of education are now higher or the direct costs cannot be met. Children must work to support
their families or their families can no longer afford to send them to school.
The main in-school factor contributing to dropping out is low learning achievement. Some children repeatedly fail and so stay
in the same grade year after year. Such repetition reduces the benefits of schooling and the lengthening of the school cycle
increases the costs of education.
Corporal punishment is another much-cited in-school reason for dropping out. In 1989, 52 percent of Pakistani teachers were
found to use physical punishment with their students.
Such was the case for Clanelius Ishaq, a nine-year-old from Rahim Yar Khan, who decided to drop out. Clanelius wanted out
of an environment that was neither rich nor stimulating and where he had to endure physical punishment. He left school one
day and never returned. Even sadder was the fact that his teacher never bothered to find out why he left nor did he try to
encourage Clanelius to come back. Neither did his parents. Instead, his father bought a number of goats and gave Clanelius
his first full-time job: as a shepherd.
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b) How can public and private sector contribute to achieve this target?
Answer:
However, after the Human Development Foundation, a US-based NGO established a non-formal school in his area which did
not use physical punishment and had a strong curriculum, Clanelius returned to school and remains there today, as one of its
brightest students.
Mitigating out-of-school factors that contribute to high dropout rates requires a wide range of policies and actions that focus
on poverty reduction through income generation and other methods. However, dealing with in-school factors does not
require as much effort. Two important ways of dealing with or even eliminating in-school factors are first, to improve the
quality of the schools and curricula, and second, train teachers to use methods that engage children in learning and help
them gain high academic achievement.
In the long run, reducing dropout rates results in a decrease in both the direct and opportunity costs of primary schooling.
This in turn increases enrolments and is an important step in achieving universal primary education in Pakistan.
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ASSIGNMENT No. 01
Secondary Education (8624) B.Ed (1.5 Years)
Autumn, 2017
Q.1 a) Explain the nature and scope of secondary education. (10+10)
Secondary education, duration (years) in Pakistan was 7.00 as of 2012. Its highest value over the past
42 years was 7.00 in 2012, while its lowest value was 7.00 in 1970.
Definition: Secondary education, duration (years) is the number of grades (years) in secondary school.
The value for Secondary education, pupils in Pakistan was 9,939,407 as of 2011. As the graph below
shows, over the past 40 years this indicator reached a maximum value of 9,939,407 in 2011 and a
minimum value of 1,462,644 in 1971. Definition: Secondary education pupils are the total number of
pupils enrolled at secondary level in public and private schools.
ESTABLISHMENT
Since the emergence of Pakistan on the map of the world, the examinations pertaining to the
Matriculation and Intermediate level were conducted under the aegis of University of the Punjab.
However, through the promulgation of the Punjab University act amendment Ordinance 1954, the
Board of Secondary Education, Punjab was established in the province which took from the said
University control of examinations of Secondary, Intermediate and Pakistani & Classical Languages.
The first-ever examination for these stages was conducted in the year 1955.
JURISDICTION
At the time of its inception in 1954, the Board inherited vast territorial jurisdictions for conducting
examinations in the provinces of Punjab, Baluchistan, Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas. To
accommodate overseas candidates, the Board also onstituted examination centres at Kuwait and
Nairobi (Kenya). Current jurisdiction of the Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education Lahore has
been confined to the districts of Lahore, Kasur, Okara, Sheikhupura and Nankana Sahib.
NEW BOARDS
Owing to tremendous increase in the candidature, two more Boards were established at Multan and
Sargodha under West Pakistan Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education (Multan & Sargodha)
Ordinance No.XVII of 1968. As a result of further bifurcation, Boards were also established at
Rawalpindi and Gujranwala. The re-construction of the Board of Intermediate & Secondary Education,
Lahore has been done through the Punjab Boards of Intermediate & Secondary Education Act 1976
(lately amended by Punjab Ordinance No.XLVII), and presently in the administrative setup of the
province, eight Boards are functioning at division level.
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE BOARD
The Chairman exercises control over the office of the Board as its principal executive and academic
officer and also presides over the meetings of the Board. He is also assisted by two officers of the
Board, namely the Secretary and the Controller of Examinations, in administrative matters as well as
those related to examinations, as shown in the real and strong education organizational sector.
VISION STATEMENT
To promote the cause of education through conducting examinations in an extremely fair, unbiased,
transparent & judicious environment so that our educated nationals may be able to contribute
meaningfully in the competitive world.
Suggestion for improvement:
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To contribute towards the progressive attainment of national aims and objectives of education at the
Secondary and Higher Secondary levels within the country and abroad through a fair, transparent and
efficient examination system, with a futuristic vision, under overall control of the Federal Ministry of
Education and in close collaboration with other Boards of Education.
Better plan:
The better plan is the "proactive approach" to in the board management. The proactive approach is
based on the premise that the best board management plan is a strong instructional plan. that the key
to middle school and board official management is to keep all of your students actively involved in all
of your financial activities.
Increased investments:
Federal and Provincial Government should increase investments in school libraries and supplementary
reading, teachers, guides, teacher training and learning material should introduce reading lessons,
teachers, guides and teacher training and promote a reading culture in school and outside school.
Policy making:
Curriculum Wing, Federal Ministry of Education should inform all stakeholders in education publishing
and the general public about the new policy, the ages of curriculum reform and the estimated time
schedule for new textbooks to be developed based on revised National Curriculum and it would be a
better sign also in board of intermediate and secondary education in Pakistan and all over the countries
board like provincial government education boards.
Secondary level in Pakistan
Education is a must for civilization. Today a dark clouds hovers over Pakistan, where illiteracy is on the
increase due to negligence of the government of Pakistan, which spends only 1% of the GDP on
education for 160 million population of the country. The illiteracy level which is tied to the poverty level
goes hand in hand and the tragedy of Pakistan is that all the successive administrations since its birth
61 years ago have failed to address the issue of Education.
To address the subject of this paper, it is important to identify the relevant issues which have brought
the illiteracy to this elevated level. In this high tech world this elevated level of poverty and illiteracy is
not acceptable and it is important to identify the weakness of the governments approach to the present
level of education and rectify the situation.
Quality of education at the time of independence.

What went wrong over a period of 61 years.
What a mess we are in at the present stage.
How to face the Education carnage and provide rectification
Major factors which brought
Greed and corruption were the two major factors which brought a well thought out British Raj system
of education to its knees, while India and Sri Lanka managed it well. In the case of India, they
advanced their engineering, technology and medicine to such a high standard that today they compete
with the most advanced nations of the world and many American and European organization outsource
their work to India.
In Pakistan the teachers were the major factors in lowering the standard of education in the primary
and secondary schools, the main factor was greed. They would not provide a good education to the
students in the classroom. Instead they would encourage their students to take tuition at the home of
the teachers, so the teacher could generate more money in his/her pocket; other teachers were purely
corrupt, they would take money and help the student in getting the upgrade in there mark sheet.
Some would let the students use unfair methods in the examination hall. When a teacher indulges in
these unfair methods he looses self respect in the eyes of his student.
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As Pakistan was getting older the students in Pakistan were getting bolder, and at one stage they used
knives and guns to get the kind of grade they wanted from there teachers. When the government
school lost their creditability, the carpetbaggers moved in the private sector. Now this does not mean
that all in private sectors were bad. Then came Bhutto’s Regime, he nationalized all good and bad
schools and literally destroyed whatever was left of a good system we inherited from the British Raj.
Bhutto was followed by Gen. Zia who thru his brand of Islam destroyed the total education system. He
is the man who is fully responsible for creating a five tier education system in Pakistan.
b) Discuss the general and specific objectives of secondary education.
Each individual teacher has an opinion about what the aim of education should be, not only in their
own classroom but also in school in general. Many issues occur when differing opinions about the
purpose of education collide. It is important to recognize that other people, including many of your
coworkers, administrators, and your students' parents might have a different point of view concerning
what education should be all about. Following is a list of different aims of education that individuals
might espouse.
This old school belief holds that school is important in providing students with the knowledge they need
to get by in their day-to-day lives. They need to know how to read, write, and do arithmetic. Even
though these core topics form the foundation of a student's education, most educators today would
probably not agree that this should be the extent of a student's school career.
Promotion of Education
To promote public private partnerships in attaining basic education for all through multiple delivery
systems (up to elementary and including early childhood and literacy for empowerment) with special
focus on disadvantaged communities and girls by direct support to private and NGOs schools in the
form of grants and loans. Support through loans and grants may be used for establishment of facilities,
teacher training, training in general, teacher support, curriculum support and resource centers. To
support initiatives in secondary education especially the technical stream including Information
Technology (IT) literacy managed by NGOs and private sector on no profit basis. To interface and
facilitate private initiatives with public ones for promotion of elementary, technical, and IT programs.
To extend assistance to existing special needs initiatives within existing mainstream programs to
address needs of children.
To promote welfare activities for the teachers and educationists of the Federal Government Institutions
including providing scholarships and assistance to students and teachers in general, and to students
and families of teachers in Federal government institutions in particular. This activity shall be carried
out of the return on the endowment fund of Federal Teacher Foundation transferred on its merger with
National Education Fund. To facilitate and undertake innovative programs between public and private
sectors or otherwise and their replication.
Related to learning progressions
While educators use learning objectives in different ways to achieve a variety of instructional goals, the
concept is closely related to learning progressions, or the purposeful sequencing of academic
expectations across multiple developmental stages, ages, or grade levels. Learning objectives are a
way for teachers to structure, sequence, and plan out learning goals for a specific instructional period,
typically for the purpose of moving students toward the achievement of larger, longer-term educational
goals such as meeting course learning expectations, performing well on a standardized test, or
graduating from high school prepared for college. For these reasons, learning objectives are a central
strategy in proficiency-based learning, which refers to systems of instruction, assessment,
grading, and academic reporting that are based on students demonstrating understanding of the
knowledge and skills they are expected to learn before they progress to the next lesson, get promoted
to the next grade level, or receive a diploma (learning objectives that move students progressively
toward the achievement of academic standards may be called performance indicators or performance
benchmarks, among other terms).
Learning objectives are also increasingly being used in the job-performance evaluations of teachers,
and the term student learning objectives is commonly associated with this practice in many states. For
a more detailed discussion, including relevant reforms and debates on the topic, see value-added
measures and student-growth measures.
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Learning objectives are also a way to establish and articulate academic expectations for students so
they know precisely what is expected of them. When learning objectives are clearly communicated to
students, the reasoning goes, students will be more likely to achieve the presented goals. Conversely,
when learning objectives are absent or unclear, students may not know what’s expected of them,
which may then lead to confusion, frustration, or other factors that could impede the learning process.
Course aims
The course aims are the raison d'être of the course. In the context of an organised unit of education,
such as a course module or course programme, an aim is a (relatively) long-term goal. Sometimes an
aim sets a goal for the teacher to achieve in relation to the learners, sometimes course aims explicitly
list long-term goals for the learner and at other times there is a joint goal for the teacher and learner
to achieve together. While the aim may be phrased as a goal for the teacher within the scope of the
course it can also imply goals for the learner beyond the duration of the course. In a statement of an
aim the third person singular form of the verb with the subject course, programme or module is often
used as an impersonal way of referring to the teaching staff and their goals. Similarly the learner is
often referred to in the third person singular even when he or she is the intended reader.
Course objectives
An objective is a (relatively) shorter term goal which successful learners will achieve within the scope
of the course itself. Objectives are often worded in course documentation in a way that explains to
learners what they should try to achieve as they learn. Some educational organisations design
objectives which carefully match the SMART criteria borrowed from the business world.
Learning outcomes
Since both aim and objective are in common language synonymous with goal they are both suggestive
of a form of goal-oriented education. For this reason some educational organisations use the term
learning outcome since this term is inclusive of education in which learners strive to achieve goals but
extends further to include other forms of education. For example, in learning through play children are
not made aware of specific goals but planned, beneficial outcomes result from the activity
nevertheless.
Therefore, the term learning outcome is replacing objective in some educational organisations. In some
organisations the term learning outcome is used in the part of a course description where aims are
normally found. One can equate aims to intended learning outcomes and objectives to measured
learning outcomes. A third category of learning outcome is the unintended learning outcome which
would include beneficial outcomes that were neither planned nor sought but are simply observed.
Q.2 Explain the aims, objectives and process of professional studies in education.
Education is the birth right of every Muslim and Muslimah. Islam puts considerable emphasis on its
followers to acquire knowledge. Investment in education is the best investment one can make, because
it eventually leads to intellectual property. Intellectual property is the intangible property, which no
one can steal or destroy. This is the property on which no Government can levy a tax. It was as a
result of application of knowledge that Muslims were the superpower of the world for twelve
centuries. Today, globally Muslims have the lowest literacy rate. Education of Muslim children in the
west has both opportunities and challenges.
Economic prosperity of a nation
In the Western World the purpose of education is to provide for the economic prosperity of a nation. At
a personal level the purpose of education is to acquire academic and professional skills that enable one
to earn a respectable living with riches and fame, and also a luxurious and comfortable life. For a
Muslim providing economic prosperity of a nation does not contradict his/her Islamic beliefs, however
focusing the goals of education solely for the purpose of money making is unpalatable. Muslims want to
impart Islamic education. Vast majority of the Muslims think that Islamic education means acquiring
Islamic religious knowledge-study of Qur'an, Arabic, Hadith, Sunnah, Seerah, Fiqh, Islamic history, and
allied subjects. As a matter of fact, in the present world broadly speaking we have two types of
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Muslims. Those who have followed the Western type of education or secular education and those who
have acquired Deeni or Islamic education.
In the twentieth century, due to Colonialism and Western influence, Muslim parents concentrated on
imparting only Secular education to their children. The weak or not so bright students were sent to
Deeni (religious) Madrasas (schools) in their own countries or to one of the Middle Eastern countries.
The Muslims who emigrated to Western countries became aware of their religious identity and wanted
to impart both Islamic and Secular education, what is now known as "Integrated Education." When
they lacked the numbers and resources, they sent their children to public schools during the week and
to the Islamic schools in the Mosque or Islamic Center during the weekends. As their numbers grew
and acquired sufficient resources, they have opened full-time Islamic Schools from kindergarten (K
grade) to 12th grade (senior or final year) in High School. In North America, an estimated 300 Islamic
Schools are functioning which impart Integrated education. There are even a few full-time Hifz schools
in North America producing homegrown Huffaz (plural of Hafeez-a scholar who has memorized the
Qur'an). It takes about two to three years of full-time study to become a Hafeez. During this time the
student takes an equivalent to sabbatical leave from his or her public or parochial school.
Young generation for leadership
The greatest objective of education is to prepare the young generation for leadership. Islamic
education is of course has the highest objective, and more than that can hardly be imagined. The aim
of Islamic education is Character building. Growth and development of an Islamic personality should be
the final goal of any Islamic School. Islamic values are the foundation of the Islamic personality. As
Muslims our educational aim is to develop the personalities of our children to the end that they will be
conscious of their responsibility to Allah (the Creator) and to fellow humans. The aims and objectives
of Islamic education has been defined in the Recommendation of the Committee I of the First World
Conference on Muslim Education as under, "Education should aim at the balanced growth of the total
personality of man through training of the human spirit, intellect, rational self, feelings and senses. The
training imparted to a Muslim must be such that faith is infused into the whole of his/her personality
and creates in him/her an emotional attachment to Islam and enables him to follow the Qur'an and
Sunnah and be governed by Islamic system of values willingly and joyfully so that he/she may proceed
to the realization of his/her status as Khalifatullah to whom Allah has promised the authority of the
universe."
We need to prepare the younger generation having leadership quality and not to be the followers of
alien ideologies but to play the role of torchbearer by their excellence in knowledge, character, and
positive action. Some scholars believe that this quality can be developed in Muslim youth by a direct
study of the Qur'an with a view to solve the problems of life in its light. A program of action to upbring
the younger generation for leadership has not yet been formulated.
Every Muslim parent is advised to raise his or her children well and properly. A happy home, comfort,
care and love, providing the necessities of life and a good education are some of the responsibilities
that parents are required to fulfill. Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) said whoever is not kind
to young people is not one of us and the best teaching that a parent can give a child is the teaching of
good manners and character. The Muslim child absorbs the Islamic values from its parents, teachers,
peers, friends and the environment, including the caregivers. Nip it in the bud is the best advice.
Otherwise once the Muslim child develops undesirable habits and unethical values, it becomes
extremely difficult to make the child into a good Muslim/Muslimah.
Islamic environment and Islamic culture
Parents play a vital role in the education of their children. Early childhood education program
emphasizes the role of parents. It declares that learning begins in the first days of life and continues
for long. Parents should develop a habit to read with their children every night. Parents should provide
an Islamic environment, an Islamic culture. It is hypocritical to do things differently and expect the
child to have Islamic values. Parents set the best examples for their children to imbibe. Like parents
the role of family has also been considered important in learning and upbringing the children. As the
children grow the teachers, community elders, their friends exert deep influence on the character of
the child. The parents should choose the right schools for their children. Audio-Visual media such as
TV, Video, video games, Movies, peer pressure could play an effective role in erasing the Islamic
personality the parents are building and deeply influence the behavior of the children for years. It
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takes constant and continuos effort on the part of the parents and others to keep our youth on the
path of Islamic values. Otherwise they will become an American statistic. Character education,
promotion of order and discipline and ending the culture of guns and drugs from schools are the
important steps of Islamic education. Islamic education should open the door of college education for
every Muslim.
The frontiers of learning are expanding across a lifetime. All the people, irrespective of age, must have
a chance to learn new skills. Internet is now the power of information. The classroom, library and even
the children's hospitals are planned to connect with it for easy access to knowledge.
In America the parents of Muslim children are facing the challenge of picking the right school for their
children. The parents have the choice to choose the school their children will attend. Parents would like
to send their children to a school that promotes academic excellence and a value centered educational
environment. The following pages list the different types of schools available for Muslim children, their
advantages and disadvantages.
WHY ISLAMIC EDUCATION?
American society today is drifting aimlessly in a sea of problems:
Crime
Guns and violence including rape
Sexual promiscuity and immorality
Drugs
Homosexuality
Poverty
Divorce
Single parent families
Children traumatized emotionally and psychologically as a result of broken families
Disrupted upbringing
One million teen-age pregnancies of unmarried mothers per year
Sexually abused children
Spousal abuse
Child abuse
All of this has great influence on and impacts the Muslims living in America, especially the children and
youth. The parents try to teach Islamic values and morals to the children, hence children are to
maintain these values at home environment. Outside the home, the children are in a totally different
environment. At times the outside social environment is in opposition to what Muslim children are
learning at home. As a result of this conflict, children are fighting a psychological battle in their minds.
Islam is very deeply concerned with the welfare of human society and the family is considered to be
the cornerstone for building the right society. Raising children in this culture and expecting Islamic
values from them is a unique and very tough challenge. Muslim families are at a disadvantage in
meeting the psychological and spiritual needs of the children. Giving more religious teachings to
children at home is not enough. It is extremely important for parents to spend time with their
children. Parents have to find time to be with their children at home, school, games, on the
playground, field trips, picnics, and tours. The most essential element is to establish an open channel
of communication with the children. An effort should be made to create an environment wherein
children should not hesitate to say to their parents their thinkings and feelings. The school system in
America deals with the teaching of Academic subjects.
Gearing up to teach life skills
The system has also been gearing up to teach life skills, such as prevention of smoking and drug
abuse, prevention of heart disease, pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Children should get
the Islamic education at an early age. In an effort to inculcate Islamic values, the teachings should be
done at home as well as Islamic centers or Islamic schools. Islamic schools should create opportunities
for Muslim children to get together to bond with each other as this would help in establishing
confidence in an Islamic identity and get psychological support. When children meet other children who
are Muslim, it enhances their confidence in being a Muslim and they feel more comfortable about their
6
identity and they assert their Islamic identity in non-Muslim environment with more ease and comfort.
Islamic identity, according to some, refers to characteristics of thought, behavior, and attitudes
emanating from the Islamic beliefs; and it should be manifested in an Islamic way of life. The practice
of Islam gives Muslims a tangible identity that they live with and project to the rest of the society. It
can be preserved by their dynamic interaction with the realities of the American system of life and
influencing and reforming the society through Islamic thoughts. The best role model is the parent's
character. The social support systems, such as Islamic centers, weekend or full time Islamic schools
should be built in communities across the country.
Problems in Islamic Schools:
No Adaab or Islamic etiquette or behavior

Parents want teachers to be lenient
Some girls and boys meet secretly in the basement.
They have girl-friends and boy-friends
They do smoke
Profanity is written on the walls, desks, blackboards, etc.
Behave roughly: laughing, talking, screaming, rip off their Hijab on the buses.
Discipline: Behavior is no different from the Public Schools.
Teachers are not fair. Spoiled kids as their parents are rich or important
Less school activities for girls. Little opportunity to interact with other students.
Islamic schools are running without an Islamic curriculum, often without a syllabus
No textbooks.
No qualified and trained teachers or certified teachers. (Quality in education is not possible
without good teachers.)
Those who attend Muslim high schools do not fare better in college.
Non-Muslim teachers who are qualified and certified. (Live-in boyfriend, rejects institution of
marriage. Wear tight and revealing outfit. Promote gay agenda, anti-religion agenda, or
insensitive to Islamic values and events)
Qualified and certified Muslim teachers work in Public schools. As Islamic schools do not offer
viable salaries, benefits (pension health benefits, etc.)
In North America major problem is the prevalent moral degradation of the society. In establishing the
Islamic Schools, Muslims lack a clear perception of their goals and seldom evaluate the final result if it
is worth the money in producing the desired results. Many Islamic schools have run into financial
difficulties. Their dreams have crumbled down, resulting in scaled down projects after short-lived
disastrous venture.
Q.3 Discuss the curriculum approaches referred in secondary education. How are helpful
in reviving secondary level curriculum to attain sustainable development society.
Main Difference – Curriculum vs Syllabus
Curriculum and syllabus are two essential components in any educational program. Curriculum is the
set of courses, coursework and their content offered at a school or anther educational institute.
Syllabus is the focused outline of a subject. Therefore, the main difference between curriculum and
syllabus is that curriculum is a set of guidelines set out for educators whereas a syllabus is a more
descriptive list of concepts that are to be taught in a class.
What is a Curriculum
A curriculum is set guidelines that that have been established to help the educators to decide on the
content of a course. It is the curriculum that gives out the course objectives, the contents, and
methods that will be used to teach. Therefore, it prescribes not only what should be taught or how it
should be taught, but also why something should be taught.
Curriculum is usually set out by the administration of an institute. In government educational

institutions, the curriculum may be set out by the government. Educators often make the syllabus
using the curriculum. In addition, the curriculum also lets the teachers measure the effectiveness of
their teaching through standardized testing.
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What is a Syllabus
Syllabus is a descriptive list of subjects to be covered and a summary of their content. It describes and
summarizes what should be taught to the students. Syllabuses, unlike curriculums, are made by
individual teachers. Since they are made by teachers, they can be tailored to suit the requirement of a
particular class. A syllabus have details such as schedule, assessments, assignments, projects, etc. So
it contains information such as dates on which assignments are to be submitted, exam dates, details of
projects, etc. Syllabus is usually accessible to students; the syllabus is given out to students at the
beginning of the course or program, particular in secondary and tertiary education. Therefore, they can
use it as a guideline for their studies.
The structure of this paper conforms to the five premises articulated above. Each premise is explored
and a principle for improving practice in curriculum design is developed. While each principle is
described as a separate entity for emphasis and clarity (somewhat like a literary sketch), the reader
may make useful connections between and among them. The guiding principles articulated above (i.e.,
the need for a conceptual framework, opportunities to reflect on attitudes and beliefs, exploration of
the epistemological foundation of the subject, an understanding of the curriculum development
process, and an understanding of the political realities) represent signposts from which bearings,
related to curriculum study and practice, may be charted.
The experiential base for this paper was a technological teacher development project completed
recently at The University of Western Ontario. The project involved a program modification that altered
the way technological education teachers were recruited, prepared, and placed in the school systems of
southern Ontario. One result of the action research component of the project was a critical look at the
teacher development process in technological education. Among several areas identified for study and
reflection, helping technology teachers become curriculum writers was paramount.
Ethical growth
A curriculum is a set of courses that presents their content; they are offered by schools and
universities. It comes from a Latin word for “race course.” The meaning of this race course is not a
one-track race but a record of actions and experiences that guide an individual for intellectual,
functional, and ethical growth. A curriculum prescribes the objectives of the system and acts as a
documented guide for teachers to understand the standards of a student and view the requirements to
achieve the end of their developmental stage. The historical conception of curriculum came from John
Franklin Bobbitt. Bobbitt is also a university professor and a writer. He wrote a book called “The
Curriculum” explaining that the curriculum as an idea for a course of deeds and experiences which will
guide children into becoming adults and establish a place in adult society. He also said that
accumulating these deeds and experiences are not only limited to school. They can also be obtained
outside of it. These also include those experiences that are obtained through unplanned and undirected
actions. Bobbitt also defined curriculum as an ideal. While there are some views that reject Bobbitt’s
postulates, they still retain the basic idea of curriculum and that experiences act as a course for
shaping a human being into a person.
In formal schooling, a curriculum shows the range of the courses available. From there, the students
will choose subject matters to be studied, and they will also act as a learning program. Features of a
curriculum also include the course objectives and their definitions usually delivered through learning
outcomes and assessment strategies. These factors are grouped and labeled as units. The curriculum
design also allows the student to see the prerequisites of each course that can be satisfied by fulfilling
certain conditions, like taking particular courses, gaining work experience, and examinations. Core
curriculum also exists. It is treated as the center of the course of study and is defined as mandatory for
the students.
Curriculum is often fused with a syllabus. A syllabus is an outline of the topics covered by the course
and displays the summary of these topics. Unlike a curriculum, a syllabus is descriptive. They are
defined by an exam board or laid out by a professor that is in charge of the quality of the course. They
serve as ensuring an understanding between professors and students so there will be less confusion
regarding the policies of the course. A syllabus also sets the expectations of the material that must be
learned, the behavior to be displayed while inside the class, and the effort put into the course.
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FIRE (formulation, implementation, research and evaluation
In developing basic concepts with which to think about curriculum problems, less progress has been
made with regard to the organization of learning experiences than with the other aspects of the
curriculum. To eliminate the confusion over the widely varying classifications of curriculum learning and
learning in extra curriculum activities, students of the curriculum have developed a definition of “school
curriculum” upon which there is a surprising amount of agreement.
The “school curriculum” is commonly defined as all of the learning which is planned and guided by the
school, whether or not it is carried on in classes, on the playground, or in other segments of the pupils’
lives. There is also considerable agreement among curriculum workers regarding the nature of
objectives. Current curriculum theory views the ends sought as desired changes in the behavior of
pupils, “behavior” being used in the broad sense to include thinking, feeling, and acting. The aim of the
school curriculum is to develop in pupils those reaction patterns that are of greatest significance. There
are, of course, varying conceptions of what reaction patterns are of greatest significance, but the
nature of educational objectives as changes in pupil behavior is a common concept of curriculum
theories.
Formulation in curriculum
By using the formulation in curriculum Finding suitable technical tools which are the most suitable for
certain learning goals is second important issue. These tools should offer student possibility to choose
tool, time and place where to learn. Certain tools can be used in some particular context, but mostly all
tools can be used in all settings. Using of different tools depends on course objectives, technical
possibilities of institution and possibility of staff to use certain technical equipment. Variety of teaching
tool such as: computers, slides, posters, videotape, audiotape, cameras, simulators, patients should be
available to teaching staff but to students as well. Certain teaching tool can be more suitable for work
with some particular size of the group for example computers can be used for individual work.
Combination of using of teaching tools can be used for teaching units. Free choice of student election
of teaching tool according to his wishes would be ideal for success of teaching process.
Implementation in curriculum
A plan for implementation, including timelines and resources required, should be created. A plan for
faculty development is made to assure consistent implementation.
Management of curriculum implementation
Clear responsibility of certain bodies, comities and individuals should be one of key elements in the
process of curriculum implementation. Role of the students in process of curriculum management
should be clearly defined. The committee for coordination among courses in order to synchronize
objectives of courses and overall curriculum should be established. Clear feedback on customer
requests should be defined.
Teaching environment
Very important aspect of successful implementation of curriculum is teaching environment and fact
whether the atmosphere inside the institution is encouraging for the people with ideas, initiatives and
cooperation among students. It is desirable to establish a sort of “department of curriculum
development”. The role of this department should be strengthening and expanding of faculty and
curriculum development programs at the medical school and its clinical affiliates, with the purpose of
enriching and advancing the school's educational mission. It should play a key role in the educational
activities of the medical school, it works in collaboration with faculty to design, implement, and assess
new courses, innovative teaching methods, and distance learning and educational technology
initiatives. This department should provide programs in numerous aspects of classroom and clinical
teaching, so that faculty can expand their knowledge base in education and enhance their teaching
skills; develops workshops and seminars upon faculty request; assists individual faculty who would like
to improve their teaching; and provides faculty with consultation on and assistance with projects in
medical education.
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Research in curriculum
Research has different interpretations and meanings in relation to the development and
implementation of standards or curricula guidelines. One common response in the surveys was to cite
as research the resources used in preparing standards (for example, other countries’ standards). In
addition, the degree to which research is used in compiling the standards often depends on the vision,
perspectives and beliefs of the team responsible for the development.
Research literally means to search again, to search deeper and to inquire and investigate for oneself.
This could accurately be said to provide the cornerstone of an inquiry-based education for children,
what is often today called “project-based learning”. Avenues’ intention is to ensure that the essential
depth in this method exists in both the end product and the process of finding the answers. At Avenues
we believe that research begins as early as our very youngest students and extends well through high
school and into adulthood. Independent exploration—the ability to design and make something, to
follow through from inception to creation, to have the self-discipline to make a plan and carry it out—
are at the core of our curriculum development.
Teachers are guides, helping children to develop their own questions, find multiple ways to find
answers, navigate the various avenues for the discovery of information and learn the essential skills of
independent problem solving and interpreting information. Independent research is embedded in
interdisciplinary courses that explore content and concepts in depth, revealing multiple ways to find
answers to questions. The process, depth and outcomes are wholly differentiated based on interest,
skills and strengths. Learning how to take notes is a major life skill. Research is knowledge that is
hand-made by each individual. To make knowledge, which is the foundation of learning, it is necessary
to apply thought to information, to think about the facts gathered and to analyze and investigate them.
Evaluation in curriculum
Evaluation is one among the most important part of a lesson plan. It is found in all the types of
curriculum models. Evaluation can be done at the start, during and at the end of the lesson plan. It is
the tool to give feedback on the teaching and learning which are done. Even evaluation should have
SMART goals. Evaluation can be done in different manners. Even if it is teacher centred, it allows
teacher to judge how much and how far students are learning and progressing. Formative evaluation
enables teachers to question and observe the learners. It helps to adjust, re-orient the class and
change strategies completely. While evaluating, questions asked to everyone must be answered
individually. ( Taba Model). Assessment is a subset of evaluation. To be able to judge we have to
measure. So through continuous assessments in class, teachers are able to mark, grade and measure
the level of the student. (Even though this kind of testing capacity of students are not acceptable by
many curriculum theorists, they are used everywhere in the normal educational system)
At classroom level the evaluation system is important because it allows breaking larger content into
smaller and attainable objectives. It also promotes remedial classes. This is in the interest of the
learner since it improves learning. Self evaluation also is very important. It helps the teacher to
improve his own ways of teaching. Examples of evaluation are not only assessment or exam based.
They also include remedial classes as said previously and re explaining lessons which are not
understood. We find out about that through diagnosis of needs.
Q.4 Write the note on:
a) Evaluate of the curriculum. (10+10)
A curriculum is a compilation of study materials that are used at all grade levels, classroom and
homework assignments and a set of teacher guides. It could also include a list of prescribed
methodology and guidelines of teaching and some material for the parents etc. It is generally
determined by an external governing body. However, there are some cases where it may be developed
by the schools and teachers themselves.
Educational institutions today are increasing their emphasis on high standards as a crucial factor in
improving the quality of education imparted to their students. They are, therefore, looking at new and
better ways to develop such a curriculum that meets all the pre-decided standards. This calls for a
change in the way schools are run and the methods of teaching in order to design, implement and
evaluate curriculum effectively.
10
Before understanding how to evaluate curriculum we must first know why we should evaluate any
curriculum. The reasons are:
• Students could be dissatisfied with the current curriculum and methods of teaching.
• Students are not achieving the desired goals set in the curriculum.
• There is a change in the student market.
• The professional expectations could be changing, which in turn call for a change in the
curriculum.
• There could also be changes in the time and staff resources.
The need to evaluate curriculum arises because it is necessary for both teachers and students to
determine the extent to which their current curricular program and its implementation have produced
positive and curricularly suitable outcomes for students. To evaluate curricular effectiveness we must
identify and describe the curriculum and its objectives first and then check its contents for accuracy,
comprehensiveness, depth, timeliness, depth and quality.
A curriculum can be evaluated by the results that it claims to achieve and the teachings that it
inculcates in the students. You can look at the following factors while evaluating a curriculum:
• Does the curriculum encourage students to use their own reasoning and thinking to find
solutions to real-world problems in a more productive and realistic way?
• Does it give them a practical knowledge about the topic being taught?
• Does it help students to adopt lateral thinking and form their opinions about a particular topic or
concept?
• Does the curriculum groom their personality?
In order to conduct a thorough curriculum evaluation you must:
• Focus on one particular curriculum program or compare two or three programs at once.
• Use a recognized methodology for evaluation.
• Study a large portion of the curriculum that is being evaluated.
Assessment provides a way to measure students' demonstration of learning. It helps us answer the
questions: "How much did they learn?" and "How well did they learn it?" and "How well did we teach
it?"
Evaluation is the process through which teachers judge the quality of work -- their own or their
students'. There are two types of evaluative strategies: 1) Formative evaluations, which involve a
continual stream of reflection and feedback, and allow the educator or student to continually adjust
and improve their work while it's ongoing. 2) Traditionally, teachers have emphasized summative
evaluations, where feedback is gathered only after instruction has been completed. Both strategies are
necessary to provide for effective curriculum assessment and student education.
Assessment expert Grant Wiggins 2 differentiates between assessment and evaluation in this way:
"When teachers ASSESS student performance, they're not placing value or judgement on it -- that's
EVALUATING or grading. They're simply reporting a student's profile of achievement."
b. International aspects of curriculum?
The International Bureau of Education has been designated as the UNESCO institute with specific
responsibility for strengthening the capacities of Member States in the adaptation of the content of
education to the challenges of the twenty-first century. Within the light of its mandate, the IBE's focus
is on the re-design and renewal of educational content based on the four 'pillars of education' identified
by the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century: learning to know, learning
to do, learning to be, and learning to live together. As advocated by the Commission, the IBE has put
particular emphasis on the last 'pillar' - learning to live together - but recognizes the fundamental
importance of the other three pillars if the fourth one is to be achieved.
The IBE, founded in Geneva over seventy years ago, is the oldest intergovernmental organization in
the field of education. With its long history as a centre for comparative education with a focus on
documenting educational change, the IBE has built up a valuable information and knowledge base
dating back to the last century on education systems and development trends world-wide. Through the
11
forum of the International Conferences on Education, the Bureau has generated over sixty years of
international policy dialogue and debate on change and reform in education. Within its present
programme, focusing on strengthening national structures for the development of curricula at the
primary and secondary levels of education, the IBE will draw on the experience and resources it has
built up over the years, while exploring new avenues for assisting capacity-building in curriculum
development and reform.
Major programme activity
In line with this new orientation, a major programme activity has just been initiated: the organization
of intensive sub-regional training courses or workshops on curriculum development specifically
designed to bring together educational policy makers and curriculum specialists. The principal aim is to
generate dialogue and encourage a closer working relationship between these two groups of key
players in the field of curriculum development, so as to improve the overall process of renewal of
educational content. The first of such courses, the proceedings of which are described in this issue of
Educational INNOVATION and information, was held at the IBE in September 1998 and targeted the
Mediterranean region. Over the next two years, it is intended to hold similar courses in Asia, in Africa
and in Latin America and the Caribbean.
While the course aims in the short-term to provide participants with a brief opportunity for professional
development and exchange, its long-term aim is to establish lasting mechanisms for dialogue and co-
operation within both national and international contexts. The IBE's vision is for educational networks
to be formed or strengthened within different regions, uniting curriculum specialists (from ministries of
education, curriculum development centres, universities and research institutes) with policy makers,
creating fora for meaningful collaboration and real change. The Bureau's role will be a co-ordinating
and supporting one; the impetus for sharing expertise, building on common experiences and
addressing common concerns must come from the regions themselves.
Within the framework of its major new programme:
The adaptation of content to the challenges of the twenty-first century, the IBE organized a pilot
course on curriculum development for upper primary and general secondary education from 11 to 18
September 1998 at its premises in Geneva, Switzerland. The Swiss authorities financed the course.
This new programme activity has been designed as an integral part of the IBE's overall mission to
strengthen the capacity of the Member States of UNESCO in the area of curriculum development.
Particular emphasis is being given to the concerns expressed by Member States regarding the
preparation of children and young people for the numerous political, economic, social and cultural
changes resulting from globalization.
Through the organization of these training courses the IBE aims to foster greater interaction and
dialogue between educational policy decision-makers and curriculum specialists so as to increase both
of these parties' understanding of the other's objectives, needs and constraints. The course content is
designed to meet the specific needs of both partners.
This pilot intensive sub-regional course was intended mainly for countries of the Mediterranean region.
Representatives from the following countries participated: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina (hereafter
Bosnia), Greece, Jordan, Lebanon, Malta, the Palestinian Autonomous Territories (hereafter Palestine),
Slovenia, Spain, the Syrian Arab Republic (hereafter Syria) and Turkey. To enlarge the scope of the
course and enrich it with experiences from other regions, as well as to facilitate the organization of
future sub-regional courses, the following countries were also invited: Colombia, India, Mozambique
and the United Republic of Tanzania (hereafter Tanzania). A total of twenty-six participants attended.
As requested, most countries designated both a decision-maker and a specialist in curriculum
development to participate in the course. The language of instruction was English.
Course organization and content
The programme consisted of a combination of country presentations, lectures, practical exercises and
fora. Each country presented short reports of its decision-making process concerning curriculum
development, with an emphasis on specific national features. These presentations provided information
on the principal features of national situations - structures within which curriculum development takes
place, national goals for education and salient curriculum reform trends - and permitted course
12
participants to gain insights into curriculum development processes, problems and achievements of
each country. The presentations revealed a variety of approaches to curriculum development in terms
of administrative structures and the definition of goals and priorities, but also indicated many common
elements.
The main part of the course consisted of three clusters, each comprised of lectures, followed by
practical exercises. The following three major areas of curriculum development were selected: social
sciences; humanities, with particular reference to cultures and modern languages; and science. These
clusters were intended to reflect the IBE's major programme concerns: the introduction or promotion
in school curricula of the concept of learning to live together; and the development of the content of
education with a view to meeting some of the challenges raised by globalization.
Q.5 Elaborate the new trends at secondary level. Also highlight the criteria to adopt these
trends in Pakistan context.
Curriculum provides the sketch of education required for the country. The curriculum sets direction for
the needs and purpose of education, nature of institutions, quality of teachers, educational facilities
and the system of examination and evaluation. Curriculum development is a process of making the
curriculum. The curriculum provides a scheme of compulsory, alternate compulsory and optional
courses of studies. Those who are involved in the curriculum development are: policy makers, subject
specialists, textbook writes, publishers, parents and students. The curriculum and Textbook Wing in
the Ministry of Education prepares curriculum.
It was established in 1974. The Curriculum and textbook Wing prepares the schemes of studies for
primary, middle, secondary and higher secondary levels of education. It also revises and updates all
subjects at different intervals. Curriculum development above higher secondary education is done by
Higher Education Commission.
Education plays a vital role in nation building.
Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the national cohesion, integration and preservation of
the ideological foundation of the states.
Responsibilities
Federal Ministry of Education is responsible in making of:
Curriculum
Syllabus
Planning
Policy
Education standards
National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks (NBTC)
Also known as curriculum wing.
Supervise curriculum and textbooks.
Approves and maintain curriculum standards from the primary to the higher secondary levels
Provincial curriculum Centre
Every province has a provincial curriculum centre
To ensure provincial collaboration
Involve in all activities falling within the purview of the federation.
Each Province has its own Provincial Textbook Board (PTTB)
PTTBs are responsible for:

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Preparing
Publishing
Stocking
Distributing
Marketing school textbooks Curriculum
Design and Development Process
Curriculum Design and Development
Evolution of curriculum objectives.

Development of scheme of studies.
Development of syllabus of each subject.
Development of textbook, instructional material.
Approval of textual material.
Teacher training.
Developing Objectives
Objectives are derived from
Recommendation of the National Education Policy

National Level Seminars
Forums of research studies
Inter Board Committee of Chairmen
NBCT prepares the draft of objectives.
Circulated in provincial institutions responsible for curriculum development.
Objectives are finalized.
Translated to the specific teaching objectives
Factors considered in finalizing the objectives
Be precise
Assist in the selection of teaching strategy
Produce a designated behavior pattern
Enables teachers to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of learning.
The studies scheme
It is based on three key factors:
The national education policy

Market demand
Global issues
Task work in this area is undertaken with the participation of:
Provincial government
Research organizations and experts
Feedback of the IBCC
Development of syllabi
It is based on objectives and scheme of study.
Subject specific syllabi is prepared in consultation with:

Subject expert
Psychologist
14
Serving teacher
Syllabi must satisfy the following conditions:
Take into account the existing knowledge and the environmental experience of the learner. The
development level of the learner is considered in the cognitive, effectiveness and psycho-motor
domain. Content should be focused on attaining the objectives.
Textbook Development
Provincial Text Book Boards (PTBB) are responsible for the development of the text-books according to
the approved syllabi.
How textbook is developed?
Establish a list of text book writers.
Invitation are sent to the writers to submit the material within the syllabus parameter.
Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
The selected material is transformed into a textbook.
Review the Approval
National review committee comprises on five or six members:
At least one expert form the syllabus Formulation Committee.

Two subject experts.
Two school teachers
Textbooks review parameter
The books truly reflect the curriculum.
It meets the objectives stated in the curriculum.
Book does not contain any material repugnant to Islamic and Pakistani ideology.
In case of approval, textbook is sent for publishing and distribution.
In case of objection, complaints are relayed with revision recommendations.
Teacher Training
Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the provincial government. It is
now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher's guide. In some cases assistance in the training
of the masters trainers is provided to provincial government.
Curriculum Development Pitfalls
There are several obstacles affecting the quality and effectiveness of curriculum development process
in Pakistan.
Lack of subject area expert.
Textbook often do not reflect the curriculum
Lack of follow-up of actual curriculum implementation in classroom practice.
Curriculum often different from the official curriculum documentation
15
Curriculum Development at Higher Education Level
Introduction
In 1973’s constitution, Government placed education on the concurrent list. Federal Government took
the responsibility to determine the curriculum text boards, policy, planning and standards of education
Higher Education Commission
In December, 1976 Federal Government appointed University Grant commission (now HEC ) as the
competent authority to look after the curriculum revision work at bachelor level and onwards. It also
look after the degrees, certificates and diplomas awarded by degree colleges, universities and other
institutions of HEC.
Procedure to Review/ Revise Curriculum
In 45th meeting of Vice-Chancellor’s Committee it’s recommended that the UGC should review the
curriculum of a particular discipline after every three years. HEC adopted a procedure to review/ revise
curriculum. In ensure the quality of the updated curricula. Steps Involved In Curriculum
Review/Revision Process.
16
Course: Higher Education (8625)
Level: B. Ed
Assignment No. 02
Q 1. Critically discuss the system of Higher Education in Malaysia. How this system is different for
system of higher education in other developing countries.
Answer:
The higher education sector is responsible for the operation of higher education institutions (HEIs) in
Malaysia and is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). The education sector has
always enjoyed the highest national development budget which symbolises the commitment of the
Malaysian government towards education.
Malaysia's HEIs (i.e. public universities, private higher educational institutions, polytechnics and community
colleges) housed more than a million students in 2011, of which about 93,000 were international students
from more than 100 countries. In contrast, there were about 89,686 Malaysian students (27,003 receiving
sponsorship and 62,683 self-funded) who were studying overseas in 2011.
With a multi-ethnic population of about 28.3 million, Malaysia had 20 public universities, 53 private
universities and six foreign university branch campuses; 403 active private colleges, 30 polytechnics and 73
public community colleges in 2011. These HEIs offer a wide range of tertiary qualifications at affordable
prices.
There are also various HEIs from the UK, the US, Australia, Canada, France, and New Zealand which offer
twinning and '3+0' degree programmes through partnerships with Malaysian private higher education
institutions. At present, some world-class universities such as RMIT University, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine and the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland have established their collaboration with the
local PHEIs.
Five of the 20 public universities in Malaysia have been assigned research university status with additional
funding for R&D and commercialisation of research. The remaining 15 public universities have been
categorised as either comprehensive or focus universities. In the 2012 new year's speech, the Minister
of Higher Education announced that five public universities have been given autonomy in administration,
human resources, financial and academic management and student intake. They are Universiti Malaya,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. This move is aimed at encouraging excellence among local institutions of higher
learning.
The quality of higher education is assured through the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) which
undertakes the implementation of the Malaysian Qualifications Framework. MQA is also responsible for
quality assurance and the accreditation of courses and other related functions, covering both public and
private higher educational institutions.
The provision of higher education is well regulated. Below are some of the legislation :
1. The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
2. The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
3. The National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996
4. Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous namely National Accreditation
Board Act 1996 which has been repealed)
5. The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
6. The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act, 1997 (Amendment 2000)
Both the Universities and University Colleges Act and the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act are
currently under review.
The internationalisation of the higher education sector is a high priority for MOHE. Efforts have been made
to improve the world ranking of Malaysian universities; to have 150,000 international students by 2015; to
create more 'Malaysian Chairs' at universities abroad; and to collaborate and cooperate with world-
renowned universities on research and academic matters.
The government will continue to create a friendly environment and invite more world-class foreign university
branch campuses or faculties to be set up in
Malaysia. Currently, there are six foreign universities with branch campuses in Malaysia. They are Monash
University (Australia), The University of Nottingham (UK), Curtin University (Australia), Swinburne University
of Technology (Australia), Newcastle University School of Medicine (UK) and University of Southampton
(UK).
Other initiatives undertaken by HEIs include the establishment of Malaysian university branch campuses in
other countries and increasing transnational education collaboration with overseas institutions. Malaysian
higher education is also aggressively promoted in many parts of the world through road-shows.
MOHE also aims to have 20 Research Excellent Centres which are of international standard by 2020. The
nation has also targeted to achieve 100 researchers, scientists and engineers (RSE) per 100,000 workforce
by the year 2020. The 10MP (2011-2015) sets to improve the quality of academic staff by increasing the
number of academics with PhDs in public universities, with a target of 75 per cent in research universities
and 60 per cent in other public universities. To achieve this target, the implementation of the MyBrain15
programme will be intensified to finance doctoral studies for the purpose of increasing the number of PhD
holders to 18,000 by 2015.
Malaysia's first rating system, SETARA (Rating System for Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia) was
implemented in 2009 to measure the performance of undergraduate teaching and learning in universities
and university colleges in Malaysia. The SETARA result was measured using a six-tier category with Tier 6
identified as Outstanding and Tier 1 as Weak.
Subsequently, another rating system was introduced in 2011. My QUEST (Malaysian Quality Evaluation
System for Private Colleges) was used to evaluate private colleges in Malaysia in terms of the quality of
students, programmes, graduates, resources and governance. The MyQUEST rating categorised an
institution as either excellent, good, or weak. The institutions would also receive a rating based on their level
of achievement which ranged from 1 star (poor) to 6 stars (excellent). These two rating systems serve as a
reliable reference for students and parents in their selection of institutions and programmes of study offered
by various HEIs.
Features of the Education System in Malaysia
Malaysia is known for its well organised system of education. Primary as well as secondary and tertiary
education is well structured and students from within the nation as well as international locations apply and
study here.
School Education System in Malaysia Primary Education
Primary education in Malaysia lasts for around 6 years. Children commence with primary education at the
age of 7 in this country. Primary education is a continuation of pre-school education in this nation. Along with
reading, writing and arithmetic, children can also study other subjects such as science, physical education,
Islamic and moral education. At the close of the studies in year 6, these students will appear for the Primary
School Achievement Test/UPSR. The Malaysian school system is structured around optional kindergarten,
compulsory primary school followed by secondary, post secondary and university education. Optional
kindergarten is for children aged 3 to 6. There are only some government run kindergartens in Malaysia and
many of them are run privately. Compulsory primary school is for students aged 7 to 12 and it is divided into
2 three year phases at the end of the which a Primary School Achievement Test is taken.
Secondary education
This is for students aged 13 to 17 and it is divided into lower secondary and upper secondary education.
While the former is for 3 years, the latter is for 2 years and both come to a close with standardised tests.
Two different final tests exist depending upon whether the students have been following a technical or
vocational education path.
Post secondary education
This is for students aged 17 to 18 and this prepares students who want to attend university. Secondary
schools in Malaysia range from the national secondary school to residential schools, arts and sports
secondary schools, technical/vocational secondary schools, national religious secondary schools and
national religious assisted secondary school. Children with chronic health conditions can opt for home
schooling.
Schools in Malaysia
Of relevance to secondary education in Malaysia is the cluster school. It is identified as being excellent
within the cluster apart from features such as school management and student achievement. Cluster
schools emphasise the excellence of the Malaysian education system.
Primary schools include national schools, Chinese national type schools, native schools and Tamil national
type schools.
Secondary schools comprise fully residential schools, technical secondary schools, national religious
secondary schools, regular secondary schools, premier schools, schools within Putrajaya and Cyberjaya,
centennial schools and special model schools.
Special education primary schools and special education as well as vocational special education secondary
schools are also in place. Apart from this, there are also private and international schools.
Post-Secondary institutions including matriculation colleges and institutes of teacher education are also
readily accessible.For secondary education,since the implementation of open certificate, students must
study 4 compulsory subjects namely Islamic Education, Malay Language, English Language and
Mathematics as well as History. Three main streams prevail in upper secondary education namely academic
(science/arts), technical and vocational stream as well as religious stream.
Malaysian art & sports schools:Apart from Malaysian art schools, students in this nation can also opt for
Malaysian sports schools, so that both sporting and academic talent can be jointly nurtured.
Students who have completed their upper secondary education and appeared for the SPM examination can
then proceed to higher education. Form 6 is a two year course of study comprising the lower and upper
form. Eligible students can opt for either of the two streams: humanities and science. At the close of form 6,
students can receive assessment through the Malaysian Higher School Certificate Examination.
Matriculation Programme: The Ministry of Education Matriculation Programme is a preparatory one for
bumiputeria students with the Malaysian Certificate of Education for qualifying for degree courses in science
as well as technology and professional arts in public as well as private universities. Pre-university studies
last for 2 semesters. Programme curriculum focuses on academic aspects without leaving aside the co-
curricular aspect.
Higher Education in Malaysia
Students can only enter university following completion of the matriculation programme. Students of
matriculation programme receive sponsorship by the Ministry of Education and those who obtain the CGPA
of 2.00 or grade C or above may be admitted to public institutions of higher learning.
Public Institutions
Public institutions of higher education can be one choice for students who go in for higher studies in
Malaysia. This institution is managed by Student Admission Management Division of the Department of
Higher Education. Another choice is to go in for polytechnic colleges. These colleges are managed by the
Student Intake Division, Department of Polytechnic Colleges. Admission of students into community colleges
is managed by the Student Intake Division of the Department of Community Colleges/DCC.
Foreign Universities
The “overseas branches” of foreign universities offer the same courses and awards as the main university.
Twinning programmes have also become popular wherein the local universities in Malaysia form a
partnership with foreign universities. Malaysian universities offer undergraduate and postgraduate courses
and admission requirements for universities include STPM (Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia) exams or a
foreign degrees such as the A-levels.
Private Universities
There are a growing number of private universities in Malaysia as the demand for higher education is on the
rise. Students apply directly at the Malaysian private or
public university of their choice given that the institution has been approved by the Malaysian Ministry of
Higher Education. Public universities can take international students, yet public institutions have to be
licensed by the Immigration Department of the Ministry of Home Affairs in Malaysia.
Ranking of Educational Institutions
Once the university of choice has received license and approval, application can be made at the respective
university for student passes. Malaysia is the top educational destination for tertiary as well as higher
education. It has been ranked 11th worldwide by UNESCO as an educational institutions. Close to 75,000
international students studied in Malaysia in 2009. The number is much higher now.
{===============}
Q 2. Attending a university adds value to a person's potential productive contribution to the

economy. Comment on the statement also explain the way used for financing higher
education
Answer:
Globalization and international trade requires countries and their economies to compete with each other.
Economically successful countries will hold competitive and comparative advantages over other economies,
though a single country rarely specializes in a particular industry. This means that the country's economy will
be made of various industries that will have different advantages and disadvantages in the global
marketplace. The education and training of a country's workers is a major factor in determining just how well
the country's economy will do.
The study of the economics of training and education involves an analysis of the economy as a whole, of
employers and of workers. Two major concepts that influence the wage rate are training and education. In
general, well-trained workers tend to be more productive and earn more money than workers with poorer
training.
High school students contemplating obtaining a university degree - as well as the long term unemployed
who feel the need to retrain themselves in a different profession - are typically faced with the challenge of
financing the increasingly
steep cost of higher education that usually exceeds whatever limited financial resources they currently have
available to them.
Although quality undergraduate and graduate school tuition fees can easily run into the tens of thousands of
dollars per year - not to mention schooling accommodation and materials costs -numerous programs and
methods for financing an education fortunately exist to help the aspiring student obtain the education they
desire or require.
Some of the more common ways of financing an education include the following:
Need Based Educational Grants
Applicants who can demonstrate a substantial financial need can often obtain an educational grant from the
financial aid office of their targeted university or training facility. Some educational grants are also available
from other sources, depending on your qualifications. The main advantage of grants is that they generally do
not have to be repaid, although qualifying can be challenging, especially if you have significant income or
assets.
Merit Based Scholarships
Exceptional high school students are often awarded merit based educational financial aid in the form of
scholarships that do not have to be repaid. Qualifying for such scholarships can depend on a student's high
school performance or on their scores on commonly accepted scholastic aptitude tests, such as the SAT
Reasoning Test or the ACT.
Work-Study Employment Plans
Some students may wish to apply to their educational establishment to see if employment opportunities are
available for them to earn money to put toward educational expenses while they study. The U.S. Federal
Government currently offers a 60 percent wage subsidy to employers of students engaged in work-study
programs.
Internships and Apprenticeships
On the job training opportunities are often available in the form of internship for white collar jobs and
apprenticeships for blue collar jobs. These educational programs are typically run half time during the school
year to accommodate the
need to attend classes, and full time during the summer. Although usually low paying, they allow students to
obtain valuable hands-on experience in their chosen field and may even result in a job offer from the
company they participated in the program with.
Private Loans
Private educational loans can be obtained by soliciting them from your friends and family, as well as from
various other private sources. Such loans can usually be arranged at either fixed or variable interest rates,
and they typically require a financially sound co-signer and a credit check if the lender is not familiar or
comfortable with your credit history.
Stafford Subsidized and Unsubsidized Loans
These educational loans are guaranteed by the U.S. Federal Government via its Department of Education
and can be used to pay tuition and other educational expenses. The subsidized Stafford Loans require
financial need to be demonstrated and do not accrue interest while you are in school, while the unsubsidized
Stafford Loans are not based on financial need and accrue interest as soon as the loan is disbursed. Both
types have a fixed interest rate, and payments are not required while you remain in school.
Direct PLUS Loans
The U.S. Federal Government funds Direct PLUS Loans for educational purposes that currently carry a fixed
interest rate of 7.9 percent and have more relaxed credit requirements. The loan amount that a qualifying
student can obtain is up to the attendance cost, less any other financial aid received that year. Be sure to
check with your prospective school's financial aid office to see what options are available and whether they
can provide you with further assistance in finding the educational financing option that is right for you.
{===============}
Q 3. Highlight the need and role of assessment in higher education on Pakistan. Also discuss role of
teacher assessment in Higher Education perspective
Answer:
Assessment is systemic process in higher education that uses empirical data on student learning to refine
programs and improve student learning.[1] As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable
and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities
to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting
evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information
to inform improvement in student learning. Assessment functions as part of a continuous process whereby
the parts of the cycle are revised and monitored. The term “assessment” is defined broadly in that any
outcome or goal in any activity or discipline can be a part of this process.
Types
Assessment in higher education can focus on the individual learner, a course, an academic program, or the
institution.
1. Course-level Assessment
2. Program-level Assessment
Course-level Assessment
Assessment embedded at the course level (sometimes referred to as embedded assessment or authentic
assessment) typically involves the use of assignments. Students receive feedback on their performance on
assignments and faculty gain knowledge of student learning to use for grading. The work assessed within
courses best relates to specific program-level student learning outcomes. Angelo and Cross believe
assessment in the classroom is an important part of the faculty feedback loop which can provide meaningful
information about their effectiveness as teachers while also giving students a measure of their progress as
learners.
Program-level Assessment
Program assessment is a best practice in higher education. The process involves a framework for placing
priority and attention on the process of student learning and most specifically, the program objectives,
organization of curriculum, pedagogy and student development. Like course assessment, program
assessment requires defining a statement of mission/goals, establishment of program-specific student

learning outcomes and the identification of where learning takes place or “learning opportunities”. The next
part in program assessment involves the development of a research question or intended goal for
assessment. What questions does the program seek to answer? And what direct or indirect evidence needs
to be collected to identify answers? The collected data is evaluated, analyzed and interpreted resulting in the
implementation of an action plan resulting in improvement in the program and student learning.
Mission Alignment
Each course a student takes occurs within the context of a program, which occurs within the context of
overarching university outcomes. With the assumption that coursework should support the program and
programs should support the overall mission of the university, alignment of mission (and learning outcomes)
should occur. Assessment at the course level typically takes the form of tests, quizzes, and assignments.
When courses are mapped to program outcomes, this permits the aggregation of data from several courses
covering the same outcome which can be used for program assessment. Additional program assessment
can take the form of embedded assignments, field experiences, capstone experiences, portfolios, or tests of
majors.
Scoring Guides/Rubrics
Rubrics are often used to assess student work. Essentially, a rubric is a scoring guide grid consisting of a
scale of some sort (i.e., levels of performance), the dimensions or important components of an assignment,
and descriptions of what constitutes each level of performance for each assignment dimension. Rubrics can
be particularly effective for assessment due to how closely they are tied with the teaching and learning
process - they can be used for grading, as well as giving students feedback on their performance.
Assessment Points
Assessment is most effective when it occurs at multiple points in time along the student's path. Multiple
measures over time provide a way to triangulate data and increase confidence in the results.
Effective Assignments
In order to assess student learning, students must given assignment where they can demonstrate what they
know and can do.
Indirect/Direct Measures
A distinction is made between direct and indirect measures of learning. Direct measures, as their name
implies, involve directly examining student work products to assess the achievement of learning outcomes.
These work products occur in a variety of formats including objective tests, and rubric-scored projects,
performances, and written work. A recent survey of provosts indicates that classroom based assessment
and rubrics are most frequently used. Large scale commercial tests such as the College Learning
Assessment (CLA) are used by fewer than 50% use standardized tests according to the survey. Indirect
measures focus on data from which one can make inferences about learning. Indirect measures can include
surveys on student and faculty perceptions about learning, focus groups, and exit interviews. National
surveys such as the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) have become increasing popular
indirect measures, with roughly 85% of institutions using these measures according to a recent survey.
Sampling
In a classroom setting or in a program level assessment, it is often possible to assess the entire population
of interest, referred to as a census. However, it is sometimes impractical or ineffective to assess an entire
population, due to the time and effort involved as well as survey fatigue if the same group of students are
being asked to take multiple surveys. Therefore, sampling strategies can be used to pick a subset of the
population of interest. The goal of sampling is to select a smaller group that represents the population on
key characteristics. Multiple sampling approaches are commonly used in higher education assessment,
including random and stratified sampling. In a random sample, each individual is equally likely to be
selected. In a stratified sample, individuals are grouped based on specific characteristics of interest and then
randomly selected from each group to ensure adequate numbers of each group.
Use of findings
Assessment data are only effective in "closing the loop" and improving programs if they are shared and
communicated widely.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a way for an institution or program to determine how a sample measures up to others or to
themselves at an earlier time.
Professional Organizations
There are numerous regional organizations dedicated to discussing issues and policies related to
assessment in higher education. The Association for the Assessment of Learning in Higher Education
(AALHE) is one international organization. Seven other regional assessment organizations exist in the
United States.
In an interview with the Chronicle for Higher Education, Marsha Watson, former director of the AALHE,
stated that the “rising demands for accountability mean that assessment must evolve into its own discipline."
The National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment is another organization dedicated to helping
institutions use assessment data to improve academic quality. They have delivered a number of research
papers on assessment practices.
Benefits of Assessment
There is heightened political and public pressure on higher education institutions to explain what they are
trying to do and provide evidence they are actually doing it. Faculty want students to learn. In addition,
faculty love their disciplines and want to share their knowledge and enthusiasm with students. Placing
emphasis on what students learn and what students do helps to effectively drive improvement in the learning
process, program planning and overall institutional improvement. Assessment adds transparency to the
teaching and learning process, helps to provide some evidence to the effectiveness of student learning and
promotes an environment where continuous improvement is well understood and ingrained in the
institutional culture.
Linda Suskie, a higher education consultant, says that "Good assessments are not once-and-done affairs.
They are part of an ongoing, organized, and systematized effort to understand and improve teaching and
learning.”
Criticism of Assessment
Some university faculty and researchers have criticized student learning outcomes assessment in higher
education. Robert Shireman, a senior fellow for the Century Foundation, argued that accrediting agencies
often require institutions to reduce learning to meaningless blurbs, or student learning outcomes, which
“prevents rather than leads to the type of quality assurance that has student work at the center.” Erik Gilbert,
a professor of History, wrote another notable essay criticizing assessment in higher education arguing that it
has little effect on educational quality and that accrediting agencies require institutions to invest time and
resources in collecting evidence on student learning even though, he believes, that it does not improve
academic quality.
Role of teacher assessment in Higher Education perspective:
There are many different purposes for which pupils’ work is assessed with a view to summarizing their
achievements. These vary from informal records of progress to high stakes certification (see Box 1) and
occur in contexts across all phases of education from pre-school to adult learning. The ways in which
assessment can be carried out also vary considerably. The concern here is to ensure that the way in which it
is conducted provides information that is fit for its purpose. The use of assessment by teachers for external
summative purposes has long been advocated. The value of such a strategy becomes particularly clear
when one
becomes particularly clear when one considers the qualities that effective summative assessment should
have. In common with assessment for other purposes, summative assessment should have the following
qualities:
Validity: the assessment must cover all aspects, and only those aspects, of pupils’ achievement relevant to a
particular purpose. Reliability: it should be designed so that users can have confidence that the results are
sufficiently accurate and consistent for their purpose.
Impact: it should not only measure performance but have desirable consequences for teaching, learning and
pupils’ motivation for learning. Assessment generally
has a strong impact on the curriculum and on pedagogy, so it is vital that any adverse effects are minimised.
Practicability: the resources required to provide it – teachers’ time, expertise and cost, and pupils’ learning
time – should be commensurate with the value of the information for its users.
How successfully does summative assessment by teachers meet these four criteria? The table opposite
weighs evidence for and against. However, before setting out the conflicting points it is important to be clear
about the meaning given here to summative assessment by teachers. The definition that emerged from
discussions the teachers and other professionals in education restricts the meaning to situations where
teachers assess their own pupils:
{===============}
Q4 Discuss key problems being faced in higher education in Pakistan.
Suggest some valuable steps to address these problems.
Answer:
Education is a basic need of every society. A better education system can enhance the social, scientific, and
technological improvement of a country. The human resource development of a country depends upon the
quality of education imparted in country (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education caters to the education in the
colleges and universities. Allen (1988) observed “It is academically consider suitable to present distinctive
feature of two stages for the purpose of clarity of concepts and avoiding duplication” Higher education is
admittedly a separate stage quite distinct from primary, secondary, elementary, and higher secondary stage.
(Best, 1994)
The people in Pakistan and South Asia are neither deficient in talent nor in moral qualities in comparison to
any other nation of the world, but about two centuries of foreign rule and blind imitation of western attitudes
and methods, unsuited to the genius and spiritual conditions of its people, have spoiled some of the virtues
and have brought a bad name to their intellectual capacities (Siddiq, 1978). Hassan (1990) observed
“Pakistan is unfortunately really backward in education as in certain other spheres of intellectual activities
but luckily people are not inherently incompetent or morally incurable.” It is however necessary that the
diagnosis about maladies should be correct and the measures for curing these maladies should be
appropriate in the light of that diagnosis (Abdullah, 1992).
Higher Education means education after school and college. There are numerous best universities in
Pakistan that offer higher level education ever year but despite all of this we are way behind from the world
as concerned to education. 63 years of independence has been past but we are not able to find the right
way of giving quality education. One of the major problem of higher education in Pakistan is our political
leaders that are not well educated. Education system in Pakistan is not good as it should be in this latest
technology of world therefore it is the reason plenty of Pakistani students are getting education in foreign
developed countries. After the creation of Higher Education Commission in Pakistan the standard of
education developed as compare to the past. Higher Education Commission which is also known as HEC is
playing vital role for the development of higher education. There are many factors responsible for problems
of higher education in Pakistan and some foremost problems are discussed below:-
ACADEMIC PROBLEMS:
All know very well that resources regarding education are not enough in Pakistan but the problem is that we
are not taking benefits of available resources in other words resources are not being utilized properly due to
lack of unskilled, dishonest and less educated administration. The education in Pakistan has been
distributed into different level and equality. Education is different for poor ones and different for richer ones.
There is no proper monitoring system in Pakistan to control the education system numerous educational
institutions and universities opened now but the standard of education is not good at all.
Management Problems:
One of the major responsible factor of problems of higher education in Pakistan is management.
Management has been biggest problem of Pakistan since independence. Even our political leaders are less
educated so they have no idea how to manage the systems. Unskilled and inexperience staff is being
recruited by avoiding the merit so how can a inexperience and unskilled man can run system properly.
EDUCATION FUNDING:
In developed countries most of the part of financial budget is spent on education but it doesn’t happen in
Pakistan. Ever year the field of education is being avoided there is no enough finance to insist the education
system and Pakistan is not receiving foreign aid for improvement of education.
EMPLOYMENT:
Employment is also the leading issue of Pakistan which causes problems for higher education. Students join
business and due to non-availability of job opportunities leaving their study incomplete as they think they
don’t have scope and good earning places in multinational and government companies.
INEXPERT TEACHERS:
The teachers and lecturers teaching colleges and universities are educated but they don’t have experience
and skills at the start of their professional career. It is little bit easy to get job in educational institutions in
Pakistan therefore every educated youngster would love to join teaching field despite lack of interest and
experience.
POVERTY PROBLEMS:
Pakistan is not the countries of living rich peoples, the poverty rate is Pakistan is very high so it is also the
cause and one of the biggest problem of higher education in Pakistan because after the matriculation of
intermediate education parents force their children to earn livelihood alongwith education and student cannot
pay attention to study and finally they leave to study for earnings.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS:
There is no moral training is being given to the staff and students in higher education department and as
well as in institutions. People in Pakistan are promoting western culture thus the culture of Pakistan and
Islam is going to be finished.
SOLUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN PAKISTAN:
First of all it is the responsibility of government of Pakistan to think something out of box for development of
higher education. Education needs proper guidance and financial assistance. Government should open
trainee institutions in which
training will be given to the teachers and professors. A good part of financial budget should be spent on
education because it is education that makes country develop. Education should be the same for every taste
of people. These were all the major problems of Higher Education in Pakistan and even we cannot compare
our educational system to undeveloped countries due to fewer standards. If we want the solution of higher
educational problems in Pakistan will have to do some something ourselves.
Suggestions to meet the Challenges
1. Stress is laid on the need for improving the quality of education at every stage so that a proper
foundation can be laid for advanced study in science, engineering, agriculture, and those other areas which
are most closely allied to the national economic development and reconstruction of the nation as a whole.
2. To begin from the top without reforming the lower stages is against the law of nature; it is against the
law of evolutionary progress. Before any restrictions are imposed on the higher education, the earlier stages
should be improved so as to produce better students for the higher stage.
3. A critical point to be considered by educational planner is the adaptation of a multidimensional, flexible,

and dynamic education system, which serves people according to their ability and aptitude and is responsive
to their economic, social political and cultural needs.
4. The new system of higher education should be flexible enough to offer a variety of courses, formal and
non formal, full time and part time, correspondence and media based to fit every individual as well as the
economic needs of the country
5. Economic conditions of the people cannot be ignored in all matters in which the question of equal
opportunities to all is involved. In an atmosphere of economic depression as it is today in Pakistan how
could one expect from our youth to be able to develop their potential qualities in desired way.
6. The test of qualities must be made reliable upon examination and more effective; the teaching method
must be made more rational and natural; and last of all, the teachers must be kept fully satisfied. It is well
known, that a foreign medium of instruction and examination is seriously hampering the progress of
education. Pakistan will have to determine its policy with regards to this question also.
7. There is great question of availability of qualified university teachers, suitably equipped libraries, and
fully developed plants and laboratories. It is a matter of common knowledge that our resources in all these
areas are very merger. Any unnecessary addition to the number of the universities at present would
therefore mean nothing, but more ill-fed and ill-equipped institutions with no specially or individuality of
purpose.
Higher education institutions must be responsive to the challenges of the rapidly changing and challenging
new world: expectation of society and growing demands of the rising student population. This policy
therefore looks forward to a new beginning in higher education in South Asian developing countries.
{===============}
Q 5. Highlight the significance of continuing education for a society and individual. What role
according to you can technology play in promoting continuing education?
Answer:
In today's world where already two out of three employees spend a major part of their time processing
information, self-directed, self-motivated lifelong learning has become a vital necessity for citizens of all ages
if they are to keep apace with the political, ecological, economic and social changes going on around them.
Unfortunately, poorly qualified adults or those with an insufficient level of literacy (not simply in terms of
reading, writing and numeracy but, equally importantly, the ability to navigate in the labyrinth of information
and knowledge) are finding themselves subjugated by the impact of the media and unable to benefit from
new learning opportunities; they are gradually being excluded from society. This sector of the community,
particularly those seeking a first opportunity to integrate the labour market, will represent the target audience
of this study.
A number of international studies have shown that Information Technology is a valuable tool for extending
learning opportunities to wider sectors of the community. Not only can it stimulate new learning attitudes and
strategies, it is also a powerful medium for developing formal and informal learning environments
which empower, liberate, transform and create new roles, relationships and processes, particularly for those
who encounter difficulties in traditional learning situations. When implemented effectively, IT can overcome
learners' fears of being judged, heighten motivation and raise self-esteem - access to powerful technology
conveys messages about being valued members of society, thereby opening up new opportunities for
equality.
Little has been done to date to assess the value of IT in adult learning. Few teachers have been given the
opportunity to discover open-ended, IT-incorporated training approaches. The greatest advances in this
area seem to be coming from in-company training sectors, where the massive resources being invested to
update employees' skills are even further increasing the gap between members of the workforce and the
socially excluded. In France alone an annual budget of FRF 45 billion is spent on in-company training. In
view of its objective to develop lifelong learning, the European Union forecasts that major ongoing
developments will continue in this sector over the next decade, in particular through the contribution of
multimedia products. A major objective of the present study is to open international dialogue between in-
company trainers and trainers working with potential learners either seeking to enter the labour market or
simply seeking new learning opportunities for their own personal fulfillment, in order to permit all learners to
draw greater benefit from these investments.
his study will consist of an assessment and analysis of IT-incorporated training models and methods being
successfully applied in adult training programs throughout the world. It comprises eight major objectives:
1. Document how IT may enhance the teaching and learning process by providing new methods
and models for:
o faster acquisition of literacy (in the broader sense of the term), skills, competencies and
knowledge in all areas of adult education by promoting learning from level 1 - accumulation of
knowledge - to level 2 - «learning to learn»,
o developing new communication skills, in particular real-time access to electronic

information, hence motivating citizens to keep up
with the rapid evolution that is taking place both in their professional sector and in society,
o promoting skills of deduction, prediction, seeking of relationships and formulation of

hypotheses, i.e. hypothetico-deductive reasoning, upon which independent learning strategies
are built,
o providing auto-assessment methods enabling adult learners to measure their own progress in
terms of skills and competencies and to set themselves realistic, ongoing goals.
2. Explore potential ways of fostering equality of learning opportunities by creating new learning
environments that will enable citizens from all walks of life, especially poorly qualified adults lacking the
required level of literacy or skills, to become independent lifelong learners and gain the necessary
motivation and self-confidence to exploit their full learning potential.
3. Examine examples of methodology for the recognition of prior learning (RPL) and the
management of intellectual capital in the aim of rendering each individual fully conscious of his own
potential and utilising the qualities of all members of the community to the fullest.
4. Gain insight into the individual learning skills, aptitudes, knowledge, strategies and forms of
reasoning required by citizens to assume an active role in today's information society.
5. Examine new types of open learning communities ranging from distance-learning opportunities to a
tutorship system permitting older, more experienced citizens (particularly those in early retirement) to
enrich their own lives by placing their knowledge and skills at the service of fellow citizens struggling to
integrate the workforce and the life of the community.
6. Identify trainer needs in order to optimise the integration of IT in adult education.
7. Explore possibilities/scenarios for developing the awareness of the business sector, adult
education authorities and the general
public as to the advantages offered by multimedia products as an efficient, cost-effective and widely
accessible means of training.
8. Promote the establishment of an international network for the exchange of experiences and
resources in adult education via the information highway, at the same time providing trainers with new
"hands-on" learning opportunities to perfect their own IT skills.
{===============}
Course: Higher Education (8625)
Level: B. Ed
Assignment No. 02
Q 1. Critically discuss the system of Higher Education in Malaysia. How this system is different for
system of higher education in other developing countries.
Answer:
The higher education sector is responsible for the operation of higher education institutions (HEIs) in
Malaysia and is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE). The education sector has
always enjoyed the highest national development budget which symbolises the commitment of the
Malaysian government towards education.
Malaysia's HEIs (i.e. public universities, private higher educational institutions, polytechnics and community
colleges) housed more than a million students in 2011, of which about 93,000 were international students
from more than 100 countries. In contrast, there were about 89,686 Malaysian students (27,003 receiving
sponsorship and 62,683 self-funded) who were studying overseas in 2011.
With a multi-ethnic population of about 28.3 million, Malaysia had 20 public universities, 53 private
universities and six foreign university branch campuses; 403 active private colleges, 30 polytechnics and 73
public community colleges in 2011. These HEIs offer a wide range of tertiary qualifications at affordable
prices.
There are also various HEIs from the UK, the US, Australia, Canada, France, and New Zealand which offer
twinning and '3+0' degree programmes through partnerships with Malaysian private higher education
institutions. At present, some world-class universities such as RMIT University, Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine and the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland have established their collaboration with the
local PHEIs.
Five of the 20 public universities in Malaysia have been assigned research university status with additional
funding for R&D and commercialisation of research. The remaining 15 public universities have been
categorised as either comprehensive or focus universities. In the 2012 new year's speech, the Minister
of Higher Education announced that five public universities have been given autonomy in administration,
human resources, financial and academic management and student intake. They are Universiti Malaya,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Universiti Putra Malaysia and Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia. This move is aimed at encouraging excellence among local institutions of higher
learning.
The quality of higher education is assured through the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) which
undertakes the implementation of the Malaysian Qualifications Framework. MQA is also responsible for
quality assurance and the accreditation of courses and other related functions, covering both public and
private higher educational institutions.
The provision of higher education is well regulated. Below are some of the legislation :
1. The Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
2. The Private Higher Educational Institutions Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
3. The National Council of Higher Education Act, 1996
4. Malaysian Qualifications Agency Act 2007 (replacing the previous namely National Accreditation
Board Act 1996 which has been repealed)
5. The Universities and University Colleges (Amendment) Act, 1996 (amended 2009)
6. The National Higher Education Fund Corporation Act, 1997 (Amendment 2000)
Both the Universities and University Colleges Act and the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act are
currently under review.
The internationalisation of the higher education sector is a high priority for MOHE. Efforts have been made
to improve the world ranking of Malaysian universities; to have 150,000 international students by 2015; to
create more 'Malaysian Chairs' at universities abroad; and to collaborate and cooperate with world-
renowned universities on research and academic matters.
The government will continue to create a friendly environment and invite more world-class foreign university
branch campuses or faculties to be set up in
Malaysia. Currently, there are six foreign universities with branch campuses in Malaysia. They are Monash
University (Australia), The University of Nottingham (UK), Curtin University (Australia), Swinburne University
of Technology (Australia), Newcastle University School of Medicine (UK) and University of Southampton
(UK).
Other initiatives undertaken by HEIs include the establishment of Malaysian university branch campuses in
other countries and increasing transnational education collaboration with overseas institutions. Malaysian
higher education is also aggressively promoted in many parts of the world through road-shows.
MOHE also aims to have 20 Research Excellent Centres which are of international standard by 2020. The
nation has also targeted to achieve 100 researchers, scientists and engineers (RSE) per 100,000 workforce
by the year 2020. The 10MP (2011-2015) sets to improve the quality of academic staff by increasing the
number of academics with PhDs in public universities, with a target of 75 per cent in research universities
and 60 per cent in other public universities. To achieve this target, the implementation of the MyBrain15
programme will be intensified to finance doctoral studies for the purpose of increasing the number of PhD
holders to 18,000 by 2015.
Malaysia's first rating system, SETARA (Rating System for Higher Education Institutions in Malaysia) was
implemented in 2009 to measure the performance of undergraduate teaching and learning in universities
and university colleges in Malaysia. The SETARA result was measured using a six-tier category with Tier 6
identified as Outstanding and Tier 1 as Weak.
Subsequently, another rating system was introduced in 2011. My QUEST (Malaysian Quality Evaluation
System for Private Colleges) was used to evaluate private colleges in Malaysia in terms of the quality of
students, programmes, graduates, resources and governance. The MyQUEST rating categorised an
institution as either excellent, good, or weak. The institutions would also receive a rating based on their level
of achievement which ranged from 1 star (poor) to 6 stars (excellent). These two rating systems serve as a
reliable reference for students and parents in their selection of institutions and programmes of study offered
by various HEIs.
Features of the Education System in Malaysia
Malaysia is known for its well organised system of education. Primary as well as secondary and tertiary
education is well structured and students from within the nation as well as international locations apply and
study here.
School Education System in Malaysia Primary Education
Primary education in Malaysia lasts for around 6 years. Children commence with primary education at the
age of 7 in this country. Primary education is a continuation of pre-school education in this nation. Along with
reading, writing and arithmetic, children can also study other subjects such as science, physical education,
Islamic and moral education. At the close of the studies in year 6, these students will appear for the Primary
School Achievement Test/UPSR. The Malaysian school system is structured around optional kindergarten,
compulsory primary school followed by secondary, post secondary and university education. Optional
kindergarten is for children aged 3 to 6. There are only some government run kindergartens in Malaysia and
many of them are run privately. Compulsory primary school is for students aged 7 to 12 and it is divided into
2 three year phases at the end of the which a Primary School Achievement Test is taken.
Secondary education
This is for students aged 13 to 17 and it is divided into lower secondary and upper secondary education.
While the former is for 3 years, the latter is for 2 years and both come to a close with standardised tests.
Two different final tests exist depending upon whether the students have been following a technical or
vocational education path.
Post secondary education
This is for students aged 17 to 18 and this prepares students who want to attend university. Secondary
schools in Malaysia range from the national secondary school to residential schools, arts and sports
secondary schools, technical/vocational secondary schools, national religious secondary schools and
national religious assisted secondary school. Children with chronic health conditions can opt for home
schooling.
Schools in Malaysia
Of relevance to secondary education in Malaysia is the cluster school. It is identified as being excellent
within the cluster apart from features such as school management and student achievement. Cluster
schools emphasise the excellence of the Malaysian education system.
Primary schools include national schools, Chinese national type schools, native schools and Tamil national
type schools.
Secondary schools comprise fully residential schools, technical secondary schools, national religious
secondary schools, regular secondary schools, premier schools, schools within Putrajaya and Cyberjaya,
centennial schools and special model schools.
Special education primary schools and special education as well as vocational special education secondary
schools are also in place. Apart from this, there are also private and international schools.
Post-Secondary institutions including matriculation colleges and institutes of teacher education are also
readily accessible.For secondary education,since the implementation of open certificate, students must
study 4 compulsory subjects namely Islamic Education, Malay Language, English Language and
Mathematics as well as History. Three main streams prevail in upper secondary education namely academic
(science/arts), technical and vocational stream as well as religious stream.
Malaysian art & sports schools:Apart from Malaysian art schools, students in this nation can also opt for
Malaysian sports schools, so that both sporting and academic talent can be jointly nurtured.
Students who have completed their upper secondary education and appeared for the SPM examination can
then proceed to higher education. Form 6 is a two year course of study comprising the lower and upper
form. Eligible students can opt for either of the two streams: humanities and science. At the close of form 6,
students can receive assessment through the Malaysian Higher School Certificate Examination.
Matriculation Programme: The Ministry of Education Matriculation Programme is a preparatory one for
bumiputeria students with the Malaysian Certificate of Education for qualifying for degree courses in science
as well as technology and professional arts in public as well as private universities. Pre-university studies
last for 2 semesters. Programme curriculum focuses on academic aspects without leaving aside the co-
curricular aspect.
Higher Education in Malaysia
Students can only enter university following completion of the matriculation programme. Students of
matriculation programme receive sponsorship by the Ministry of Education and those who obtain the CGPA
of 2.00 or grade C or above may be admitted to public institutions of higher learning.
Public Institutions
Public institutions of higher education can be one choice for students who go in for higher studies in
Malaysia. This institution is managed by Student Admission Management Division of the Department of
Higher Education. Another choice is to go in for polytechnic colleges. These colleges are managed by the
Student Intake Division, Department of Polytechnic Colleges. Admission of students into community colleges
is managed by the Student Intake Division of the Department of Community Colleges/DCC.
Foreign Universities
The “overseas branches” of foreign universities offer the same courses and awards as the main university.
Twinning programmes have also become popular wherein the local universities in Malaysia form a
partnership with foreign universities. Malaysian universities offer undergraduate and postgraduate courses
and admission requirements for universities include STPM (Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia) exams or a
foreign degrees such as the A-levels.
Private Universities
There are a growing number of private universities in Malaysia as the demand for higher education is on the
rise. Students apply directly at the Malaysian private or
public university of their choice given that the institution has been approved by the Malaysian Ministry of
Higher Education. Public universities can take international students, yet public institutions have to be
licensed by the Immigration Department of the Ministry of Home Affairs in Malaysia.
Ranking of Educational Institutions
Once the university of choice has received license and approval, application can be made at the respective
university for student passes. Malaysia is the top educational destination for tertiary as well as higher
education. It has been ranked 11th worldwide by UNESCO as an educational institutions. Close to 75,000
international students studied in Malaysia in 2009. The number is much higher now.
{===============}
Q 2. Attending a university adds value to a person's potential productive contribution to the

economy. Comment on the statement also explain the way used for financing higher
education
Answer:
Globalization and international trade requires countries and their economies to compete with each other.
Economically successful countries will hold competitive and comparative advantages over other economies,
though a single country rarely specializes in a particular industry. This means that the country's economy will
be made of various industries that will have different advantages and disadvantages in the global
marketplace. The education and training of a country's workers is a major factor in determining just how well
the country's economy will do.
The study of the economics of training and education involves an analysis of the economy as a whole, of
employers and of workers. Two major concepts that influence the wage rate are training and education. In
general, well-trained workers tend to be more productive and earn more money than workers with poorer
training.
High school students contemplating obtaining a university degree - as well as the long term unemployed
who feel the need to retrain themselves in a different profession - are typically faced with the challenge of
financing the increasingly
steep cost of higher education that usually exceeds whatever limited financial resources they currently have
available to them.
Although quality undergraduate and graduate school tuition fees can easily run into the tens of thousands of
dollars per year - not to mention schooling accommodation and materials costs -numerous programs and
methods for financing an education fortunately exist to help the aspiring student obtain the education they
desire or require.
Some of the more common ways of financing an education include the following:
Need Based Educational Grants
Applicants who can demonstrate a substantial financial need can often obtain an educational grant from the
financial aid office of their targeted university or training facility. Some educational grants are also available
from other sources, depending on your qualifications. The main advantage of grants is that they generally do
not have to be repaid, although qualifying can be challenging, especially if you have significant income or
assets.
Merit Based Scholarships
Exceptional high school students are often awarded merit based educational financial aid in the form of
scholarships that do not have to be repaid. Qualifying for such scholarships can depend on a student's high
school performance or on their scores on commonly accepted scholastic aptitude tests, such as the SAT
Reasoning Test or the ACT.
Work-Study Employment Plans
Some students may wish to apply to their educational establishment to see if employment opportunities are
available for them to earn money to put toward educational expenses while they study. The U.S. Federal
Government currently offers a 60 percent wage subsidy to employers of students engaged in work-study
programs.
Internships and Apprenticeships
On the job training opportunities are often available in the form of internship for white collar jobs and
apprenticeships for blue collar jobs. These educational programs are typically run half time during the school
year to accommodate the
need to attend classes, and full time during the summer. Although usually low paying, they allow students to
obtain valuable hands-on experience in their chosen field and may even result in a job offer from the
company they participated in the program with.
Private Loans
Private educational loans can be obtained by soliciting them from your friends and family, as well as from
various other private sources. Such loans can usually be arranged at either fixed or variable interest rates,
and they typically require a financially sound co-signer and a credit check if the lender is not familiar or
comfortable with your credit history.
Stafford Subsidized and Unsubsidized Loans
These educational loans are guaranteed by the U.S. Federal Government via its Department of Education
and can be used to pay tuition and other educational expenses. The subsidized Stafford Loans require
financial need to be demonstrated and do not accrue interest while you are in school, while the unsubsidized
Stafford Loans are not based on financial need and accrue interest as soon as the loan is disbursed. Both
types have a fixed interest rate, and payments are not required while you remain in school.
Direct PLUS Loans
The U.S. Federal Government funds Direct PLUS Loans for educational purposes that currently carry a fixed
interest rate of 7.9 percent and have more relaxed credit requirements. The loan amount that a qualifying
student can obtain is up to the attendance cost, less any other financial aid received that year. Be sure to
check with your prospective school's financial aid office to see what options are available and whether they
can provide you with further assistance in finding the educational financing option that is right for you.
{===============}
Q 3. Highlight the need and role of assessment in higher education on Pakistan. Also discuss role of
teacher assessment in Higher Education perspective
Answer:
Assessment is systemic process in higher education that uses empirical data on student learning to refine
programs and improve student learning.[1] As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable
and clear student learning outcomes for learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities
to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting
evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information
to inform improvement in student learning. Assessment functions as part of a continuous process whereby
the parts of the cycle are revised and monitored. The term “assessment” is defined broadly in that any
outcome or goal in any activity or discipline can be a part of this process.
Types
Assessment in higher education can focus on the individual learner, a course, an academic program, or the
institution.
1. Course-level Assessment
2. Program-level Assessment
Course-level Assessment
Assessment embedded at the course level (sometimes referred to as embedded assessment or authentic
assessment) typically involves the use of assignments. Students receive feedback on their performance on
assignments and faculty gain knowledge of student learning to use for grading. The work assessed within
courses best relates to specific program-level student learning outcomes. Angelo and Cross believe
assessment in the classroom is an important part of the faculty feedback loop which can provide meaningful
information about their effectiveness as teachers while also giving students a measure of their progress as
learners.
Program-level Assessment
Program assessment is a best practice in higher education. The process involves a framework for placing
priority and attention on the process of student learning and most specifically, the program objectives,
organization of curriculum, pedagogy and student development. Like course assessment, program
assessment requires defining a statement of mission/goals, establishment of program-specific student

learning outcomes and the identification of where learning takes place or “learning opportunities”. The next
part in program assessment involves the development of a research question or intended goal for
assessment. What questions does the program seek to answer? And what direct or indirect evidence needs
to be collected to identify answers? The collected data is evaluated, analyzed and interpreted resulting in the
implementation of an action plan resulting in improvement in the program and student learning.
Mission Alignment
Each course a student takes occurs within the context of a program, which occurs within the context of
overarching university outcomes. With the assumption that coursework should support the program and
programs should support the overall mission of the university, alignment of mission (and learning outcomes)
should occur. Assessment at the course level typically takes the form of tests, quizzes, and assignments.
When courses are mapped to program outcomes, this permits the aggregation of data from several courses
covering the same outcome which can be used for program assessment. Additional program assessment
can take the form of embedded assignments, field experiences, capstone experiences, portfolios, or tests of
majors.
Scoring Guides/Rubrics
Rubrics are often used to assess student work. Essentially, a rubric is a scoring guide grid consisting of a
scale of some sort (i.e., levels of performance), the dimensions or important components of an assignment,
and descriptions of what constitutes each level of performance for each assignment dimension. Rubrics can
be particularly effective for assessment due to how closely they are tied with the teaching and learning
process - they can be used for grading, as well as giving students feedback on their performance.
Assessment Points
Assessment is most effective when it occurs at multiple points in time along the student's path. Multiple
measures over time provide a way to triangulate data and increase confidence in the results.
Effective Assignments
In order to assess student learning, students must given assignment where they can demonstrate what they
know and can do.
Indirect/Direct Measures
A distinction is made between direct and indirect measures of learning. Direct measures, as their name
implies, involve directly examining student work products to assess the achievement of learning outcomes.
These work products occur in a variety of formats including objective tests, and rubric-scored projects,
performances, and written work. A recent survey of provosts indicates that classroom based assessment
and rubrics are most frequently used. Large scale commercial tests such as the College Learning
Assessment (CLA) are used by fewer than 50% use standardized tests according to the survey. Indirect
measures focus on data from which one can make inferences about learning. Indirect measures can include
surveys on student and faculty perceptions about learning, focus groups, and exit interviews. National
surveys such as the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) have become increasing popular
indirect measures, with roughly 85% of institutions using these measures according to a recent survey.
Sampling
In a classroom setting or in a program level assessment, it is often possible to assess the entire population
of interest, referred to as a census. However, it is sometimes impractical or ineffective to assess an entire
population, due to the time and effort involved as well as survey fatigue if the same group of students are
being asked to take multiple surveys. Therefore, sampling strategies can be used to pick a subset of the
population of interest. The goal of sampling is to select a smaller group that represents the population on
key characteristics. Multiple sampling approaches are commonly used in higher education assessment,
including random and stratified sampling. In a random sample, each individual is equally likely to be
selected. In a stratified sample, individuals are grouped based on specific characteristics of interest and then
randomly selected from each group to ensure adequate numbers of each group.
Use of findings
Assessment data are only effective in "closing the loop" and improving programs if they are shared and
communicated widely.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a way for an institution or program to determine how a sample measures up to others or to
themselves at an earlier time.
Professional Organizations
There are numerous regional organizations dedicated to discussing issues and policies related to
assessment in higher education. The Association for the Assessment of Learning in Higher Education
(AALHE) is one international organization. Seven other regional assessment organizations exist in the
United States.
In an interview with the Chronicle for Higher Education, Marsha Watson, former director of the AALHE,
stated that the “rising demands for accountability mean that assessment must evolve into its own discipline."
The National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment is another organization dedicated to helping
institutions use assessment data to improve academic quality. They have delivered a number of research
papers on assessment practices.
Benefits of Assessment
There is heightened political and public pressure on higher education institutions to explain what they are
trying to do and provide evidence they are actually doing it. Faculty want students to learn. In addition,
faculty love their disciplines and want to share their knowledge and enthusiasm with students. Placing
emphasis on what students learn and what students do helps to effectively drive improvement in the learning
process, program planning and overall institutional improvement. Assessment adds transparency to the
teaching and learning process, helps to provide some evidence to the effectiveness of student learning and
promotes an environment where continuous improvement is well understood and ingrained in the
institutional culture.
Linda Suskie, a higher education consultant, says that "Good assessments are not once-and-done affairs.
They are part of an ongoing, organized, and systematized effort to understand and improve teaching and
learning.”
Criticism of Assessment
Some university faculty and researchers have criticized student learning outcomes assessment in higher
education. Robert Shireman, a senior fellow for the Century Foundation, argued that accrediting agencies
often require institutions to reduce learning to meaningless blurbs, or student learning outcomes, which
“prevents rather than leads to the type of quality assurance that has student work at the center.” Erik Gilbert,
a professor of History, wrote another notable essay criticizing assessment in higher education arguing that it
has little effect on educational quality and that accrediting agencies require institutions to invest time and
resources in collecting evidence on student learning even though, he believes, that it does not improve
academic quality.
Role of teacher assessment in Higher Education perspective:
There are many different purposes for which pupils’ work is assessed with a view to summarizing their
achievements. These vary from informal records of progress to high stakes certification (see Box 1) and
occur in contexts across all phases of education from pre-school to adult learning. The ways in which
assessment can be carried out also vary considerably. The concern here is to ensure that the way in which it
is conducted provides information that is fit for its purpose. The use of assessment by teachers for external
summative purposes has long been advocated. The value of such a strategy becomes particularly clear
when one
becomes particularly clear when one considers the qualities that effective summative assessment should
have. In common with assessment for other purposes, summative assessment should have the following
qualities:
Validity: the assessment must cover all aspects, and only those aspects, of pupils’ achievement relevant to a
particular purpose. Reliability: it should be designed so that users can have confidence that the results are
sufficiently accurate and consistent for their purpose.
Impact: it should not only measure performance but have desirable consequences for teaching, learning and
pupils’ motivation for learning. Assessment generally
has a strong impact on the curriculum and on pedagogy, so it is vital that any adverse effects are minimised.
Practicability: the resources required to provide it – teachers’ time, expertise and cost, and pupils’ learning
time – should be commensurate with the value of the information for its users.
How successfully does summative assessment by teachers meet these four criteria? The table opposite
weighs evidence for and against. However, before setting out the conflicting points it is important to be clear
about the meaning given here to summative assessment by teachers. The definition that emerged from
discussions the teachers and other professionals in education restricts the meaning to situations where
teachers assess their own pupils:
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Q4 Discuss key problems being faced in higher education in Pakistan.
Suggest some valuable steps to address these problems.
Answer:
Education is a basic need of every society. A better education system can enhance the social, scientific, and
technological improvement of a country. The human resource development of a country depends upon the
quality of education imparted in country (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education caters to the education in the
colleges and universities. Allen (1988) observed “It is academically consider suitable to present distinctive
feature of two stages for the purpose of clarity of concepts and avoiding duplication” Higher education is
admittedly a separate stage quite distinct from primary, secondary, elementary, and higher secondary stage.
(Best, 1994)
The people in Pakistan and South Asia are neither deficient in talent nor in moral qualities in comparison to
any other nation of the world, but about two centuries of foreign rule and blind imitation of western attitudes
and methods, unsuited to the genius and spiritual conditions of its people, have spoiled some of the virtues
and have brought a bad name to their intellectual capacities (Siddiq, 1978). Hassan (1990) observed
“Pakistan is unfortunately really backward in education as in certain other spheres of intellectual activities
but luckily people are not inherently incompetent or morally incurable.” It is however necessary that the
diagnosis about maladies should be correct and the measures for curing these maladies should be
appropriate in the light of that diagnosis (Abdullah, 1992).
Higher Education means education after school and college. There are numerous best universities in
Pakistan that offer higher level education ever year but despite all of this we are way behind from the world
as concerned to education. 63 years of independence has been past but we are not able to find the right
way of giving quality education. One of the major problem of higher education in Pakistan is our political
leaders that are not well educated. Education system in Pakistan is not good as it should be in this latest
technology of world therefore it is the reason plenty of Pakistani students are getting education in foreign
developed countries. After the creation of Higher Education Commission in Pakistan the standard of
education developed as compare to the past. Higher Education Commission which is also known as HEC is
playing vital role for the development of higher education. There are many factors responsible for problems
of higher education in Pakistan and some foremost problems are discussed below:-
ACADEMIC PROBLEMS:
All know very well that resources regarding education are not enough in Pakistan but the problem is that we
are not taking benefits of available resources in other words resources are not being utilized properly due to
lack of unskilled, dishonest and less educated administration. The education in Pakistan has been
distributed into different level and equality. Education is different for poor ones and different for richer ones.
There is no proper monitoring system in Pakistan to control the education system numerous educational
institutions and universities opened now but the standard of education is not good at all.
Management Problems:
One of the major responsible factor of problems of higher education in Pakistan is management.
Management has been biggest problem of Pakistan since independence. Even our political leaders are less
educated so they have no idea how to manage the systems. Unskilled and inexperience staff is being
recruited by avoiding the merit so how can a inexperience and unskilled man can run system properly.
EDUCATION FUNDING:
In developed countries most of the part of financial budget is spent on education but it doesn’t happen in
Pakistan. Ever year the field of education is being avoided there is no enough finance to insist the education
system and Pakistan is not receiving foreign aid for improvement of education.
EMPLOYMENT:
Employment is also the leading issue of Pakistan which causes problems for higher education. Students join
business and due to non-availability of job opportunities leaving their study incomplete as they think they
don’t have scope and good earning places in multinational and government companies.
INEXPERT TEACHERS:
The teachers and lecturers teaching colleges and universities are educated but they don’t have experience
and skills at the start of their professional career. It is little bit easy to get job in educational institutions in
Pakistan therefore every educated youngster would love to join teaching field despite lack of interest and
experience.
POVERTY PROBLEMS:
Pakistan is not the countries of living rich peoples, the poverty rate is Pakistan is very high so it is also the
cause and one of the biggest problem of higher education in Pakistan because after the matriculation of
intermediate education parents force their children to earn livelihood alongwith education and student cannot
pay attention to study and finally they leave to study for earnings.
SOCIAL PROBLEMS:
There is no moral training is being given to the staff and students in higher education department and as
well as in institutions. People in Pakistan are promoting western culture thus the culture of Pakistan and
Islam is going to be finished.
SOLUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN PAKISTAN:
First of all it is the responsibility of government of Pakistan to think something out of box for development of
higher education. Education needs proper guidance and financial assistance. Government should open
trainee institutions in which
training will be given to the teachers and professors. A good part of financial budget should be spent on
education because it is education that makes country develop. Education should be the same for every taste
of people. These were all the major problems of Higher Education in Pakistan and even we cannot compare
our educational system to undeveloped countries due to fewer standards. If we want the solution of higher
educational problems in Pakistan will have to do some something ourselves.
Suggestions to meet the Challenges
1. Stress is laid on the need for improving the quality of education at every stage so that a proper
foundation can be laid for advanced study in science, engineering, agriculture, and those other areas which
are most closely allied to the national economic development and reconstruction of the nation as a whole.
2. To begin from the top without reforming the lower stages is against the law of nature; it is against the
law of evolutionary progress. Before any restrictions are imposed on the higher education, the earlier stages
should be improved so as to produce better students for the higher stage.
3. A critical point to be considered by educational planner is the adaptation of a multidimensional, flexible,

and dynamic education system, which serves people according to their ability and aptitude and is responsive
to their economic, social political and cultural needs.
4. The new system of higher education should be flexible enough to offer a variety of courses, formal and
non formal, full time and part time, correspondence and media based to fit every individual as well as the
economic needs of the country
5. Economic conditions of the people cannot be ignored in all matters in which the question of equal
opportunities to all is involved. In an atmosphere of economic depression as it is today in Pakistan how
could one expect from our youth to be able to develop their potential qualities in desired way.
6. The test of qualities must be made reliable upon examination and more effective; the teaching method
must be made more rational and natural; and last of all, the teachers must be kept fully satisfied. It is well
known, that a foreign medium of instruction and examination is seriously hampering the progress of
education. Pakistan will have to determine its policy with regards to this question also.
7. There is great question of availability of qualified university teachers, suitably equipped libraries, and
fully developed plants and laboratories. It is a matter of common knowledge that our resources in all these
areas are very merger. Any unnecessary addition to the number of the universities at present would
therefore mean nothing, but more ill-fed and ill-equipped institutions with no specially or individuality of
purpose.
Higher education institutions must be responsive to the challenges of the rapidly changing and challenging
new world: expectation of society and growing demands of the rising student population. This policy
therefore looks forward to a new beginning in higher education in South Asian developing countries.
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Q 5. Highlight the significance of continuing education for a society and individual. What role
according to you can technology play in promoting continuing education?
Answer:
In today's world where already two out of three employees spend a major part of their time processing
information, self-directed, self-motivated lifelong learning has become a vital necessity for citizens of all ages
if they are to keep apace with the political, ecological, economic and social changes going on around them.
Unfortunately, poorly qualified adults or those with an insufficient level of literacy (not simply in terms of
reading, writing and numeracy but, equally importantly, the ability to navigate in the labyrinth of information
and knowledge) are finding themselves subjugated by the impact of the media and unable to benefit from
new learning opportunities; they are gradually being excluded from society. This sector of the community,
particularly those seeking a first opportunity to integrate the labour market, will represent the target audience
of this study.
A number of international studies have shown that Information Technology is a valuable tool for extending
learning opportunities to wider sectors of the community. Not only can it stimulate new learning attitudes and
strategies, it is also a powerful medium for developing formal and informal learning environments
which empower, liberate, transform and create new roles, relationships and processes, particularly for those
who encounter difficulties in traditional learning situations. When implemented effectively, IT can overcome
learners' fears of being judged, heighten motivation and raise self-esteem - access to powerful technology
conveys messages about being valued members of society, thereby opening up new opportunities for
equality.
Little has been done to date to assess the value of IT in adult learning. Few teachers have been given the
opportunity to discover open-ended, IT-incorporated training approaches. The greatest advances in this
area seem to be coming from in-company training sectors, where the massive resources being invested to
update employees' skills are even further increasing the gap between members of the workforce and the
socially excluded. In France alone an annual budget of FRF 45 billion is spent on in-company training. In
view of its objective to develop lifelong learning, the European Union forecasts that major ongoing
developments will continue in this sector over the next decade, in particular through the contribution of
multimedia products. A major objective of the present study is to open international dialogue between in-
company trainers and trainers working with potential learners either seeking to enter the labour market or
simply seeking new learning opportunities for their own personal fulfillment, in order to permit all learners to
draw greater benefit from these investments.
his study will consist of an assessment and analysis of IT-incorporated training models and methods being
successfully applied in adult training programs throughout the world. It comprises eight major objectives:
1. Document how IT may enhance the teaching and learning process by providing new methods
and models for:
o faster acquisition of literacy (in the broader sense of the term), skills, competencies and
knowledge in all areas of adult education by promoting learning from level 1 - accumulation of
knowledge - to level 2 - «learning to learn»,
o developing new communication skills, in particular real-time access to electronic

information, hence motivating citizens to keep up
with the rapid evolution that is taking place both in their professional sector and in society,
o promoting skills of deduction, prediction, seeking of relationships and formulation of

hypotheses, i.e. hypothetico-deductive reasoning, upon which independent learning strategies
are built,
o providing auto-assessment methods enabling adult learners to measure their own progress in
terms of skills and competencies and to set themselves realistic, ongoing goals.
2. Explore potential ways of fostering equality of learning opportunities by creating new learning
environments that will enable citizens from all walks of life, especially poorly qualified adults lacking the
required level of literacy or skills, to become independent lifelong learners and gain the necessary
motivation and self-confidence to exploit their full learning potential.
3. Examine examples of methodology for the recognition of prior learning (RPL) and the
management of intellectual capital in the aim of rendering each individual fully conscious of his own
potential and utilising the qualities of all members of the community to the fullest.
4. Gain insight into the individual learning skills, aptitudes, knowledge, strategies and forms of
reasoning required by citizens to assume an active role in today's information society.
5. Examine new types of open learning communities ranging from distance-learning opportunities to a
tutorship system permitting older, more experienced citizens (particularly those in early retirement) to
enrich their own lives by placing their knowledge and skills at the service of fellow citizens struggling to
integrate the workforce and the life of the community.
6. Identify trainer needs in order to optimise the integration of IT in adult education.
7. Explore possibilities/scenarios for developing the awareness of the business sector, adult
education authorities and the general
public as to the advantages offered by multimedia products as an efficient, cost-effective and widely
accessible means of training.
8. Promote the establishment of an international network for the exchange of experiences and
resources in adult education via the information highway, at the same time providing trainers with new
"hands-on" learning opportunities to perfect their own IT skills.
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ASSIGNMENT No. 01
Teacher Education in Pakistan (8626) B.Ed (1.5 Years)
Autumn, 2017
Q 1 Compare the aims and objectives of teacher education as given by Aggerwal and given
in the National Education Policy 2009.
school teaching is the single most important profession in the world. Teachers pass on knowledge and
values to children, prepare them for further education and for working life and are main contributors to
good education. This most important profession however does not get the recognition it deserves. In
the developed world, young people don’t want to become a primary school teacher anymore. In most
developing countries the profession does not attract qualified and ambitious people because it is poorly
remunerated. Gone are the days that a primary school teacher was a highly respected person. To
attain the goal of universal and good primary school education, teaching has to become an attractive
profession again.
Teachers as pillars:
Teachers are one of the main pillars of a sound and progressive society. They bear the weight and
responsibility of teaching, and, apart from parents, are the main source of knowledge and values for
children.
Different levels of teaching:
For a child between 6 and 12, there are basically three options: get no primary education, get low
quality primary education or get good quality primary education. In spite of our world being immensely
rich, the majority of children have to settle for option 1 or 2. At this very moment, over a hundred
million children get no primary education at all. And over 500 million of them get it but the quality is
low: they have little or no books, their class-room is poorly equipped or simply doesn’t exist, or they
have a teacher whose level of knowledge hardly surpasses that of a 6th grader or who is not motivated
because she earns less than her neighbor who cleans the house of the local landlord.
Teacher Preparation:
The best teacher-preparation programs emphasize subject-matter mastery and provide many
opportunities for student teachers to spend time in real classrooms under the supervision of an
experienced mentor. Just as professionals in medicine, architecture, and law have opportunities to
learn through examining case studies, learning best practices, and participating in internships,
exemplary teacher-preparation programs allow teacher candidates the time to apply their learning of
theory in the context of teaching in a real classroom.
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2009:
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2009 (the “Policy”) comes in a series of education policies dating
back to the very inception of the country in 1947. The review process for the National Education Policy
1998-2010 was initiated in 2005 and the first document, the White Paper was finalized in March 2007.
The White Paper became the basis for development of the Policy document. The lag in finalization of
the draft owes to lot of factors including the process of consultations adopted as well as significant
political changes in the country.
Mean ideas:
Two main reasons prompted the Ministry of Education (MoE) to launch the review in 2005 well before
the time horizon of the existing policy framework (1998 - 2010)had approached. Firstly, the policy
framework has not served as a satisfactory guide, as the policies pursued under that framework had
not produced the desired educational results. Performance of the education sector has been deficient in
several key aspects, most notably in access rates, and in quality and equity of educational
opportunities.
1
International challenges:
Secondly, new international challenges like Millennium Development and Dakar Education for All (EFA)
goals, have gained greater momentum in the intervening years and demanded fresh consideration.
These challenges are triggered by globalization and nation’s quest for becoming a “knowledge society”.
Besides, some compelling domestic pressures such as devolution of powers, economic envelopment
and demographic transformations have necessitated a renewed commitment to proliferation of quality
education for all.
Policy statement:
The Policy is based on a lengthy process of consultation initiated in 2005, in line with the roadmap
endorsed by the Inter-provincial Education Ministers’ (IPEM) Conference. The review exercise was
conducted in close co-operation with all stakeholders, particularly the Provincial, Area and District
governments. Several in-depth research studies were commissioned to feed into the process. To garner
focused discussions, a series of 23 green papers were prepared on different topics by the National
Education Policy Review (NEPR) team and widely disseminated to stimulate discussion and get
feedback. The process included field visits to 31 representative districts, one national and seven
provincial/area education conferences, ten issues based focused group discussions and extensive
consultations with educationists from all over Pakistan. With further consultations, the results were
summarized in a replica ‘White Paper 2 ’ and circulated for comments.
Preface:
Teacher education in Pakistan is witnessing a visible change and concern for quality assurance and
enhancement. Standards based Education, in general and teacher education in particular, is part of
global movement of quality assurance. Pakistan aspires to develop a world class education system
which is not possible without competent and quality teachers dedicated to their profession. To prepare
such teachers and empower them to educate the future generations, the fundamental requirements are
very much available in the professional literature which include standards of what a Teacher Education
Program should be and be able to produce.
Standard of teacher education:
These standards are meant to support teacher education programs, in particular and institutions in
general, as they spiral through the development stages. An important function of standards is to
inculcate professionalism among teacher educators and prospective teachers. The policy makers at the
national and provincial levels in the public and private organizations interested to improve and support
any teacher education program may use these standards as guidelines. These standards can help to
link the school system with teacher education programs. These can also provide a framework for
Conducting and evaluating research related to teacher education. The standards embody a set of
concepts or theoretical ideas about accreditation. These concepts have been translated into standards
as statements of principles. Each standard consists of several elements representing the policies,
practices and the consequences associated with it. Each element further comprises certain indicators
meant to operationally it to provide guidelines for measurement and assessment.
Curriculum development in teachers:
The curriculum is designed in line with the provisions of the national

education Professional standards for teachers.
The curriculum development process involves key stakeholders.
The curriculum is approved by the competent authority..
The curriculum content is inclusive enough to effectively reflect and include the concerns and
expectations of a teacher
Teaching learning process:

There is evidence that the teacher educators and stakeholders monitor and provide constant
feedback for regular review and revision of the assessment system.
2
The system collects data from multiple assessments at various transition point.
The assessment system has procedures to ensure fairness, accuracy, consistency and
transparency of its procedures and operations.
There is a feedback mechanism that is used by teacher educators, prospective teachers and
other stakeholders.
Complete record of the stakeholders’ written complaints, with their follow-up and resolutions, is
maintained.
Quality improvement plans are developed, implemented and monitored based on the
assessment results, feedback and complaints of the stakeholder.
Q2 a) Elaborate the responsibilities of teacher in Islamic Prospective.
The core of effective developmentally appropriate teaching practices is centered on making sound
educational decisions based on the developmental level, age and individual experiences of each child.
To make such decisions, teachers consider what research tells them about learning and child
development, about each child as an individual, and about how the cultural and social context in which
each child lives relates to his learning. Thus, developmentally appropriate practice is not based on what
we think, but rather what is known to be true from theory and literature.
Learning Is Interrelated and Sequenced:
All developmental and learning domains and practices are interrelated, and a child's development and
learning in one domain are influenced by what takes place in all of the others. Physical, emotional,
cognitive and social aspects must be considered and fostered as a whole, as the full spectrum of
development and learning is fundamental.
The sequence of learning and development follow a natural sequence that causes abilities and skills to
necessarily scaffold upon each other. This is centered on research on human development that puts
forth the knowledge that children at specific age spans will follow a general framework and that this
framework is used by teachers as they ready the learning environment, select curriculum, design
learning experiences and interact with students. Knowing the sequence is essential. For example, a
student must learn to count before he or she can add.
Developmentally Appropriate Practices Require Careful Planning:
Teaching practices must provide carefully planned sequences of tasks that are based on a child's
cognitive, emotional, social and physical development. They also must be logical and facilitate a
student's inductive constructions of concepts and relationships. Each lesson must be carefully planned
and must build not only upon a student's prior knowledge, but on his social and cultural context as
well.
Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Practices Match Students to Learning:
Developmentally appropriate teaching practices require teachers to know their students and provide
lessons in a way that are challenging, achievable and individualized. All teaching practices must be
attuned to the individuality of each student as well as be responsive to students' social and cultural life
contexts. "Developmentally appropriate" does not mean watering down lessons for students, but rather
ensuring that experiences and goals are suited to learning and development---and that best practices
are used based on actual knowledge, rather than assumptions, of how children learn, grow and
develop.
Teacher education and curriculum:
In contrast, education focuses on more abstract knowledge and open-ended concepts, like the ability to
design factory equipment or write poetry. Open skills rely on abstract understanding and have no
absolute ceiling on performance. Examples from teaching include how to design an original lesson plan
or promote critical thinking. This distinction is subtle since abstract concepts can empower students to
3
meet real-life goals, similar to training. Furthermore, training in concrete skills can foster
understanding of an underlying concept, similar to education. Some theorists distinguish education
from training based on intention. Education aims to improve the mind while training aims to improve
performance. In many cases, education and training go hand in hand.
In-Service Training:
A useful example comes from in-service "training," which can be education, training or, more
commonly, a combination. The term "in-service" means that working teachers receive the instruction,
as opposed to pre-service student teachers.
In-service training often includes training, such as step-by-step instructions for using a school's new
computer system or administering a new student test. However, in-service might also address new
research findings, the principles behind new education laws or other abstract concepts. In professions
such as medicine or law, this is known as "continuing professional education.
Pre-Service Coursework:
Many aspects of teacher education -- as opposed to training -- occur in an academic setting, including
courses on education theory, child development, and curriculum development. However, this is not an
absolute distinction since most programs also require practical courses like classroom management,
and theory courses generally also require field work, such as classroom observations and teaching
practice.
Student Teaching:
After the required coursework, pre-service teachers traditionally complete student teaching or clinical
teaching, working alongside a certified teacher in a classroom. The student teacher gradually
progresses from assisting the certified teacher, to sharing instructional duties, to taking over as the
lead instructor. This experience provides training in concrete skills like speaking and being heard in a
busy classroom, managing student behavior issues, and organizing paperwork. However, education
also occurs as the certified teacher helps the student teacher put conceptual knowledge into practice in
the classroom. Many programs also require reflective logs or journals to help connect theory with
practice.
Teachers Resource Centers:
The above number include almost 300 decentralized Teachers Resource Centers that are being
established under the education sector reform program in all four provinces of Pakistan. Teacher
training programs are proliferating, but without standards or quality assurance. There is a pressing
need to build a cadre of resource persons strategically selected from Government and Non-
Governmental Organizations. The resource persons trained under PTEPDP will be available throughout
the country to improve skills of colleagues at training institutions and teachers in government or non-
elite private schools.
Pakistan Teacher Education and Professional Development Program:
Pakistan Teacher Education and Professional Development Program (PTEPDP) of AED aims at
strengthening the quality of teacher education in the country by developing a group of master trainers
fiom teacher training colleges in the public sector. The document in your hand is a directory complied
by AED, which provides information regarding various governmental and Non Governnlental Teacher
EducationfTraining institutions. Information about contact details, trainingslcourses offered, and data
on enrolled graduates are available in the directory. The directory is an attempt to develop synergies
and strong linkages between governmental and Non-Governmental Organizations in the'area of
Teacher Education and Training.
The objectives of compiling the directory are to:
Help develop inter linkages between Teacher Training institutions
Provide information on courses being offeredltaught in identified institutions
Identify human resource to be shared for the purpose of quality improvement
Foster future planning and training needs
Demands and control:
Teacher training has become a lucrative activity due to increasing demand for teachers in both rural
and urban areas alike. The government sector has the largest number of teacher training institutions
spread all over the country even in the remote areas. The structure and names of public sector
institutions vary fiom province to province. Non-state or private sector providers have mushroomed in
teacher training as a response to the growing need, which the public sector mi2y not have been able to
provide. Teacher training institutions in Pakistan also include autonomous bodies, private universities,
and degree awarding and chartered institutions; many of these institutions have foreign university links
in the UK, Canada, Australia, and Sweden. Elementary Teacher Training Colleges in Punjab were
renamed as University Colleges of Education after the formation of University of Education in 2002.
Positive help of The University of The Punjab:
The University of Education Punjab was established as recently as September 2002. The
administrative, financial and academic control of all elementary (primary and middle) and secondary
teacher education i.e. control of GCETs and colleges of education is with University of Education. The
University looks after pre-service institutions and the Provincial Institute of Teacher Education which
was created in 1996. Thus the total control of both pre-service and in-service teacher education,
elementary and secondary, including curricuium, assessment and examinations, and evaluation and
research are under the control of the University of Education Punjab.
Training Outposts:
Training Outposts were set up in Government secondary schools under an Asian Development Bank
(ADB) assisted program. Many of the TOs have since been converted into TeachersITehsil Resource
Centers (TRCs) under the ESR Action Plan. There are 380 TRCs in Pakistan with many more being
planned to make in-service training accessible at the local level.
b) Discuss the usability of teacher methods recommended by Muslim Scholars in the

current teaching learning environment.
Unfortunately, as the years went on, these honorable mannerisms seemed to disappear from Muslim
students. It became very common to witness Muslim students making rude and catty comments to
professors in class along with perpetuating ridicule behind their backs. This disrespect was also seen in
less explicit ways through behaviors displayed by audience members of not just classrooms, but
Islamic lectures as well. It seemed as if assimilation with those of a non-Islamic background caused us
to forget the foundations with which we were raised. These habits manifested not simply as poking fun
at personal characteristics of professors and scholars, but also through indifferent attitudes towards
gaining from educational opportunities.
Of course, it is incumbent upon us as Muslims to gain knowledge, as it is a form of worship. Yet in

order to obtain it in the most proper form, we turn to Imam Ali (peace be upon him) who has said, "O
young nation, keep your honor by being polite and your religion by knowledge." It is clear therefore
that both character and faith need supplemental virtues to thrive. In the case of dignity, kindness and
respect to others is necessary, while in order to remain attached to religion, we are required to attain
an education.
Islam beautifully demonstrates
Islam beautifully demonstrates to us the significance and sanctity of a teacher-student relationship in

this process. Imam Ja'fer as-Sadiq (peace be upon him) reminds us, "Your teacher has the right over
you that you should honor him and pay him respect in different assemblies. You should be very
attentive to his words. You should not raise your voice above his. You should not converse with others
in his presence, and you should allow people to benefit from his knowledge." This message can be
applied in our middle school, high school, and college classrooms, and can also be translated to Islamic
lectures, majalis, and other forms of Islamic learning. Respect for a teacher indicates not commenting
5
on their words during a lecture or snickering about a scholar's flaws or traits. Being attentive implies
giving full effort to comprehend the information, withholding side conversations, refraining from
passing notes and constantly texting, and preventing one's self from showing complete disregard for
his or her message and efforts.
Presentation of information
Yes, there will be times both inside and outside of the classroom when we disagree with someone's
point of view or presentation of information. Islam encourages us then to stand for the truth and speak
up. Yet, when abiding by the words of Imam Ali, "O believer, surely this knowledge and courtesy are
your price; then try to learn them. If your knowledge and courtesy become much, your price will be
high. Then you are led to your Lord by knowledge, and you can serve your Lord with courtesy very
well," it is apparent that serving Allah and seeking knowledge requires "courtesy" and dignified
behavior. When refuting an idea, or providing evidence against a claim, as Muslims we should conduct
ourselves with decorum and virtue. This will not only gain the respect of our compeers, but also likely
elicit a positive response from the teacher as well.
As we transition into higher learning and take bolder steps towards our educational future, it is
important to remember that as Muslims, we are representatives of the message of Islam. Our
character, actions, and speech dictate how we are perceived in the public eye, and in turn how others
perceive Islam itself. It is our duty to uphold the image of Islam in highest esteem through noble
conduct as exemplified by the Ahlul Bayt (peace be upon them), whether in school or elsewhere.
The Prophet said (Sallallähu alaihi wa sallam) to someone, "You fast daily all the year and pray every
night all the night?"
He replied in the affirmative.
The Prophet (Sallallähu alaihi wa sallam) said, "If you keep on doing this, your eyes will become weak
and your body will get tired. He who fasts all the year is as he who did not fast at all. The fasting of
three days (a month) will be equal to the tasting of the whole year.
[Bukhari Book:31 No:200]
The Holy Quran is fountain head of entire learning, but there is a striking difference between the Holy
Quran and other books The Quran is word of Allah (SWT) and books on various branches of knowledge
are human studies of Allah’s creation. These books deal with specific subjects and topics. A book on
one discipline is quiet on other disciplines. They are no way comparable with the Holy Quran. The Holy
Quran is a treasure of our knowledge and learning that man may need till end of time. All knowledge
originates from the Holy Quran. This is the basic truth of Islamic doctrine of knowledge. We need to
get out of the darkness of ignorance and move towards the limelight and bright future. The Holy
Prophet (SAW) said,
“O people I am leaving behind among you the Holy Book (Quran) and the Sunnah (way of Prophet
(SAW)), if you follow these in letter and spirit you will never be strayed. (Hakim Al-Mustadrik, Book1
Hadith 318)
Reading the Quran fulfils an Islamic duty.

The Quran will be a proof for us on the Day of Judgment
The Quran will intercede for us on the Day of Judgment.
Your status in this life will be raised.
The Quran is the key for peace and satisfaction.
There are ten rewards for each letter you recite from the Holy Quran.
The reciters of the Quran will be in the company of the noble and obedient angels.
Your position in Paradise is determined by the amount of Quran you memorize in this life!
The Quran will lead you to Paradise!
Why learning Quran?

The Holy Quran is the last and final message of Almighty Allah (SWT) through His Prophet (Peace and
Blessings be upon Him), which guarantees success for mankind in this world and life hereafter. Allah
Almighty has laid down all the laws of valuable knowledge, good deeds and prosperity of the whole
mankind in His Book (Quran). In the present era the Muslims are politically, financially, culturally and
socially reached the verge of decay and destruction only because they have turned a deaf ear to Holy
Quran. The only solution to overcome the miserable plight of Muslim is to resort to the teachings of
Holy Quran. It is stated in the Holy Quran
“And how will you disbelieve (now) while you are (fortunate) ones to whom the Verses of Allah are
recited, and the Messenger of Allah (blessings and peace be upon him) is (himself) present among
you? And whoever holds fast to (the Embrace of) Allah is most surely guided to the straight path.
Islamic aspects:
In fact there is no concept that has been operative as a determinant of the Muslim civilization in all its
aspects to the same extent as 'ilm. This holds good even for the most powerful among the terms of
Muslim religious life such as, for instance, tawhid "recognition of the oneness of God," ad-din, "the true
religion," and many others that are used constantly and emphatically. None of them equals ilm in
depth of meaning and wide incidence of use. There is no branch of Muslim intellectual life, of Muslim
religious and political life, and of the daily life of the average Muslim that remains untouched by the all
pervasive attitude toward "knowledge" as something of supreme value for Muslim being. 'ilm is Islam,
even if the theologians have been hesitant to accept the technical correctness of this equation. The
very fact of their passionate discussion of the concept attests to its fundamental importance for Islam.
Concept of Quran about teaching:
Beside various Qur'anic verses emphasizing the importance of teaching , there are hundreds of
Prophetic traditions that encourage Muslims to acquire all types of knowledge from any corner of the
world. Muslims, during their periods of stagnation and decline, confined themselves to theology as the
only obligatory knowledge, an attitude which is generally but wrongly attributed to al-Ghazali's
destruction of philosophy and sciences in the Muslim world. Al-Ghazali, of course, passed through a
turbulent period of skepticism, but he was really in search of certainty, which he found not in discursive
knowledge but in mystic experience. In his favour it must be said that he paved the way for liberating
the believer from blind imitation and helping him approach the goal of certain in teaching method.
Islamic ethics about teaching:
Islamic ethics covers two categories of the ethical principles and values for Muslims to guide them in
their lives; there are the recommended and good ethical principles and values such as such as honesty,
justice, courage, thrifty, selflessness, sincerity, and there are condemned and evil ethical principles and
values such as stingy, evil intention, selfishness and greediness. Islamic worship or ritual is known as
the pillars of Islam consisting of five namely expressing by words that there is no gods but Allah and
Muhammad is Allah’s prophet or messenger, prayers, fasting during the month of Ramadan, the
payment of Zakah (the bodily and property taxes) and the pilgrimage in Mecca once during a Muslim’s
life provided he or she is able to go to Mecca and perform the pilgrimage rituals.
There are five times of prayers daily need to be perform by Muslims according to the stated times
namely zuhr (after noon), `asr (the time after noon until the sun sets, maghrib (the sun sets), `isha’
(after the sun sets until the dawn and subh (the early dawn until the sun rises). Prayers and reading
the Koran are mentioned in this novel. The Malay Muslim family who perform the prayers are Musa, his
son Seman and his wife Halimah or Limah. Halimah prays every day and requests Allah to provide his
son with a spouse since she wishes to see a grandson or granddaughter before she passes away.
Main ideology in teaching:
The teachings of Islam have been distorted in the Western world ever since the time of Muhammad.
Christian attacks on Islam date from the Crusades during which 'Western culture' found its first real
sense of identity. This identity was defined as being fundamentally hostile to Islam. Not Islam as it
really is but a completely unapologetic pack of lies about Islam. To mention such things may seem a
bit strange because it is so far in the past. However, the level of ignorance about Islam continues to
astonish, and part of this ignorance is due to the persistence of this Christian reaction to Islam - to lie
about it.
Teacher’s responsibility and Islam:
Another important duty is that the teacher should adjust his teaching to the level of intelligence and
needs of the child. This is a basic principle of modern education. Our Nabi Muhammad SAWS said: "No
one ever relates a tradition to a people which is beyond their minds to understand without being the
cause of perplexity to some of them." In another Hadith he said: "We prophets have been commanded
to give every man his rightful place and to communicate with everyone according to his own ability to
understand." Let me appeal to our teachers, do not neglect this basic duty and leave our innocent little
children to grope helplessly as they struggle to understand the work which is obviously above them ?
Do not allow yourselves to become the cause of your pupils suffering untold frustration and misery
which may even leave permanent scars on their personalities. Allah has created them with dignity. Let
us not deny them the right to express that dignity and self-respect.
Visions and Islamic concept of teaching:
If so much is expected of the teacher in the educational situation, how much more is not expected of
the student? Like teaching, learning is part of a Muslim's 'ibaadah (hisworship). Our first duty as
students is to develop such noble qualities as truthfulness, sincerity, piety and humility. This Imam
Ghazzali calls "the adornment and beautification of the inner self". With a "beautiful inner self", with a
pure heart, with noble intentions, we approach our learning. We must constantly be aware of WHY we
seek education: not just to get a good job or to be respected by our friends. These are important
goals, but they form part of the main reason, which is to serve Allah through His creation, and
ultimately to move closer to Allah SWT. With this in mind, our studies at high school or university,
whether we study medicine or ghifz, become so much more meaningful. In other words, we can see
where we are heading for. At the same time we cannot ignore our other forms of 'ibaadah such as our
salaah, for these give direction to our studies.
Q 3 a) Discuss the scope of teacher Education in the light of 18th amendment in the
constitution of Pakistan.
18th amendment and article 25A (Free and Compulsory. Education)
The Constitutions of India and Pakistan guarantee justifiable human rights and incorporate the
Directive Principles of State Policy. Fundamental rights are justifiable through courts, while the
principles of policy enjoy immunity from judicial interference. Right to education was constitutionally
recognized as one of the principles of policy, not as a fundamental right in both countries. Although its
status was earlier elevated from the directive principles of state policy to a fundamental right, owing to
judicial activism, however, it was incorporated by a Constitutional Amendment in the Indian
Constitution under Article 21-A. While in Pakistan, it was the 18th Amendment of the Constitution
which elevated it to the status of a fundamental right. Resultantly , now it is subject to judicial review,
under newly inserted Article 25-A. Now, the governments are obliged for its provision to all children,
aging from five to sixteen years. Learning a lesson from the Indian recognition, Pakistan must cover its
distance more swiftly and smartly, instead of wasting time in litigation or enactment of supportive
legislation.
International institutions
No one else can be expected or obliged to provide elementary education to all children of a nation, not
even international institutions or a private sector, except a State. No doubt, a State has a potential to
take this huge responsibility, owing to its economic and human capabilities to establish and run a
viable universal school system. The Economic, Social and Cultural Rights ‘Committee of the UNO also
recognized it. Emphasizing on the significance of elementary education, enshrined in Article 13 of the
Convention, which stated that “States as having the principal responsibility for the direct provision of
education in most circumstances”. The Committee defined the availability that it meant “educational
institutions and programs have to be available in sufficient quantity”, such as buildings, sanitation
facilities for both sexes, safe drinking water, trained teachers on domestically competitive salaries,
teaching materials, libraries, laboratories and computer facilities. Article 13 of the International
Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 goes further to expand the availability of
right to education that a state must provide private institutions and persons an opportunity to establish
and run private educational institutions, parallel to the state school system.
Government of Pakistan has appointed Higher Education Commission (erstwhile UGC) as the competent
authority for the supervision of curricula and text-books beyond class XII. HEC has also been entrusted
to maintain the standards of education in keeping with the nation’s changing social and economic
needs which are compatible with the basic national ideology. The aim is to ascend from general
education to more purposeful agro-technical education. The Curriculum Section guides all Degree
colleges, Universities and other Institutions of higher learning in designing curricula that provides
appropriate content regarding Basic Sciences, Social Sciences, Humanities along with Engineering and
Technology. It also guides them to establish minimum standards for good governance and
management of Institutions. HEC may also advise the Chancellor of any institution on its statutes and
regulation. Educational programs are thus designed not only to meet the needs of the employment
market but to promote the study of Basic and Applied Sciences in every field of national and
international importance. HEC may also advise the Chancellor of any institution on its statutes and
regulations.
Important to teach specific life skills
As a teacher, it is important to teach specific life skills, such as problem solving, that can be applied to
a variety of academic disciplines. Even within the problem-solving skill-set, there are several
techniques which can be taught, including identifying and re-reading the problem, brainstorming,
beginning with the end in mind and starting even when the entire process cannot be defined and
planned. Teaching primary grades is both rewarding and challenging. While primary education teachers
have the opportunity to mold young minds, thereby shaping the future, the task of teaching young
children who have yet to experience school is difficult. Primary teachers must face an assortment of
challenges that those in higher grades do not. To effectively educate primary grade students, teachers
must understand and confront these challenges in order to overcome them and effectively educate
impressionable pupils.here are several potential problems with teaching economics, whether at the
grade school level or beyond. Scope, currency of material and bias -- whether political or social or both
-- are common problems that instructors confront when trying to teach economics to students at any
age. Instructors of general economics courses also struggle to maintain an appropriate balance
between teaching theory and practice.
b) Discuss the problem of teacher education. Also give suggestion to overcome these
problems?
In nearly all countries, courses of the Normal School B, college, and university categories contain three
main elements. The first element is the study of one or more academic, cultural, or aesthetic subjects
for the purpose both of continuing the student’s own education and of providing him with knowledge to
use in his subsequent teaching career. A second element is the study of educational principles,
increasingly organized in terms of social science disciplines such as psychology, sociology, philosophy,
and history. A third element consists of professional courses and school experience. Primary teachers
may also receive instruction in the content and methods of subjects other than their own specialties
that figure in the primary curriculum. In normal schools and colleges, and some universities, the three
elements run parallel to one another, and the student is professionally committed from the outset of
his course. Elsewhere, the study of educational processes and professional work (including school
experience) may follow the completion of a period of academic study that the student has begun
without any prior commitment to teaching as a career. There are still advanced countries where the
possession of a university degree, without any qualification in education as such, is sufficient basis for
the award of qualified teacher status. In England and Wales, for example, compulsory training for
graduates, generally comprising two terms (six months) of professional and theoretical studies and a
further three-month period of school experience, was scheduled to come into effect only in 1973.
General education
The sequencing, balance, content, and organization of general and specialist academic work, courses in
education, and professional studies and teaching experience has been a subject of discussion since the
earliest days of organized teacher education. The importance of the element of general education has
been defended on various grounds. Sometimes such academic work may be highly specialized.
Students in many colleges of education in England study only one principal subject, to which they
devote about one-third of their total time, and teachers who graduate from universities have often
pursued three-year courses for single-subject honours degrees. In the United States and elsewhere the
academic element is broader, and the first two years of college or university work may embody a wide
range of elective subjects from diverse disciplinary fields. Both patterns have their critics, the first
because it produces narrow intellectual specialists, the second because it encourages dilettantism and
inadequate depth. Where a pattern of electives is combined with a units/credits system, as in some
universities in Japan and the United States, it is claimed that one result is an undesirable
fragmentation of study and effort. In his influential Education of American Teachers (1963), James B.
Conant recommended that half the course requirements of the four-year program of preparation for
elementary teachers should be given over to general courses, a further quarter to an “area of
concentration,” and the remaining quarter to professional studies, including school experience.
Prospective secondary teachers would spend still more time on the subjects they were preparing to
teach, with less than 10 percent of their time devoted to practice teaching and special methods. Such a
subject emphasis for secondary teachers can be found in many countries. In France the École Normale
Supérieure still places freedom of study and the nurture of intellectual curiosity above questions of
professional teacher training. Generally speaking, wherever there is a stress upon academic excellence
and the achievement of high standards of scholarship, there is likely to be skepticism as to the claims
of professional training for teaching. Oxford University had still not appointed a professor of education
by the beginning of the 1970s.
Teachers training have certain levels which correspond with the general education ability of the
teachers. There are three levels of teachers training.
Teacher’s certificates
Teachers for the primary schools are trained, and must have passed Secondary School examination.
They are provided one year training. After completion of this training they are awarded a certificate
called Primary Teacher’s certificate (PTC). Those who possess FA/F.Sc certificate are given one year
training and awarded a certificate called Certificate in Education (CT).
PTC and CT training is provided by the Government Colleges of Elementary Education (GCEE). There
are separate elementary Colleges of Education for girls and boys who have been established at all the
district headquarters within the country.
Those who possess BA/.Sc degrees are provided one year training called “Bachelor of Education” (B.Ed)
at the Government Colleges of Education. These colleges are at a few selected places in each province
of the country. Those who further want to specialize in the subject of education undergo one year
course called Master in Education (M.Ed). This course is conducted by the Colleges of Education and in
the Institutes of Education in the Universities. Teachers also do M.Phil and Ph.D in Education from the
universities. Those who possess M.Ed or M.Phil teach in the Colleges of Education. At the University
level Ph.Ds are employed to train teachers.
Allama Iqbal Open University has started teacher training courses through its distance education
system for those students who cannot afford to attend formal regular courses in the teacher training
institutions. National Education policy (1998-2011) provides for modernizing the courses in teachers
training. Accordingly, the duration and period of training at all levels of training is being increased,
including better salaries for the teachers.
There are few problems in the teacher-training programme which include non -availability of qualified
teaching faculty for the Colleges of Education, quality training programmes, financial problems of the
Training Institutions, lack of quality material for training and lack of effective system of management
and supervision. But the most serious problem is that the teachers do not use those teaching skills and
methods in their classes which were taught to them in the training institutions.
Condition of teacher education
Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher education in the
country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition as an innovation has
been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID through their Pre-Service
Teachers Education Programme (STEP) project. This reform is attempted in order to improve the
quality of teacher education by including different innovations.
In this regard, a new curriculum has been developed for pre-service programmes such as a two-year
Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and a four-year BEd (Hons). Effort has been made to design the
curriculum keeping in view the modern educational principle along with the contextual relevancy. These
programmes are gradually replacing the previous pre-service and in-service programmes such
10
as Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC), Certificate in Teaching (CT) and the one-year Ed programme. In
addition, an effort is being made for the accreditation and standardisation of teacher training
institutions through this initiative.
The ADE and BEd programme has been initiated in some colleges and will be gradually implemented in
remaining colleges throughout the country in the coming years. In addition, to attract the best mind
towards the teaching profession a stipend is also offered to student-teachers for providing them
financial support. The significance of such educational innovation cannot be overlooked for
improvement of teacher education in the country. However, there are areas that need serious
considerations for the effectiveness and sustainability of the new reform initiatives.
Modern educational principles
Firstly, the new developed curriculum is based on the modern educational principles. Teachers are
provided a course outline with the expectation that they will explore the teaching learning material for
classroom instructions. However, it was observed that some of the teachers are struggling with
identifying teaching resources due to the unavailability of the reference books and lack of Internet
facility in their colleges/institutions. This situation may affect the teaching-learning process of the ADE
courses. Hence there is a need to provide the reference books and Internet facility to the faculty
members in order to make the teaching-learning process smooth. Second, Internet is considered as
one of the important sources for identifying teaching-learning material. However, it was observed that
some of the faculty members are not literate in computers and Internet. So they are facing challenges
in accessing the teaching-learning resources that are available on the Internet or in soft version.
Therefore, the faculty members of colleges need to be helped in acquiring workable computer and
Internet skills.
Curriculum demands new teaching strategies
Third, the new curriculum demands new teaching strategies such as collaborative, inquiry and activity-
based teaching approach. However, a majority of the faculty in the teacher institutions are not oriented
with the teaching strategies demanded by the ADE and BEd programme. Therefore, the professional
development of the faculty at teacher training institutions should be given priority along with the
curriculum development.
Furthermore, there is a sense of uncertainty about the sustainability of the new initiatives after
completion of the Pre-STEP project. Many educational initiatives in the past died away with closure of
the projects. Therefore there is a dire need to develop a clear road map for the continuity and
sustainability of reforms.
It was also observed that some school teachers are being deputed in teacher education colleges due to
lack of adequate number of teachers in there. Due to the different approach of pedagogy and
andragogy, these teachers treat the prospective teacher like children, which demotivates them. Thus
when the school teachers are deputed in colleges they should be oriented with the andragogy of
teaching an adult. Finally, a sense of insecurity can be observed among the student-teachers about
their job prospects after the completion of their ADE or BEd honours. How will they stand apart from
the teacher who has done one year BEd and other courses, is a question to ponder upon. A clear policy
is required about job opportunities for the prospective teachers so that they can focus their studies.
Future developments in teacher education
Coming decades are likely to see continuing development and change in teacher education. Post-
secondary and higher education may soon reach between a third and a half of the population in many
advanced countries. The teacher must adjust to new developments in educational technology, the
growth of human knowledge, and the problem of creating a relevant and appropriate curriculum from
the enormous range of material available. There will be new understanding of how children develop
and learn. The patterns of authority in society will continue to change, and it is likely that there will be
a greater recognition of the importance of moral and personal education in a world of pluralistic values
and goals. All these factors will affect the ways in which teachers are educated and trained.
In all countries, whether or not any fundamental institutional changes are contemplated, there are
evidences of radical change in the structure of ideas and assumptions that underlie the preparation of
teachers. But it is unlikely that coming decades will see the introduction of any comprehensive
11
pedagogical system resembling those of the 19th century. No single theory of learning or teaching is
likely to satisfy the diversity of individual needs and societal arrangements.
Q 4 a) Describe the nature, scope and the significance of In-service Teachers Education.
Elementary teachers help children aged 5 to 12 learn how to read, spell, and write. They teach them
how to do math, English, social studies and science. They also teach them how to act in society and get
along with others. If you have a natural affinity with children, you might want to become an
elementary school teacher.
They involve the availability of substantial resources, the need for getting together teachers from
different places for extended periods of time, a political decision about the characteristics of the school
system and so on. In many places these conditions are very difficult to meet and a strategy of short
teacher development courses is more feasible. With the aim of contributing to the latter teacher
preparation strategy, the objectives and characteristics of a professional development short course for
in-service primary teachers.
The general approach underlying this course is to consider teacher education in the general context of
constructivist learning, laying the foundations for an action-research oriented teaching practice. In
other words, constructivism is seen not only as a theoretical framework to understand how pupils learn
mathematics, but also how teachers, building on their own experiences as teachers, actively construct
their new knowledge about mathematics teaching. Consequently the central objective of this
professional development course was neither to stress rigorous mathematics treatment nor general
pedagogic approaches, but rather to develop critical teachers who, reflecting on their own teaching and
profiting from the curricular advances provided by MER, are prepared to implement in their courses an
iterative virtuous cycle of planning and executing instruction complemented with the formative
evaluation necessary to provide the positive feedback for the next course implementation
Basic and suitable instructions
Earn a bachelor's degree at an accredited college. You'll take classes in basic math, social
sciences, physical sciences, literature and music. You will also be required to take classes on the
psychology of learning, classroom control, and methods of teaching. You'll be required to
practice teach in a regular classroom and take a class that accompanies the student teaching.
You can graduate with a bachelor of arts or bachelor of science degree in education. Some
states are beginning to require a master's degree.
Pass the tests required by your state to make you eligible for a teaching certificate. You will be
tested on basic knowledge and teaching competency.
Complete an application at your local intermediate school district for a teaching certificate. You'll
have to provide fingerprints and pay for a background check. You'll need your college
transcripts and proof that you passed the exams required by your state. All 50 states require
you to have a teaching certificate, or license, from the state board of education in order to
teach.
Prepare to continue your education throughout your teaching career. Besides teacher in-service
training, most states require you to complete a planned program with at least 18 credit hours
for every 3 years of teaching in order to keep your teaching certificate current.
Get letters of reference from college instructors and the teacher you did your student teaching
with. Apply for jobs. Your best bet in finding a permanent teaching job is to volunteer, tutor, of
substitute teach while you're still in college so you can get a foot in the door, or to major in
math or science, where there is usually a shortage of teachers.
Sign up at your local intermediate school district office to substitute teach. Depending on the
job outlook in your graduation year, you may have to be a substitute teacher for a long time
before you find a permanent position. Some years, many teachers retire and there are a lot of
job openings. Other years, school districts lay off teachers.
12
Planning and instructive designs for teaching
For the planning of the lesson they were introduced to the “lesson planning template”. The template is
designed to scaffold the thinking, skills and attitudes of in-service teachers and proved to be an
essential tool to train teachers how to think about the relationship between educational theories, lesson
planning, instructional strategies, students and learning. It is at this point when theory intersects with
practice. Using the template, teachers focus on who their students are, consider students with
disabilities, think how this lesson fits into the larger sequence of lessons and the background
knowledge students have on the topic. In this current standards-based era, it is expected that teachers
set objectives for a lesson that are connected to national and local standards, think creatively about
the lesson process and how to differentiate the process to meet individual student needs, consider how
the students will engage in learning and how they as teachers will present information.
The ultimate goal is that, with the assist of the lesson plan template, the process of lesson planning will
become automatic as teachers approach lesson design. At this stage of the INSET training, the
researchers regarded as very important that teachers went through the constructivist approach in the
same way as regular students are supposed to do. This process not only assures teacher knowledge of
the subject matter (Maths) and pedagogical activities, but it also gives them the possibility of
anticipating students’ learning difficulties and preparing questions to guide that learning through an
inquiry process.
The course training strategy
As stated above, a main objective of this course was to introduce in-service teachers to a different
environment of student learning. In general these teachers have experienced as (successful) students
and then practiced as teachers, a traditional model of teaching and learning in which the professor
irradiates knowledge and where the students have a mostly passive role, listening to lectures, solving
numerical, end-of-chapter problems and following a detailed instruction guide in the course curriculum.
Results of different MER groups in the last two decades show that more effective learning is obtained
through teaching strategies that favor active learning, i.e., the active participation of students in their
own learning process. Specifically, regarding the teaching of Mathematics at the high school and
introductory university levels, data show a marked difference in performance between students
subjected to active learning methodologies as compared to those students that followed traditional
learning. This conclusion has been confirmed in different educational systems and for different subjects
of basic Mathematics. These data make evident the convenience of changing the traditional teaching
approach and embracing the new methodologies.
b) Give suggestions to motivate the teachers for In-service training.
Main features
e the main features and objectives of a short professional development course for in-service teachers
working in Greek primary schools. The course has been modeled under the constructivist theory of
active learning and consisted of 3 daily meetings where the participants worked intensively through
three examples of the research-based teaching strategy “in-service training courses in Introductory
Mathematics”. The main objective of this training course was to provide the participants with a first
hand, practical contact with an active learning teaching strategy in order to break the close cycle of
“teaching as taught”. The course was designed to allow the participants to experience active learning
as learners, so they followed the in-service training course materials as if they were regular college or
high school students. This work set their minds for the next step, where they discussed and elaborated
as reflective teachers about the teaching material and about their students’ difficulties in learning the
subject matter.
The preparation of a Strategic Framework for Teacher Education and Professional Development, as
stated below, is an attempt to develop a policy framework that captures the problems at the root and
turn them into policy points for dialogue and action. In turn, the comprehensive review of Pakistan’s
experiences in teacher education reform will hopefully help the Government pave a constructive way
forward. It is hoped that the strategic framework will contribute to the current national education policy
review (2005-Present) that is concerned with paving the way toward a practical and yet innovative
policy for teacher. The noble profession of teaching has turned into an easy-to-abuse, least attractive
profession in today’s Pakistan. Generally, only such individuals like to serve as teachers who
13
are good for nothing. Individuals with better caliber and skill prefer to drive on other avenues of
economic life. Moreover, teachers are not well-paid, particularly, in the private sector, though the
situation of public sector is not encouraging either. Can such a mindset with inherent drawbacks
introduce healthy trends in Pakistan’s extant education system and can it really cultivate a crop of
inventive and free-thinking minds in such depravity? Certainly not. The whole ingenuity, in fact, gets
badly affected in this type of environment.
Assume in perceptions:
We assume in our illusive perception that, by increasing the study hours and providing tutoring, we are
educating our children in Western lines. However, this erroneous perception is immediately out when
we take even a cursory glance into the Western education model. Schools and colleges have five
working days a week in the West; and students are relieved with two holidays on the weekend.
Furthermore, study hours at primary and secondary education levels hardly match our work routine.
We far surpass them in our study labor, but with extremely poor results. Unfortunately, this notion has
somehow found root in our society that we are doing a great service to our children by overburdening
them with educational stuff and imprisoning them into the systematic clumps of a 10 to 14-hour study
a day. Schools offering morning-till-evening teaching and coaching services are not only doing a
handsome business, but they are also boasting an ever-increasing number of students enrolled every
term.
Objective circumstances:
In such objective circumstances of unhealthy educational atmosphere, the hurdles for Pakistani
students are manifold. Such hurdles can be classed under three broad headings up until the secondary
school. Thus, the problems our students face are: (i) non-native medium of learning, (ii) unskilled
teaching, and (iii) mind-racking study burden of time and labor. Is there a solution to these problems?
Indeed there is a solution to every problem; but, as it is taking us so long to fix the problems, we do
not have it probably. Nay, putting it more appropriately, we do not have a solution, for we do not want
one, and one must not forget in this current scenario that ‘where there is a will, there is a way’.
In eighteen amendments:
Article 25A introduced in the constitution of Pakistan through 18th amendment having direct bearing
on the education sector which makes education of 5-16 years child free and compulsory. As a result of
omission/removal of the concurrent list under the eighteenth amendment has devolved the key roles of
educational policy, planning and curriculum in the exclusive legislative jurisdiction of the provinces. “In
recognition of the importance of a sector plan, the Government of Baluchistan has developed a
‘situation analysis’ in the education sector that eventually leads to development of a sector plan.
Government of Baluchistan with Policy Planning and Implementation Unit (PPIU) through SCSPEB has
initiated to develop Baluchistan Education Sector Plan (BESP), financial & technical assistance provided
by UNICEF.
th
Early issues before 18 amendment:
Before the 18th Amendment, the Education System in Pakistan was the responsibility of Federal
Government. The Ministry of Education at Federal level was responsible for formulating Policies,
Planning and Promotion of Educational facilities across the country. But, after the passing of 18th
Amendment, the responsibilities of Education System are divided among the Federation and the
Provinces.
the third system responsible for aggravating education system of Pakistan is Madarsah school system.
Such religious schools are being operated by religious scholars on their creative way of teaching having
no interference or directions from government. The current education budget of Pakistanis just 2.5 %
of GDP whilst Nepal 2.7%, Srilanka 3.2%, India 3.5% and Bangladesh is 3.5%. The low education
budget shows the negligence of education. Remember, 95 per cent of education budget is incurred on
salaries and maintenance.
Standard and quality:
Outdated examination system is another point of discussing the standard of education in Pakistan. The
primary to middle examination system is splendid for increasing the role of teacher in its class. Such
14
school teachers are responsible to seek exam from the course they cover in class. Hence students are
acquainting of how to prepare for exam. Irrespective of primary-middle examination, IV to XII
examination process has been enlarged from class teacher to board’s selective teachers. The Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Education (BISE), a divisional board has a significant role to rule out the
syllabus for IV to Xii respectively; and keep right to form a exam paper in its own supervision. This
rationale of conducting exam is excellent but lack of communication system between school and college
authority and concern officers of board have created uncertainty among students about the extracting
paper for the exam. The following are the flaws in examination system.
Basically, from last two decades, all importance has given to standardize higher education or university
education; for this purpose, another two universities are established from 132 to 134. An independent
body Higher Education Commission (HEC) was formed to regulate the universities of Pakistan. On some
extent, the HEC has succeeded in towards it purpose, but after the 18th amendment, HEC was
dissolved and to be made the education a provincial subject.
Goals and objectives in teacher training:
Therefore, Millennium Goal for 2015 in education policy 2009 seems impracticable. Along with primary
education, technical education of woman vocation and poly technical education has been set aside of
no importance. Basically, technical education play vital role to decrease the rate of unemployment on
immediate basis. There are numbers of technical institutions are in ready position to provide technical
education but due to mismanagement these liable no beneficial since their structural presence. One
side in advanced countries, the respected government has described the system of teachers training as
to equip modern techniques of teaching method to their teachers. Consequently, they are now are the
champions of modern civilization in science, art, philosophy, literature. In contrast, Pakistan too
launched same pattern for training their teachers, but inefficiencies almost succumb to outstanding
process. On other side, teachers too have failed to attend regular classes on available old culture of
teaching method from primary to college level in rural and urban areas. The Education department is
not taking stern measures against these elements due to political reconciliations.
Q 5 Analyze the possible impact of reforms in the teacher education in Pakistan in the light
of four years degree.
It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory education to all children
between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment
the concurrent list which comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including
education, were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial autonomy.
The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the participants of Dakar
declaration (Education For All [EFA] commitment) including Pakistan. Education related statistics
coupled with Pakistan’s progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging
behind in achieving EFA targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) for education call for an
analysis of the education system of Pakistan and to look into the issues and problems it is facing so
that workable solutions could be recommended.
What is Education System?
The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering formal education (public
and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual instruction) and their faculties, students, physical
infrastructure, resources and rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that
are directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such institutions (like government
ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing organizations, textbook boards and accreditation
boards). The rules and regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the set
up are also part of the education system.
Education system of Pakistan:
The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating 41,018,384
students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The system includes 180,846 public institutions and
80,057 private institutions. Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are
public institutes.
15
Analysis of education system in Pakistan
Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in the country by education
policies at domestic level and getting involved into international commitments on education. In this
regard national education policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate,
capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational institutes. MDGs and EFA
programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for the promotion of literacy.
A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been little change in Pakistan’s
schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment enshrined education as a fundamental human right in
the constitution. Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity, remain
endemic.
Issues
A) MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging behind in achieving its
MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two goals for education sector:
Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) and by 2015, children
everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. By the
year 2014 the enrolment statistics show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16
year while dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students remains high to
achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net primary enrolment rate with 62%
enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and
primary enrolment rate in Balochistan is 45%.
Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women Empowerment. It is aimed at
eliminating gender disparity in primary and secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education
not later than 2015. There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national
literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13. Provinces reported the same
gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was 71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy
rate in male was 72% and female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male
62% and female 23%.
B) Education for All (EFA) Commitment
The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-schooling, universal primary
education and secondary education to youth, adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education
as crosscutting thematic and programme priorities.
EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy commitments, primary
education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its target of universal primary education. Currently
the primary gross enrolment rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by
2015-16 to fulfil EFA goals. Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million children of ages 5-
9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44%
are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much
higher in urban areas than in rural areas and higher among males.
C) Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic environment which promotes
the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is one curriculum and one national examination system
under state responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:
(i) Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation from 2.7% of GDP to
5% by 2010 and 7% by 2015.
16
(ii) Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two years of secondary
schools.
(iii) Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to 25-30% of all secondary
enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.
(iv) Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale and quality of
scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.
Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are faced in the development
of education system and promotion of literacy. The study outlines seven major problems such as:
1) Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals. However it seems
that it will not be able to achieve these international commitments because of financial management
issues and constraints to achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.
2) Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which hinder the provision of
education are not just due to issues of management by government but some of them are deeply
rooted in the social and cultural orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would
require a change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is difficult to achieve.
3) Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include poverty, cultural
constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about safety and mobility of their daughters.
Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty, protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to
send them to school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for boys the
difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important factor.
4) Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but these are located in
richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools are better but not everywhere and
government schools ensure equitable access but do not provide quality education.
5) War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also affected the promotion of
literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools and students; several educational institutions were
blown up, teachers and students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute
not as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor.
6) Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national level, 89%
education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as teachers’ salaries, while only 11%
comprises of development expenditure which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.
7) Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the technical and vocational
education in Pakistan. The number of technical and vocational training institutes is not sufficient and
many are deprived of infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one of
the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset once it is skilled. Unskilled population
means more jobless people in the country, which affects the national development negatively.
Therefore, technical education needs priority handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack of access, poor quality,
equity, and governance have also contributed in less enrolments.
17
ASSIGNMENT No. 02
Teacher Education in Pakistan (8626) B.Ed (1.5 Years) Autumn, 2017
Q1 a) Explain the process and importance of teaching practice in teacher

education curriculum.
Before entering into a pre-service education program, most students will have obtained a
previous academic degree, either a general or honours, in a subject of their choice, (e.g.
English, math, science, religion). The alternative to this is that students may work
simultaneously on an undergraduate bachelor's degree and a pre-service education
program. The latter route incorporates education courses throughout the program's 4 or 5
years, and culminates in a final year of specific pre-service training. Students who complete a
bachelor's degree before returning to a university to complete the pre-service education
program are in a consecutive pre-service program, while students who complete their pre-
service training at the same time as their undergraduate degree are in a concurrent"
program.
in order to build reading instruction skills among the future teaching workforce, PRP works
with the Higher Education Commission (HEC) and selected Teacher Training Institutes
(TTIs) to strengthen reading and reading assessment training for teachers in training through:
Faculty professional development in practicum and teaching for the degree program:
PRP is training faculty members in all its partner educational institutes to ensure that
they are familiar with the requirements of the ADE and B.Ed. (Hons.) curricula and are
suitably equipped to teach it effectively.
Facilitating the development of a reading curriculum for introduction into ADE and B.Ed.
(Hons.) programs: One of the objectives of PRP is to integrate reading curricula in
existing ADE/B.Ed. (Hons.) courses. PRP and the Higher Education Commission (HEC)
agreed to integrate a reading component in the existing five courses of ADE and B.Ed.
(Hons.). In addition to this, HEC suggested designing a reading specialization as a
discipline course that will be offered in years 3 & 4 of the B.Ed. (Hons.) program.
Faculty professional development in reading at selected TTIs, particularly in training
students on using the teaching and learning materials developed by PRP: Faculty will be
trained with a focus on reading based on the new teaching and learning materials being
developed by PRP. Student teachers, enrolled in the degree programs, will receive
practical experience in teaching reading skills through its integration in the practicum
course, which is an integral and distinguishing feature of the two degrees.
Pre-service graduate challenges
After completing a pre-service program, a graduate must apply for certification to be hired by a
public school board. This is granted by a provincial or state governing authority. Not all pre-
service programs are designed the same and a certificate obtained in one country may not
be recognized in another. Within the US, state-to-state reciprocity is limited. In Canada
jurisdictional requirements for teacher education differs provincially, and each province has
a designated authority responsible for the evaluation, certification and provision of teacher
qualifications. It is significantly more challenging to receive certification in a state or province
other than that in which the teacher attended their pre-service program. This makes it
difficult for pre-service graduates to find employment outside of the state or province in which
they received their training.
A qualified teacher is one of the prerequisites of laying a solid foundation for an effective
technical and vocational education and training (TVET) system. To provide the TVET system
with qualified teachers, for the first-time in Pakistan, the TVET Reform Support Programme
facilitated the introduction of a post-graduate study Programme-B.Ed in Technical Education-
in 2014. This programme was launched jointly by the University of the Punjab, the Virtual
University of Pakistan and the German Technical University of Kaiserslautern.
The post graduate study programme focused on training of TVET teachers in technical fields of:
Mechanical Engineering /
Technology Electrical Engineering /
Technology IT and Computer
Science.
The entry requirement for the students was a degree in one of these subjects.The study
programme was a comprehensive and competency-based academic programme with the
duration of one year. Total 85 students graduated from the University of the Punjab in
November 2015.
Replication at the University of Karachi
The programme has been replicated as evening programme “Post-Graduate Diploma” at

Faculty of Education, University of Karachi. The programme started with 25 students in
February 2016 in close cooperation with the Sindh Technical Education & Vocational Training
Authority(S-TEVTA) in Karachi.
The main features of this study programme are:
Introduction to modern concepts and teaching methods
The prospective teachers receive a sound introduction to the pedagogical concepts, teaching
methods and assessment approaches.
Hands-on experience in their teaching fields (internship at companies)
Students will work for a certain time (minimum 6 weeks) at companies to get apprised with
the work environment of their professional teaching subject.This helps the students to
have first-hand information about the world of work.
Practical training in TVET institutions (internship at a training provider)
The practical training enables the students to practice and test what they have learned and
therefore practical teaching experience at a TVET training institute forms an integral
part of the study programme.
Guided self-learning phases
Finally, an IT based knowledge driven environment enables future TVET teacher to collect
information from the internet, to screen websites for information, and to communicate
using different web applications. Therefore, the use of a virtual learning environment
provides the student a chance to practice the competency of self learning and information
screening. Through this process, the students are guided by the lecturers and this help them
in exchanging information besides delivering required assignments.
The innovative and new feature is the combination of all these aspects which in the end
resulted in creating a “new generation of TVET teachers” in Pakistan.
b) Highlight the gaps in the existing structure of teaching education for

implementation of received curriculum suggests measure to bridge these gaps.
The gap between the theory and practice of teaching is an issue of concern in teacher
education. Although researching this gap is not new, few studies have been conducted in Hong
Kong. It is worth investigating the contemporary Asian models of teacher education that can
provide reference to the international literature. This paper examines this theory-practice
gap by reporting a study that researched the inconsistencies between student teachers'
best teaching strategies and their most commonly employed ones. Specifically, we
investigated: (1) the considerations that contribute to the inconsistencies in the student
teachers' conceptions of teaching; and (2) the enhancing factors of the teacher education
programme which help to close the gap between the theory and practice of teaching.
Through examining the interview data, the findings revealed three main dimensions of
consideration attributing to the inconsistencies in the conceptions of teaching: pre-training
experience, teaching context and student needs. These considerations lead to expansive or
constraining impacts on the student teachers' selections of teaching strategies. Influences
from the teacher education programme that might close this gap are identified. Implications
for improving teacher education programmes are also discussed.
Enhanced feedback model
The problem was in the delivery of the enhanced feedback model. Initially, the teachers were
confused about the structures around feedback the research put in place. 'They thought that
they knew what feedback was,' says Beng Huat. 'At the first training session they said, "We are
already using feedback in school. Any good teacher already uses feedback. Why are we doing
this?" When they were given the paper to read, which explains the different levels and processes
of feedback, they became confused.'
During the initial training, one teacher said, 'I agree with [Hattie] about the impact of
feedback, but this is what we all do in our classes. This is what we're doing already.'
More tellingly, the research leads from the schools struggled to understand the research
paper. One teacher commented, 'I need a translator to understand what this article is
saying. I just cannot understand what [Hattie] means and what he wants us to do.'
'Throughout the intervention the teachers were excited and keen to use the research. But there
was a lot of misunderstanding and misinterpretation of the evidence,' says Beng Huat. The
teachers found the language of the research article impenetrable – it was not written for an
audience of practitioners.
Then there was the other problem: the research article didn't provide examples or
resources practitioners could use in a class. These could be a simple as clarification of
technical terms with several examples, or as in-depth as videos of successful
implementations of the intervention being used for training.
Researchers have studied the ways in which teachers' beliefs about students affect their
behavior toward students. Some kinds of differential behavior toward students who vary in
their mastery of the curriculum are appropriate and productive. Giving some students more
advanced material than others is clearly necessary when there is variability in student skill
level, and students need different amounts and kinds of teacher assistance and attention.
Nevertheless, most of the teacher behaviors described below, which have been shown to be
associated with high versus low expectations, cannot be defended as appropriate
accommodations to individual student needs.
Teacher Behavior Toward High- and Low-Expectation Students
Rosenthal (1974) divided teacher behavior associated with high or low expectations into
four categories: socioemotional climate, input, output, and affective feedback.
Development of teaching competence was followed from candidates’ enrollment until their third
year as in-service teachers. Occupational socialization in schools was demonstrated to have
a considerable influence on the development of graduates’ in-service competence.
However, evidence was also produced for an impact of specific characteristics of the teacher
education programs studied involving the integration of practical experience and theoretical
study. Implications of these findings for the design of teacher education programs and the
conduct of teacher education research are discussed.
Gauging the effect of teachers on student achievement The most compelling evidence
for the importance of teaching came initially from economists who adapted value-added models
from business to measure the effect of teachers on student learning. While the statistical
methods are complex, the definition of effective teaching is not. Simply, researchers looked
for the change in students’ test scores according to the teacher they were assigned to. A
highly effective teacher, therefore, is one whose students show the most gains from one year
to the next. By using this approach, researchers are able to isolate the effect of the teacher
from other factors related to student performance, for example, students’ prior academic
record or school they attend.
Q2 Highlight the important compute skills of the future teachers. How these skills
can be obtain by In-service teacher? Formulate practice plan.
Computer-assisted instruction offers teachers and students another avenue to learn the
required academic material. Educational computer programs are available online, at computer
stores or through textbook companies. Stick with programs that are user-friendly and hold
your students' attention. Make sure the programs are at the correct grade level. Decide if you
want the computer program to supplement your lesson, practice basic skills, or assist in
teaching a new concept and make sure it does just that.
Student Benefits:
Computer-assisted instruction provides differentiated lessons for varied levels of learning,

including students with disabilities and gifted students. Students are able to work at their
own pace while receiving instant feedback which enables them to self correct before moving
on to the next skill. If a student answers incorrectly, the computer programs will provide
instructions to assist the student in correcting their work. The programs are interactive and
students can work individually or in groups. This allows them to compete with their
individual scores or the scores of the students within their group. Students also gain valuable
computer skills which will continue to benefit them throughout life.
Teacher Benefits:
Teachers are better able to track their students' strengths and weaknesses through computer-
assisted learning. Computer programs can enhance the lessons and allow teachers to pick
different levels of a program or different programs altogether for students who may be
behind or students who are advanced. When students are learning and actively involved
with learning, teachers will have less behavior problems in the classroom which in turn sets
up a cycle for more learning to take place. Computer-assisted learning benefits teachers by
allowing them to work with small groups of children on a particular skill while the other
students in the class are working on their computer program. The nature of the program allows
the students to work independently; minimizing distraction to the teacher while she works with
the other students.
Disadvantages:
Computer programs can evaluate students' progress on many levels although it is the
teacher's responsibility to make sure students develop critical thinking skills which are
essential to solve problems encountered throughout life. Too much time spent learning
through computer programs can also reduce time students spend interacting with each other
and their teacher. This can result in less time for learning appropriate social skills.
Computer-assisted learning can be a great asset to the classroom and curriculum as long as
they are not overused. Too much of any mode of teaching can lead to boredom and
frustration in the students. Use good judgment and find computer programs that enhance the
learning process.
Computer-assisted instruction:
Refers to instruction or remediation presented on a computer. Many educational computer

programs are available online and from computer stores and textbook companies. They
enhance teacher instruction in several ways. Computer programs are interactive and can
illustrate a concept through attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow
students to progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a group.
Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct.
If the answer is not correct, the program shows students how to correctly answer the question.
Computers offer a different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group
instruction. Computer-assisted instruction improves instruction for students with disabilities
because students receive immediate feedback and do not continue to practice the wrong
skills. Computers capture the students’ attention because the programs are interactive and
engage the students’ spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer-assisted
instruction moves at the students’ pace and usually does not move ahead until they have
mastered the skill. Programs provide differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at
risk, average, or gifted.
Major effects:
Another problem had a deeper and more serious nature. These evaluation studies were never
exact replications of one another. They differed in experimental design and execution, setting,
and the type of computer applications investigated. To confound matters, evaluation findings
or results tended to differ from one investigation to another. Findings from different studies
differed from each other, with some studies producing contradictory results. As well, many of
the reviews are typically narrative and discursive in presentation, resulting in their multiplicity
of findings not capable of being absorbed by the reader without quantitative methods of
reviewing
Traditional approach:
Because of the shortcomings of the traditional approach of narrative reviews of research

studies, attempts have been made to identify more promising methods of research
investigation and research evaluation. Glass was the first to deal with the information
overload problem by introducing a novel and comprehensive method that allows one to
estimate the average effect of treatments on outcome variables across numerous studies. He
coined the term “meta-analysis,” and distinguished it from primary analysis and secondary
analysis.
Conducts an analysis:
Primary analysis is the original research that includes data collection, data processing, and
publication of results. Secondary analysis requires a different investigator who, following
the same research question, conducts an analysis of the original data from either a different
perspective or with different techniques. Meta-analysis draws upon the summary statistics of
a variety of studies without having access to the original data. According to Glass, the aim of
meta-analysis is to integrate a large number of results, with the focus not on statistical
significance but on the size of treatment effects.
Q3 What are the objectives of Micro-teaching? How to helps to improve the

competencies of teachers? Provide examples?
Microteaching is a technique of practicing teaching. The lesson given is based on a single

teaching skill observed during a limited time, such as one class session. A video recording of
the lesson is analyzed after the session, and the teaching skill is evaluated.
Teaching method and using place:
Microteaching allows teachers to review video tapes of their teaching methods with other
teachers who take the place of actual students. The purpose of microteaching is to evaluate
various approaches used in the classroom to determine which approaches were successful and
which were not. Microteaching helps instill confidence in a teacher, giving her a better sense of
her strengths as well as areas that she needs to improve on. The focus of micro teaching is
to teach within a small group, giving each individual within the group a chance to practice a
concept or skill. The small group size allows for more one-on-one interaction time between the
students and the teacher. Often the students within a micro teaching environment are required
to give presentations or perform tasks in front of the group. After each student presents or
performs a task, he is given feedback on his performance from both the instructor and his
peers.
Six Steps of Microteaching:
Microteaching involves six steps: (1) planning the the lesson's topic, (2) teaching the lesson
using the targeted skill, (3) gathering feedback of the trainee’s performance, (4) re-planning to
modify the plan according to the feedback, (5) re-teaching the lesson and incorporating
the changes and (6) completing re-feedback based on the trainee’s modified behavior.
Positive Features:
Microteaching is an efficient tool for developing and mastering specific teaching skills by
modifying teaching behavior and employing real teaching situations. The complexity of the
teaching process is reduced to observable and controllable teaching contexts that enable
trainees to improve their techniques in a simple sequence of steps.
Drawbacks:
Microteaching doesn't take into consideration the content of the lesson because it is skill-
oriented. It is a time-consuming technique, and many trainees may not have the opportunity
to practice the re-plan and re-teaching steps. It may also raise administrative problems
because it requires special setting conditions and professional equipment.
Use Metaphors
Some concepts students will have a difficult time grasping. Whenever possible, simplify
difficult ideas by using metaphors. This can be especially useful in describing scientific or
mathematical concepts. If you're creating "scenarios," ask teachers to think of a metaphor that
would be appropriate for teaching specific ideas. For example, when explaining to children the
need to eat the right things, a teacher might compare it to making sure a car has gas and oil
in it so it can run.
Experiments/Props
By conducting experiments in the classroom, you can engage students in the principles
behind the experiment while at the same time sparking their imagination. For example, when
wanting to explain the properties of liquid nitrogen, an experiment that involves placing a
blown-up balloon in the liquid nitrogen, then watching it shrink and and then quickly expand
again once removed is sure to get your students' attention. Once your practice session is over,
try to get a sense of whether your colleagues found your experiment/prop examples engaging
and useful.
Class Participation
Any student can tell you that there are some class lectures that seem to defy time itself,
feeling like they go on forever. What these sessions often have in common is a concept that is
being covered that seems so complex that students' attention wanders while they wait for the
bell to ring. One way to counter this effect is to fashion class sessions that facilitate an
active learning environment where there is a back-and-forth between you and your students.
Build on key concepts and reinforce those concepts through repetition.
Major steps:
Micro teaching is a term used to describe a session of practice teaching that is videotaped
for the teacher to watch following the session. Potential, new, and existing teachers use this
method to review their teaching techniques and receive feedback from fellow teachers and
administrators, and make corrections to their teaching style accordingly. Micro teaching
sessions are often held before the school year starts so teachers are comfortable and confident
with their material delivery strategies.
Employ Other Teachers:
Using peer teachers in the place of students during a micro teaching session allows the fellow
teachers to see the teacher through the eyes of the students. Encourage the peer teachers to
ask, respond and react to the teacher's questions and lessons the way they feel a student of
that age would respond. This technique enables the teachers who are sitting in for
students to have the opportunity to experience the teacher in a live situation, which in turn
provokes helpful feedback and criticism. During the videotape review process, the peer
teachers can pause certain sections to give pointers on better response techniques or show
examples of a satisfactory behavior.
Select Students:
Selecting students that are close in age to the full time students the teacher instructs provides
a real-life teaching scenario for the micro teaching activity. This technique enables critiquing
teachers and administrators to gauge the teacher's material delivery methods and reactions
more accurately than if the students were represented by fellow teachers. The disadvantage of
using students is that they do not have the appropriate knowledge to provide a large amount
of helpful feedback unless they are asked specific questions by administrators or teachers
to which they can then respond with their thoughts.
Use Various Recording Times:
Using various practice session times, no matter if teachers sit in as students or actual
students are used, helps administrators gain a better understanding of a teacher's skill
package. Start with one, five-minute micro teaching session where the teacher presents and
lectures on a single concept, and conduct one, fifteen-minute practice session where the
teacher delivers an entire lesson. The longer micro teaching approach displays class
beginning and ending capabilities, speaking skills, topic transition abilities, organization, and
various learning style competence. This scenario is also beneficial for the teacher because she
can fine-tune the various aspects of an entire lesson to provide optimal teaching practices and
meet the needs of a large student demographic.
Microteaching, a teacher training technique currently practiced worldwide, provides

teachers an opportunity to perk up their teaching skills by improving the various simple tasks
called teaching skills. With the proven success among the novice and seniors, microteaching
helps to promote real-time teaching experiences. The core skills of microteaching such as
presentation and reinforcement skills help the novice teachers to learn the art of teaching at
ease and to the maximum extent.
Forms of education
The impact of this technique has been widely seen in various forms of education such as
health sciences, life sciences, and other areas. The emerging changes in medical curricula
by the Medical Council of India and the role of medical teachers envisage the need of this
special training of teachers and monitoring of their skills for their continued efficient
performance at any age. The alleged limitations of microteaching can be minimized by
implementing this at the departmental level in several sequences. The author made
literature search of research and review articles in various educational databases, journals,
and books. From the reference list of published articles, books were also reviewed. This paper
presents an outline of the various phases of microteaching, core teaching skills,
implementation aspects, and the impact of microteaching on medical education.
Later in the 1980s, educators began to perceive the importance of computers as productivity
tools. The growing popularity of word processing, databases, spreadsheets, graphics
programs, and desktop publishing was enabling businesses to become more productive. So
students in classroom began word processing and using graphics packages and desktop
publishing programs to write with. This tool conception pervaded computer use according to
a 1993 study by Hadley and Sheingold that showed that well-informed teachers were
extensively using text processing tools (word processors), analytic and information tools
(especially databases and some spreadsheet use), and graphics tools (paint programs and
desktop publishing) along with instructional software (including problem-solving programs
along with drill and practice and tutorials).
The development of inexpensive multimedia computers and the eruption of the Internet in
the mid-1990s quickly changed the nature of educational computing. Communications tools
(e.g., e-mail and computer conferences) and multimedia, little used according to Hadley and
Sheingold, have dominated the role of technologies in the classroom ever since. But what are
the students producing? Too often, they are using the technology to reproduce what the
teacher or textbook told them or what they copy from the Internet.
Our conception of educational computing and technology use, described next, does not
conceive of technologies as teachers or repositories of information. Rather, we believe that,
in order to learn, students should teach the computer or use the technology to represent
what they know rather than memorizing what teachers and textbooks tell them. Technologies
provide rich and flexible media for representing what students know and what they are
learning. A great deal of research on computers and other technologies has shown that they
are no more effective at teaching students than teachers, but if we begin to think about
technologies as learning tools that students learn with, not from, then the nature of student
learning will change.
Learning with Technology
If schools are to foster meaningful learning, then the ways that we use technologies in
schools must change from technology-as-teacher to technology-as-partner in the learning
process. Before, we argued that students do not learn from technology but that
technologies can support productive
thinking and meaning making by students. That will happen when students learn with the
technology. But how do students learn with technologies? How can technologies become
intellectual partners with students? We assume the following:
• Technology is more than hardware. Technology consists also of the designs and
the environments that engage learners. Technology can also consist of any reliable
technique or method for engaging learning, such as cognitive learning strategies and
critical thinking skills.
• Learning technologies can be any environment or definable set of activities that engage
learners in active, constructive, intentional, authentic, and cooperative learning.
• Technologies are not conveyors or communicators of meaning. Nor should they
prescribe and control all of the learner interactions.
• Technologies support meaningful learning when they fulfill a learning need—when
interactions with technologies are learner initiated and learner controlled and when
interactions with the technologies are conceptually and intellectually engaging.
• Technologies should function as intellectual tool kits that enable learners to build
more meaningful personal interpretations and representations of the world. These
tool kits must support the intellectual functions that are required by a course of study.
• Learners and technologies should be intellectual partners, where the cognitive
responsibility for performance is distributed by the part of the partnership that performs it
better.
Q no.4 Compare the teacher education curriculum of United Kingdom and Pakistan?
The overall development status of every country depends upon the standard of education
prevalent across that country. It is an era of knowledge based economies, and countries failing
in education find it hard to catch up with the developed world. In other words a country's
economic and cultural future as well as its scientific and technological growth owe to the
academic standards being maintained by the teachers in its educational institutions. Thus
teachers' contributions are well acknowledged as builders of the nation and molders of
personalities. In fact the key player of every educational system is the teacher, who is
considered the backbone of the entire system all over the world, and a pivot around which
the whole education system revolves. Teacher is the major implementer of all
educational reforms at the grass root level. Teaching without doubt is considered one of the
very noble professions. It offers constant intellectual challenges, acknowledgement, respect
in the society and above all the opportunity to mould the personalities of a big majority of
youth. This centrality qualifies teachers to be the crucial position holders in creating impact on
all aspects of students' personalities. They are the teachers who bring about positive
behavioural changes in students by grooming and developing their personalities. That is why it
is necessary that they should be adequately equipped with skills and abilities that would enable
them to play an effective role in human development both from national and global
perspectives.
The Indian Education Commission 1964-66, as observed by Sheikh M.A (1998)[1] had
ranked the quality and competence of the teachers as the most important factor
determining the quality of education significantly contributing to the national development.
Nothing is more important than securing a sufficient supply of high quality recruits to the
teaching profession, providing them with the best possible professional preparation and creating
satisfactory conditions of work in which they can be fully effective.” However, this central
position, demands great care and attention in the education and training of teachers, who
develop and enable students meet effectively the challenges of present and future.
Ascertaining the effectiveness of these trainings asks for the analysis of teacher education
programs in the social context of every country socio economic, cultural and historic
factors substantially influence its nature and value.
Concept of Teacher Education
Teacher education is a discipline and sub sector of education with its distinct pre service and in
service forms. It equips prospective and in service teachers with information, knowledge and
pedagogical skills to help reform their attitudes and behaviour to the profession of education.
The key objective is to facilitate the transfer of knowledge (cognitive, affective and
psychomotor) to students and to build their character and personalities. In other words
teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with
the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively
in the school and classroom. (Wikipedia, 09) [2] According to Sheikh M.A (1998), teacher
education encompasses acquiring all that knowledge, skills and abilities
which are relevant to the life of a “teacher as a teacher” It reshapes the attitudes, remodels the
habits, and develops the personalities of teachers.
Need for Teacher Education
Teachers' general education and professional training both require utmost care and
attention, as whatever is acquired by them is transferred to their students with high multiple
effects. The present has witnessed and is still experiencing a rapidly but positively changing
scenario of processes and procedures of teacher training. New innovative methods are
continuously being added to the already practiced traditional pedagogical techniques.
Acquainting with these developments to the point of mastery is needed for the promotion
and maintenance of good teaching learning standards. Good quality teacher education
about these key elements paves the way of the development of the education system in
the long run.
Teachers are the layers of the foundations of future citizens, hence need to be educated with
futuristic perspective, so that they can develop the personalities of their students, not only
as per present requirements but also for the years to come, accommodating the new trends
from the global outlook. This is very important as teacher is one of the key agents of change
in all communities and a service provider as per needs of the future. Changes are taking
place not only at national but also at international level. With every passing day distances
are shrinking and communities are coming closer to each other affecting each other's practices
of life.
Purpose of Teacher Education
The purpose of teacher education primarily is to equip prospective teachers not only with
suitable aptitudes for teaching but also with appropriate skills and abilities required to make
them effective and efficient professionals. Through different theoretical and practical
activities, they are helped to understand not only the philosophical, psychological, and
sociological basis of teaching, but also the relationship of education with the society and its
values through teaching and learning processes.
The process of formal teacher education can help the prospective teachers minimize the
troubles and save the students from the wastages of hit and trial. Appropriately rendered
teacher education, provides ample opportunities to would be teachers to understand the
nature of teaching; to envisage responsibilities of a teacher; to discover that to be a teacher is
much more than learning by heart the philosophies and theories of learning; and to
comprehend the practical implications of the pedagogical strategies. It is learnt that the
profession of teaching is in fact facilitating the acquisition and retention of knowledge, values,
skills and right attitudes for successful life that can initiate and promote positive changes in the
society.
Keeping this in view teacher education, through teacher-preparatory years focuses on the
development of abilities and skills that would not only make them capable teachers but will
enable them to discharge duties effectively, take initiatives, motivate students and facilitate
learning. With the belief that practice makes one perfect, students during teacher
education phase are given the opportunity to teach or instruct and receive constant guidance
and encouragement during practical delivery, in order to strengthen good habits and to
overcome the pedagogical weaknesses.
Phases of Teacher Education
Farrant, J. S. (1990)[3], observed that since the dawn of the twenty first century teacher
education in developed countries remained divided into three phases:
1) Initial Teacher Education
2) Induction
3) Continuing Teacher Education
1) Initial teacher training / education
This education pertains to the training that is undertaken before formally starting the
teaching profession. It is a pre-service course done before entering the classroom as a fully
responsible teacher. It is usually provided in education colleges and education departments
of universities where the student teachers are introduced to the knowledge and skills needed
to be professional teachers. The students are formally taught the important components of this
profession including aims of education, history of education, perspectives of education,
modern approaches to learning, assessment and evaluation of learning and basics of
curriculum development, educational psychology, philosophy and pedagogy. It also provides
first hand experience of the practical aspects of the teaching profession. It usually takes a year
or so and culminates into a certificate or a degree.
2) Induction
This informal phase begins when a student teacher changes from being a part time, visiting
student teacher to a full time adequately responsible professional. Basically induction refers to
the process of providing on the job guidance and support to the teachers during the first few
months of teaching or the first year of the professional career. In countries like UK, during
induction the teacher is on probation, and receives guidance and supervision formally by the
teacher-tutor, and informally from all other colleagues & head teacher. The work load during
this phase of education is reduced in order to provide time and opportunity for guidance,
reflection and grooming. This is a transitional phase from being a student to being a full time
teacher.
3) Teachers' continuous professional development
It is an in-service process for professional refinement of practicing teachers. It is a life long

process in which efforts are made to improve and polish up the potentials of the teachers. It
includes professional trainings like workshops, short courses and seminars. This is usually
formally arranged by good schools or can be self directed through reading of professional
books, discussions with colleagues, benefiting from on line courses, or attending training
workshops, conferences, and symposiums.
With the passage of time, all institutions have started to value in service training of teachers
more and more; and are regularly arranging training programs of different durations for their
teachers. These trainings are sometimes general in nature for the improvement of the overall
teaching methodologies, and sometimes focused on improving specific subject-teaching
skills, enabling teachers master innovative concepts recently incorporated in the existing
curriculum. Such in service trainings are usually taken up in anticipation for the expected
promotions.
Usefulness of Comparing Teacher Education Systems
With advancement in technology and with communication explosion, the geographical

distances are shrinking and people are coming closer to each other. The similarities
caused by science and technology are overpowering the differences resulting from cultural
diversities. The fact suggested by increasing similarities is that different nations of the world--
which looks like a global village now, can learn a lot from each others' experiences and
progress to save time, energy and resources required for the ‘try and learn' activities. The
knowledge about the successes and failures of other systems can be very awakening and
beneficial in comprehending one's own educational problems. The backwardness or
advancement of one's own system can be ascertained only through analytical
comparison, particularly with those of the economically and educationally advanced countries.
In spite of increased investment in education sector, Pakistan has not yet achieved its target
of UPE (Universal Primary Education) set in 1960 that was to be achieved by 1980. Analysis of
the educational status of Pakistan reveals that a reasonable progress has been made by it since
independence. At that time not even a million students were studying in schools, whereas
now more than twelve million children are in schools. But at the same time due to a very
high population growth rate, more than twelve million school age children are out of school,
doing jobs or just doing nothing. The recent comparisons with the educational situation in
China and India show that Pakistan is still far behind than the more thickly populated
neighbouring countries, where China with literacy rate of 90% and India with 65% are
substantially ahead of Pakistan. The situation of full enrollment which is a far cry is
further aggravated by an alarmingly high rate of dropouts. Female literacy rate is abysmally
low, and education of females and rural population at all levels is much underrepresented.
Madrassahs / Madaris: (Religious Schools)
The madaris, operating simultaneously with regular schools are fewer in number as compared
to the public and private schools. These provide Islamic education through Urdu and Arabic as
languages of Instruction. The key features of the curriculum are the study of the Holy Quran
and Hadith (teachings of the prophet Muhammad p.b.u.h). Enrollment and boarding &
lodging facilities are mostly free of charge, although in some cases they receive grants from
the federal government.
The primary level institutions called maktabs, are usually attachments of mosques, and
provide basic Islamic education focusing on the reading and learning the holy Quran by
heart. Secondary school madrasahs deal with the higher level of Islamic education. For better
standards of education and in order to integrate the Islamic and formal education systems, the
formal schools curriculum of English, mathematics, general science and computer Science are
now studied compulsorily at all madaris. Madrasahs are largely self-governing and
independent. The official regulatory and certificates/Sanads awarding bodies include ‘Jamea-
tus Safiya' ‘Wafaq-ul-Madaris', and ‘Tanzeem-ul-Madaris'. Different madrasah levels
correspond to the formal system, like ‘Tajweed wa Qiraat Ibtidaya' is equal to primary
schooling, ‘Mutawassita' is at par with Middle level, ‘Saniya Aama' is equated with Secondary
School Certificate, and ‘Saniya Khasa' to the Higher Secondary School Certificate, after which
the students are eligible to continue higher education at Madrasah or at Universities of the
formal sector.
Vocational / Technical Secondary Education
Nearly all vocational schools run both certificate and diploma programmes. The duration of
certificate courses is one year and that of diplomas is two years, in various trades at the
secondary level (Grades IX and X) leading to the Secondary School Certificate in technical
education; qualifying students to continue their education at Technical Institutes of higher
education.
Higher Education
At the time of partition in 1947 the country had only one University, the Punjab University.
Now as of 2008-2009 Pakistan, according to Higher Education Commission of Pakistan
(HEC), there are 124 recognized Universities in the country, 68 of these universities are public
sector universities and 56 are from the private sector. The guidelines for charter and
operations of Universities are issued by the HEC. For standardization, all degree-granting
higher education programmes are assessed by HEC. With English as medium of Instruction the
Higher Secondary School Certificate, & a pass in the entry test, are the essential pre requisites
for admission to the study at the university.
University Higher Education
Stage I: A Bachelor's Degree is awarded after two years of formal education and with
honours after three years of fulltime study in humanities, sciences or commerce. Four years
of formal education is required for Bachelor's degrees in engineering, pharmacy & computer
science, whereas five years are needed for Bachelor's in medicine.
Stage II: Two years of study after the bachelor's degree and one year after the honor's
bachelor's degree leads to the acquisition of Master's Degree
Stage III: A minimum of four to five years of study beyond master's degree leads to the
doctoral degree. But the duration of study is five to seven years for programmes like the
Doctor of Literature (DLitt), Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Law (LLD).
Higher Education (Non University)
Polytechnics, technical and commercial institutes and colleges provide non-university higher
education comprising programmes of two or three years leading to certificates and diplomas in
commercial and technical fields, awarded by Provincial Boards of Technical Education.
Teacher Education Programs at Pakistan
Primary School Teachers
Teacher training at the post secondary level takes place in Regional Institutes of Teacher
Education (RITE), and at the Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad for a one-year
program known as the Primary Teaching Certificate. In addition, prospective teachers are also
prepared at the private sector institutions affiliated or enlisted with universities of public or
private sector.
Secondary School Teachers
Government training institutes of education and different affiliated colleges in private

sector train teachers for the secondary school level. They are awarded a Certificate of
Teaching (CT) for one year study after passing the examination of Higher Secondary School
Certificate.
Teacher Education at Universities
The prospective teachers aspiring to teach at the higher secondary school level study for one
year at the Education Colleges for the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, after two-year
bachelor's of Arts or Science (BA/BSc) education. Teachers possessing B.Ed degree are eligible
to teach at the Secondary school level. Masters of Education (M.Ed) is a one year university
education after completion of B.Ed.
Q no.5 Discuss the importance of establishment of partnership between the

teachers training institutions of Pakistan.
No system of education is above the level of its teachers. Teachers play a crucial role in the
system of education. It is important that these teachers are equipped with proper knowledge,
skills and attitudes in carrying out the goals of education and fulfilling their obligations.
Teachers training have certain levels which correspond with the general education ability
of the teachers. There are three levels of teachers training.
Pakistan has an estimated population of 145 million and education remains inequitably
distributed among various income groups and regions in the country. Literacy and
participation rates are below those in other South Asian countries with similar level of
economic development. Access of education to children of relevant age group is still
inadequate. Educational institutions lack physical facilities. The target of minimum essential
requirement of competencies for quality education has not yet been achieved. Educational
institutions face shortage of qualified and motivated teachers, especially female teachers. Due
to financial constraints and want of managerial capacity education targets remained
unaccomplished.
Primary education has always been an important concern for society and the government.
Universal literacy and the success of secondary and post-secondary education depend on
how extensive and efficient the primary education system of a country is. Primary education
is viewed as a service that must be provided to the populace, irrespective of affordability, and
it is generally considered to be the responsibility of the state to deliver primary education.
The public sector provision of primary education, like most other services delivered by the
public sector, suffers from severe deficiencies in coverage, effectiveness and quality.
There has been a paradigm shift in the development strategy and policy in Pakistan to
ensure improved access to physical assets, education, vocational skills, training and other
education services. Pakistan has deepened its commitment to partnerships with civil society
organizations by placing an emphasis on working with a wider spectrum of civil society
organizations including International and National Development NGOs through global
partnerships to help deliver basic social services. Civil society organizations have become
critical allies in designing innovative operations, implementing solution and monitoring
results.
Many NGOs provide primary education directly in neglected areas and they also provide support
to the public and private sectors in various areas such as teacher training, curriculum
development and informal education. Some of these interventions have the potential to alter
the landscape of primary
education provision in the country. The later chapters of this study will look at these
opportunities in more detail.
Issues, Risks, Problems, Questions
Although successive governments have announced various programmes to promote

literacy, but education in Pakistan faces a number of severe constraints which not only
prevent it from reaching 100% enrolment, but also leads to high dropout rates and the
provision of low quality education. Research in the last few years, suggests a substantial
growth in the private sector both at the primary level of education as well as at other levels.
This growth in the private sector reflects, in part, a wider paradigm shift within policymaking
circles in Pakistan. Under the influence of recent decentralization in the country and the
mounting recognition of the importance of civil society, there is a growing belief that the
private sector is capable of providing social services that were traditionally associated with the
government.
In the last decade and a half, the private sector has made major inroads in improving the
provision of primary education. Here we see a range of schools, from the elite English medium
institutions charging very high tuition fees, to the local private schools set up in houses
which charge nominal fees. The remaining percentage of the private schools is made up of NGO
and not-for-profit schools.
There is a growing consensus in Pakistan that public-private partnerships may

address key shortcomings within the country’s public service-delivery system. More
specifically, it has been noted that such partnerships would be better able to address issues of
access, equity and quality in primary education. It is also important to note the cautionary
tone of many NGO managers who are optimistic about the current phase of cooperation with
the government but who, at the same time, insist that the private sector cannot and should not
completely take on the role of the government.
Completion of this training
Teachers for the primary schools are trained, and must have passed Secondary School
examination. They are provided one year training. After completion of this training they are
awarded a certificate called Primary Teacher’s certificate (PTC). Those who possess FA/F.Sc
certificate are given one year training and awarded a certificate called Certificate in Education
(CT).
PTC and CT training is provided by the Government Colleges of Elementary Education (GCEE).
There are separate elementary Colleges of Education for girls and boys who have been
established at all the district headquarters within the country.
Those who possess BA/.Sc degrees are provided one year training called “Bachelor of
Education” (B.Ed) at the Government Colleges of Education. These colleges are at a few
selected places in each province of the country. Those who further want to specialize in the
subject of education undergo one year course called Master in Education (M.Ed). This course is
conducted by the Colleges of Education and in the Institutes of Education in the Universities.
Teachers also do M.Phil and Ph.D in Education from the universities. Those who possess M.Ed
or M.Phil teach in the Colleges of Education. At the University level Ph.Ds are employed to
train teachers.
Allama Iqbal Open University has started teacher training courses through its distance
education system for those students who cannot afford to attend formal regular courses in the
teacher training institutions. National Education policy (1998-2011) provides for modernizing
the courses in teachers training. Accordingly, the duration and period of training at all levels
of training is being increased, including better salaries for the teachers.
There are few problems in the teacher-training programme which include non -availability of
qualified teaching faculty for the Colleges of Education, quality training programmes, financial
problems of the Training Institutions, lack of quality material for training and lack of effective
system of management and supervision. But the most serious problem is that the teachers do
not use those teaching skills and methods in their classes which were taught to them in the
training institutions.
Q.1 DEFINE DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM. CRITICALLY ANALYSE THE
PROCESS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING IN PAKISTAN. (20)
Answer:-
DIFFERENT CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM CONCEPT
1: Curriculum is such “permanent” subjects as grammar, reading, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, and
the greatest books of the Western world that best embody essential knowledge.
Concept 2: Curriculum is those subjects that are most useful for living in contemporary society.
Concept 3: Curriculum is all planned learnings for which the school is responsible.
Concept 4: Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the school.
Concept 5: Curriculum is the totality of learning experiences provided to students so that they can
attain general skills and knowledge at a variety of learning sites.
Concept 6: Curriculum is what the student constructs from working with the computer and its various
networks, such as the Internet.
Concept 7: Curriculum is the questioning of authority and the searching for complex views of human
situations.
Concept 8: Curriculum is all the experiences that learners have in the course of living.
Critically Analyze the Process of Curriculum Planning in Pakistan
Education plays a vital role in nation building. Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the
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national cohesion, integration and preservation of the ideological foundation of the states.
RESPONSIBILITIES
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Federal Ministry of Education is responsible in making of:-
Curriculum
Syllabus
Planning
Policy
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Education standards
NATIONAL BUREAU OF CURRICULUM AND TEXTBOOKS (NBTC)
Also known as curriculum wing.
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Supervise curriculum and textbooks.

Approves and maintain curriculum standards from the primary to the higher secondary levels
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Provincial curriculum Centre Every province has a provincial curriculum centre

To ensure provincial collaboration.
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Involve in all activities falling within the purview of the federation.

Each Province has its own Provincial Textbook Board (PTTB)
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PTTBs are responsible for:-

Preparing
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Publishing
Stocking
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Distributing
Marketing school textbooks
Curriculum Design and Development Process
Curriculum Design and Development
Evolution of curriculum objectives.
Development of scheme of studies.
Development of syllabus of each subject.
Development of textbook, instructional material.
Approval of textual material.
Teacher training.
DEVELOPING OBJECTIVES
Objectives are derived from
Recommendation of the National Education Policy
National Level Seminars
Forums of research studies
Inter Board Committee of Chairmen
NBCT prepares the draft of objectives.
Circulated in provincial institutions responsible for curriculum development.
Objectives are finalized.
Translated to the specific teaching objectives
FACTORS CONSIDERED IN FINALIZING THE OBJECTIVES

Be precise
Assist in the selection of teaching strategy
Produce a designated behavior pattern
Enables teachers to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of learning.
THE STUDIES SCHEME

It is based on three key factors:
The national education policy
Market demand
Global issues
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Task work in this area is undertaken with the participation of:
Provincial government Research organizations and experts
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Feedback of the IBCC
DEVELOPMENT OF SYLLABI
It is based on objectives and scheme of study.
Subject specific syllabi is prepared in consultation with:
Subject expert
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Psychologist
Serving teacher
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SYLLABI MUST SATISFY THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS:-

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Based on the needs of learner.

Take into account the existing knowledge and the environmental experience of the learner.
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The development level of the learner is considered in the cognitive, effectiveness and psycho-motor
domain.
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Content should be focused on attaining the objectives.
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT
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Provincial Text Book Boards (PTBB) are responsible for the development of the text-books
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according to the approved syllabi.
HOW TEXTBOOK IS DEVELOPED?

Establish a list of text book writers.
Invitation are sent to the writers to submit the material within the syllabus parameter.
Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
The selected material is transformed into a textbook.
REVIEW THE APPROVAL

National review committee comprises on five or six members:
At least one expert form the syllabus Formulation Committee.
Two subject experts.
Two school teachers
TEXTBOOKS REVIEW PARAMETER

The books truly reflects the curriculum.
It meets the objectives stated in the curriculum.
Book does not contain any material repugnant to Islamic and Pakistani ideology.
In case of approval, textbook is sent for publishing and distribution.
In case of objection, complaints are relayed with revision recommendations.
TEACHER TRAINING:-
Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the provincial government.
It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher’s guide.
In some cases assistance in the training of the masters trainers is provided to provincial government.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PITFALLS:-

There are several obstacles affecting the quality and effectiveness of curriculum development
process in
Pakistan.
Lack of subject area expert.
Textbook often do not reflect the curriculum Lack of follow-up of actual curriculum implementation in
classroom practice. Curriculum often different from the official curriculum documentation
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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT AT HIGHER EDUCATION LEVEL
Introduction
In 1973’s constitution, Government placed education on the concurrent list.
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Federal Government took the responsibility to determine the curriculum text boards, policy, planning
and standards of education
HIGHER EDUCATION COMMISSION:-

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In December, 1976 Federal Government appointed University Grant commission (now HEC) as the
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competent authority to look after the curriculum revision work at bachelor level and onwards It aR6
look after the degrees, certificates and diplomas awarded by degree colleges, universities and other
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institutions of HEC.
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PROCEDURE TO REVIEW/ REVISE CURRICULUM:-

In 45th meeting of Vice-Chancellor’s Committee it’s recommended that the UGC should review the
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curriculum of a particular discipline after every three years. HEC adopted a procedure to review/
revise curriculum In ensure the quality of the updated curricula.
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STEPS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM REVIEW/REVISION PROCESS

PHASE-I Curricula under consideration.
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PHASE — II Circulation of the draft curriculum

PHASE-I Step — I Constitution of National Curriculum Revision Committee (NCRC) in the subject.
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The Vice-Chancellors of all public and private sector universities, R&D organizations, Directorate of
colleges and industries in relation to the subject under consideration, are requested to nominate their
representatives, for appointment of National Curriculum Review Committee (NCRC).
Step —II
Assessment/Analysis of the existing Curriculum
The existing curricula is circulated amongst the members of NCRC to discuss it with their colleagues
and bring collective proposals for review and revision of existing curricula in relation to objectives (of
teaching the subject).
Scheme of studies
Course-content
Weight age
Reading materials
Teaching strategies
Methods of evaluation.
In this way participation of maximum number of subject experts is ensured
Step — III
NCRC meeting-I:
Draft preparation.
The first meeting of the NCRC is organized at the HEC Headquarter Islamabad or one of its
Regional Centers at Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi.
Other universities at different places may also be chosen to serve the purpose.
The meeting draft of the revised curricula, after detail discussion and deliberation on the proposals
prepared by the NCRC members.
PHASE — II
Circulation Of The Draft Curriculum
Step — IV
Appraisal of the first draft.
The first draft prepared is circulated among the universities, institutions and organization and is
viewed for its further improvement. The view/recommendations collected on the draft curriculum
were deliberated upon to design and finalize the curriculum of specific subject of study in a final
meeting.
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Step — V
NCRC meeting-II: Finalization of draft The second meeting of the NCRC is held to finalize the draft
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of the revised curriculum in the light of comments/suggestions/recommendations received from the
college and university teachers and institutions all over the country. The meeting would again take 3
days to finalize a curriculum. The draft so finalized support expertise of all faculty members of the
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subject under consideration, who are directly or indirectly involved in this process.
Step VI:-
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Approval of the revised curricula by the Vice-Chancellors’ Committee: The final draft curriculum is
submitted to the Vice-Chancellors’ Committee for approval. Implementation the curricula designed is
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printed and sent to universities/institutions for its adoption/implementation after the approval of the
Competent Authority.
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Q.2 DISCUSS IN DETAIL THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS OF

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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE SUB-CONTINENT OF INDO-

PAK. (20)
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ANSWER:
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The process of curriculum development is facing serious issues in Pakistan. These issues are
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interference of bureaucrats, the absence of involvement of school teachers etc. Experts sitting in
curriculum development boards do not use academic resources properly for revising outdated
sections of school textbooks. EAST offers innovative solutions for meeting the needs of curriculum
development in Pakistan.
WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
While thinking about education, the most important idea that comes to mind is curriculum.
Curriculum is a channel that school administration needs for giving educational and life skills to
students. However, unluckily, in Pakistani context, this idea is highly misunderstood due to which
students do not get enriched educational experience in schools.
CURRICULUM DOES NOT CHANGE IN PAKISTAN

Ghulam Haider in his article, “Process of Curriculum Development in Pakistan,” says that curriculum
is not a static process, but it is a dynamic exercise that must undergo changes according to society’s
new demands. In Pakistan, curriculum development is a static process. There are many reasons for
the failure in developing proper curriculum. Some of them are discussed below.
ISSUES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
1. CURRICULUM IS OUTDATED:- Firstly, the curriculum is outdated, which does not meet the local
needs of Pakistani society. Raja Omer Shabbir in his article, “The curriculum problems,” notes that
our present generation is learning the same – knowledge that previous two generations have learnt.
As students from different parts of the world get difficult mathematical and scientific knowledge by
activity-based learning, our students are forced to know scientific concepts through cramming. For
example, in school textbooks of Mathematics at primary level, the concepts of shapes in geometry
lessons are not written correctly. One example is of sphere and circle. Most of the teachers do not
know that a sphere is a solid shape and a circle is a flat shape. Many teachers teach students that
the shape of sun is a circle and not a sphere. It is sad situation that experts designing school
textbooks of mathematics at primary level do not pay attention to include the concept of solid and flat
shapes together.
2. INVOLVEMENT OF GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS:- Secondly, both Haider and Shabbir note that
involvement of government officers in the development of Pakistani curriculum is proving harmful to
our education system. Haider suggests that the current process of curriculum development is based
on a uniform policy for the whole country that has its particular aims and goals, but he thinks that it is
not possible to apply national educational policy to different regions of the country with equality. For
example, there are many underdeveloped areas of Pakistan, where parents do not have adequate
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resources to send their children to schools. The drop-out rate from schools is high, because parents
cannot afford the expense of education easily. Hence, a new educational policy has to be made by
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government officers for poor students, so that their problems of education can be solved. One way of
doing this is to build schools, where students are allowed to study in evening time, and where books
having basic knowledge about core subjects such as English, Mathematics, Science, Urdu and Islam
are taught by trained teachers. o.
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3. LACK OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH:- Thirdly, the problem that the process of curriculum
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development faces in Pakistan is improper academic research for writing school textbooks. Haider
points out those experts sitting in the curriculum development boards use materials of their own
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choice for instruction in schools. He says that most of the times the chosen content is not up to the
mark. While going through textbooks approved by several board systems in the country, it becomes
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clear that no suitable research/evaluation system is created to revise curriculum. For example, in
computer books of Class 9th, students still learn serial and parallel ports. However, it is noted that all
electronic devices created in present day are connected with computers by USB port.
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4. ABSENCE OF SCHOOL TEACHERS’ INVOLVEMENT:- Fourthly, it is seen that the academic

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experience of teachers from different schools is also not considered in designing and revising school
curriculum. Daniel Tanner and Laurel N. Tanner in their book, “Curriculum Development: Theory into
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Practice,” suggest that without intelligent participation of school teachers, meaningful curriculum
development will not be achieved. Tanner and Tanner say that teachers, who are involved in
bringing out educational change, accept and adopt the new ideas more quickly than those teachers
who are not involved in carrying out change. Useful evidence suggests that in countries where well-
educated teachers were not involved in the curriculum development process, they did not accept
new changes in school textbooks.
RESULT OF WEAK ACADEMIC SKILLS OF RESEARCHERS:-

With lack of academic skills in researchers responsible for designing curriculum for schools, the
most important feature of curriculum, i.e. content suffers a lot. Students follow rote-learning process,
because the content of their books does not match to their educational skills. In order to make
students problem-solvers, Shabbir argues that our books must contain questions that relate to
problems we face in our daily life. By answering those questions, students will learn to solve issues
in difficult situations. For example, while studying the concept of speed in science, students must be
given questions related to real-life examples of speed such as speed of a car etc., so that they know
the application of the
Concept.
EAST’S CONTRIBUTION TO SOLVING CURRICULUM PROBLEMS

EAST has developed a curriculum that provides activity-based learning to students and gives
problem-solving skills to them. For instance, our sciences books contain explore and project
activities, where students are given a flavor of using scientific knowledge in their routine life.
Q.3 WHAT ARE VARIOUS FOUNDATION OF CURRICULUM? HOW

DOES CULTURE AND SOCIETY INFLUENCE CURRICULUM? JUSTIFY
YOUR VIEWPOINT WITH EXAMPLES. (20)
Answer:-
Foundations of Curriculum Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum
developers. In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum. The curriculum
reflects the society and culture of a country and this is the desire of a society that their children
should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and educational
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institutional are the proper way to impart these skill. This duty of teacher and school to discipline the
young of the society and provide them the set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs,
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knowledge and information of the society provide foundation in the formation of curriculum
PHILOSOPHICAL/ IDEOLOGICAL FOUNDATION:-

It is concerned with beliefs. What is real — ONTOLOGY
What is true — EPISTEMOLOGY
What is good — AXIOLOGY
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Philosophy means the love of wisdom, it search for truth, not simple truth, It search for eternal truth,
reality and general principles of life. Curriculum help in the practical use of knowledge in real life
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situations and understanding realities and ideas of life and this world that why curriculum is called
the dynamic side of philosophy.
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Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior of the students and philosophy help in the
process of finding new ways and basis for teachers and curriculum planner to modify their behavior.
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PHILOSOPHICAL/ IDEOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS ON CURRICULUM

Philosophy and ideology has direct effect in curriculum planning because it guides the curriculum
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planner in the selection of the objectives and. As it provides guidelines in the selection of objectives,
Learning experiences and content of the curriculum, and how to evaluate the curriculum, learning
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experiences and achievements of the students.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS:-
Psychological foundation is based on the individual differences, every student has its own unique
personality and they have differences in their leering and skills. They are different in nature so they
can’t be treated alike in teaching learning process, some may be fast learner while other slow.
Therefore the curriculum should be based on the above facts, and it should be design to support the
capacity and potentialities of all the students.
SOCIO CULTURAL FOUNDATION:-

According to Murray print (1993). The society and culture exercise massive powers on the formation
curriculum and the reason behind that it was society who created schooling to safeguard the survival
of their cultural heritage, and survival of their species. The purpose of curriculum planner and
developers to translate traditional norms, philosophies, ethics, knowledge and attitudes in the
objectives of curriculum, the content, learning processes and the evaluation of elements of the
curriculum.
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS
It includes
1. Role of curriculum in achievements of nations.
2. Guides future plans
3. Factors that influence development of nation e.g. unity
4. Eliminates the useless traditions.
ROLE OF THE HISTORY OF CURRICULUM IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM:-

History of the curriculum plays a very important role in the development of the nation. It takes long
and tedious time to formulate a good curriculum which represents the need of the society and the
experiences of the past. The history of the curriculum tell the curriculum planner how to develop and
modify the curriculum, what to teach and what should be the core material of the subjects, what
objectives they want to achieve through the curriculum.
HISTORY HELPS IN THE ELIMINATIONS OF USELESS TRADITIONS:-

The history of education tells the curriculum developer what not to include in the curriculum. What of
lessons can bring no good to the curriculum and what type of contents material are good for the
teaching learning process, so history of the curriculum eliminate all those useless traditions from the
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modern curriculum and help the developer to incorporate what is needed for the curriculum.
According to Ghazali, there are four categories of Knowledge;
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1. Prophetic
2. Rulers
3. Philosophers/scholars
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4. Preachers Curriculum: Ghazali strongly criticizes the curriculum of his time. He raises the basic
question of criteria for selection of subject matter for curriculum. He studied the various curriculums
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in his times and reached the following conclusions:
• More time is spent on religious education and worldly education is completely ignores.
• Worldly education is equally important.
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• While teaching religious education, a great number of differences arise among the teachers, which
result in mudslinging on each other
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METHODS OF TEACHING AND TECHNIQUES:- AGAISNT AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 1 CODE

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8603 AUTUMN 2016

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Ghazali has recommended the following teaching methods and techniques, which are based on
psychological principles. These methods and techniques are widely used and educators all over the
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world agree with their usefulness and today they are the foundation of curriculum development
process.
• Teaching of lessons to be based on previous knowledge and experience of the students.
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• Teachers should simplify the difficult concepts by stories, tales etc. otherwise his teaching will not
be effective
MOVE FROM SIMPLE TO COMPLEX:-

This is a very important principle of today curriculum which was presented by Ghazali at those times.
History of curriculum laid down the basic foundation of curriculum development
PROPER PLANNING:-
Ghazali stresses the importance of planning and advises that teachers should do his preparation
before teaching to make it effective
ABILITIES OF STUDENTS:-
Ghazali stresses that while teaching the abilities of students should be kept in mind. Concepts,
which are above the mental level of the students, will not make the teaching effective. Today in
modern curriculum teachers are asked to keep in mind the individual differences.
Economical Foundations It focuses on:-
• Job or market oriented curriculum
• Skill learning
The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the vocational aspect of the
curriculum. The economic condition of a nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country,
because the stakeholder of the education wants to employ such a curriculum which help them to
build their economy and the people have better jobs when they finish their schooling. Here are some
economical factor which influence the curriculum development process
ECONOMIC FACTORS
1:- ALLOCATION OF FUNDS:-
The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because without proper funding one can’t
achieve the outcome of a good curriculum. It is the financial aspect of a country which guide them to
adopt which type of curriculum, for example activity base or learner center curriculum need more
money in the process of the implementation of the curriculum then subject matter curriculum
LACK OF SKILLED MANPOWER:-

The lack of skilled manpower due to financial restrains, without proper financial support it is hard to
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train the people to support the teaching learning process. Only through proper funding and the
establishment of training institutions for teachers and support staff.
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LACK OF LABS DUE TO FINANCIAL PROBLEMS:-
The lack of labs and libraries also affect the curriculum development process because without
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proper computer labs in cities and villages one can’t implement computer education curriculum all
over the country. In the same way without proper libraries in all school one can’t implement a
curriculum which needs supporting or reference books.
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First, this line of thinking assumes that racial or ethnic history, in conjunction with cultural traditions,
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is an already-known entity among the parents of school-aged children, wrongly presuming that all
families have had access to a certain level of education and have been given access to this
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information. Given that there are indeed families who have not had the privilege of an adequate
education that informs them of the rich history that exists in relation to their race or ethnicity, the
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banning of ethnic studies in schools only further oppresses these populations.
Secondly, what this thinking does not recognize is that schools can act as spaces in which students’
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cultural identities are shaped as well. Separating a student’s racial or ethnic history from school
curricula sends the wrong messages: that it is not worthy of being studied in a school setting, or that
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it is inherently separate from US history, both of which are ultimately debilitating for the students
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whose racial or ethnic histories are being erased. Including racial or ethnic histories into social
studies lesson plans or integrating culture into project-based learning plans can be beneficial both
for the student who has little knowledge of their own racial or ethnic history and for the student who
knows plenty. For students who are just learning about their own racial or ethnic history, the
inclusion of lessons that pertain specifically to their own racial or ethnic history will make them feel
as though their past experiences are valid and valuable to the classroom as a whole. For students
who are already knowledgeable about their own racial or ethnic history, the opportunities that they
will have to contribute during lesson plans that relate to their own cultural traditions or history will
make them feel important in knowing that they are aiding in the creation of knowledge in the
classroom. Quite the opposite of creating divisions, the inclusion of culture in school curricula will
create a space in which there will be mutual understanding and appreciation for different cultures.
The current ban only furthers marginalization.
The banning of ethnic studies from schools brings into question the role of education. What is the
purpose of schooling? Is it solely meant to create a competent future workforce? Should the focus
be solely to have children reach proficiency in certain key subject areas, as determined by
standardized testing, or are we looking for education to provide children with a holistic set of skills? I
always thought that empowerment was one of the most valuable products of education.
Q.4 EXPLAIN THE ESSENTIALS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT. IDENTIFY DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM. (20)
ANSWER:-
A conceptual framework provides boundaries within which facts, concepts, theories, and propositions
from three theoretical sources interact with clarity, coherence, and consistency. From the framework
objectives are derived. The framework gives direction to the curriculum design. Finally, the conceptual
framework serves as a background against which objectives can be tested. A conceptual framework for
curriculum encourages systematic curriculum evaluation that will eventually allow us to more accurately
describe, explain, predict, and control the work of curriculum.
Curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a blueprint which leads the
teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As a result, authorities have to design it in such a
way that it could lead the teacher and the learner meet the desired learning outcomes. The four
components of the curriculum are:-
1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
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3. Curriculum Experience
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4. Curriculum Evaluation
These four components of the curriculum are essential. These are interrelated to each other. Each of
these has a connection to one another.
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Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”, the subject matter/content: what
subject matter is to be included, the learning experience” what instructional strategies, resources and
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activities will be employed, and the evaluation approaches, while curriculum evaluation is” what methods
and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.
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The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture what goals are
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to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and objectives. Further, it clearly defines
the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon and try what to drive at. In the same manner,
curriculum has a content. In here, it contains information to be learned in school. It is an element or a
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medium through which the objectives are accomplished.

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A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized knowledge in distilled form to a
new generation of young learners.
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The traditional sources of what is taught and learned in school is precisely the foundation of knowledge,
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therefore, the sciences and humanities provide the basis of selecting the content of school learning. In
organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and continuity form a sound
content.
For the third component, the curriculum experience, instructional strategies and methods are the core of
the curriculum. These instructional strategies and methods will put into action the goals and use of the
content in order to produce an outcome. These would convert the written curriculum to instruction.
Moreover, mastery is the function of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher
supervision.
For the fourth component, the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective curriculum. It identifies
the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the curriculum. In summary, the
components of a curriculum are distinct but interrelated to each other. These four components should be
always present in a curriculum. I could say that these are essential ingredients to have an effective
curriculum.
For example, in a curriculum, evaluation is also important so one could assess whether the objectives
and aims have been meet or if not, he could employ another strategy which will really work out.
Curriculum experience could not be effective if the content is not clearly defined. The aims, goals and
directions serve as the anchor of the learning journey, the content or subject matter serve as the meat of
the educational journey, curriculum experience serves as the hands —on exposure to the real spectrum
of learning and finally the curriculum evaluation serves as the barometer as to how far had the learners
understood on the educational journey.
Q.5 DEFINE THE CONCEPTS OF AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF CURRICULUM. EVALUATE
DIFFERENT MODELS OF OBJECTIVES. IDENTIFY THE SUITABLE MODEL FOR PAKISTAN AND
WHY. (20)
ANSWER:
AIMS:-
Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action. Aims are usually written
in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate, and these are not directly
measurable. Aims may serve as organizing principles of educational direction for more than one grade.
Indeed these organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for entire
programs, subject areas or the district.
Example: Students will understand and become proficient at identifying the different types of spoken
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English.
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GOALS:-
Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims. Goals too may
encompass an entire program, subject area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in either amorphous
language or in more specific behavioral terms.
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Example: Students will be able to identify and use American slang terms and phrases.(This example is a
subset of the aim above, but the area becomes more specific. This goal moves from generic spoken
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English to the more detailed area of American slang. One verb used is still “identify,” although this goal
does not specify how students are to identify, and the verb “use” has been added. The objectives related
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to this goal should specify how the students will identify and use new knowledge.)
OBJECTIVES:- Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention which delineate either
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general or specific outcomes. There are advantages and disadvantages to different types of objectives. •
Behavioral objectives • Holistic objectives • No behavioral objectives Problem solving objectives •
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Expressive activities that lead to expressive outcomes. All of the above are legitimate ways to write
curriculum and lesson plans. However, currently, most objectives are written in behavioral terms.
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Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and can be divided into specific domains —
cognitive (head), affective (heart), and physical (hand) Example: Objectives can be written in a number of
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ways. Currently, most objectives are written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ
observable verbiage and can be divided into specific domains — cognitive (head), effective (heart), and
physical (hand). Samples: • Cognitive: Students will identify and list 5 slang terms they have heard from
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their peers. • Effective: Student will choose 3 of the most offensive slang terms from a list developed by
the entire class. • Physical: Students will create expressive gestures to go with their favorite slang terms.
SUITABLE MODEL FOR PAKISTAN AND WHY?

The concept of a curriculum has always been a point of great concern among educationist since the late
18th century. Many models of curriculum development have been reported in literature. For example,
Classic Model, also known as Prescriptive Model (Tyler, 1949), considers curriculum development as a
linear and logical activity mainly focusing on four aspects: (i) Educational purposes: a desired
goals/objectives, (ii) Educational experiences: instructions & contents which act as a means of attaining
these goals/ objectives, (iii) Structure of the curriculum which provides the organization of learning
experiences, and (iv) Assessment and evaluation: the processes of determining learning outcomes.
Tyler (1949) work shows an inclination toward Skinner’s behaviorism (1957) and John Dewey’s
progressive education (1963) as he says, “Since the real purpose of education is not to have the
instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students’ pattern of
behavior, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a
statement of changes to take place in the students”. (Tyler 1949: 44). His model is also labeled as
“Product Model” as some researchers considered his thoughts were heavily influenced by ‘scientific
management’ which is also associated with his name.
Hilda Taba (1962) presented a model, also known as “interactive model” or “Instructional Strategies
Model”, which mainly focuses on the planning of instructional strategies and considers it the basis of the
curriculum design. Her model includes five mutually interactive elements of teaching and learning system:
(i) objectives, (ii) contents, (iii) learning experiences, (iv) teaching strategies, and (v) evaluative measures.
Some of the innovative aspects of Taba’s model include determining required objectives and related
content, selection and organization of learning experiences in accordance with specified criteria; selection
of a variety of teaching strategies and evaluation procedures and measures. Her model gives due
consideration to external factors that may affect various components of a curriculum including the vicinity
and community of school’s location, the school district’s educational policies, the goals, resources, and
administrative strategies of the school, teachers’ personal style and characteristics, the nature of the
student population.
Wheeler (1967) has presented a cyclical model which has many similarities with linear and interactive
models. The key elements of this model includes initial situation analysis, identification of aims and
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objectives, contents selection and organization, selection and organization of learning activities, and the
assessment / evaluation process.
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Walker (1971) presented a descriptive model, referred to as naturalistic by some scholars and also known
as “process model”. His model includes three important elements: (i) platform that provides the beliefs or
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principles to guide the curriculum developers (ii) deliberation which is the process of making decisions
from available alternatives, and (iii) design that is the organization and structure of the curriculum.
Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) another advocator of process model defines: ‘A curriculum is an attempt to
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communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is
open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice’. He suggests that a curriculum is
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rather like a recipe in cookery. He says, “A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a
possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on the
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experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work
observed in classrooms that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others. Finally, within limits, a
recipe can be varied according to taste. So can a curriculum.” (Stenhouse 1975: 4-5). At this point he
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shifted from a conventional process model as he does not consider the curriculum itself as a process
rather a mean through which the constructed theory is converted into teaching-learning practices.
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Q.1 What are Sources of Knowledge? Define scientific method and describe its
different steps. (20)
Answer:-
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE:-
Knowledge is power if we know. But do we know the different sources of knowledge? As we are
exploring about mind, its good to know about these different sources of knowledge. Inspiration,
revelation, insight, intuition, ecstasy, divine sight and eternal bliss are the seven planes of
knowledge. There are four sources of knowledge, viz., instinct, reason, intuition and super-intuition
or Atma-Juana (Self Realization).
INSTINCT:-
When an ant crawls in your right arm, the left arm automatically moves towards the right arm to drive
away the ant. The mind does not reason there. When you see a scorpion in front of your leg, you
withdraw your leg automatically. This is termed instinctive or automatic movement. As you cross a
street, how instinctively you move your body to save yourself from the cars! Instinct is found in
animals and birds. In birds, the ego does not interfere with the free divine flow and divine play.
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Hence the work done by them through their instincts is more perfect than that done by human
beings. Have you not noticed the excellent work done by birds in their building of wonderful nests?
REASON:- Reason is higher than instinct and is found only in human beings. It collects facts,
generalizes, reasons out from cause to effect, from effect to cause, from premises to conclusions,
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from propositions to proofs. It concludes, decides and comes to judgment. It takes you safely to the
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door of intuition and leaves you there. Belief, reasoning, knowledge and faith are the four important
psychic processes. First you have belief in a doctor. You go to him for diagnosis and treatment. He
makes a thorough examination and then prescribes certain medicines. You take them. You reason
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out: Such and such is the disease. The doctor has given me Iron and Iodide. Iron will improve my
blood. The Iodide will stimulate the lymphatics and absorb the exudation and growth in the liver. So I
should take it. Then the disease is cured, by a course of these drugs, in a month. Then you get
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knowledge of and perfect faith in the efficacy of the medicine and the proficiency of the doctor. Then
you recommend to your friends this doctor and his drugs.
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INTUITION:-
Intuition is spiritual experience. Intuition is the immediate knowledge of the Absolute, obtained
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through the eye of wisdom, as opposed to the knowledge of the external objects derived through the
exercise of the senses and the intellect. There is direct perception of truth or immediate knowledge.
You know things by a flash. Intuition transcends reason, but does not contradict it. Intellect takes a
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man to the door of intuition and returns back. Spiritual flashes and glimpses of truth come through
intuition. Inspiration, revelation, spiritual insight come through intuition. The mind and the senses
require time and space to function, but the Reality which is beyond this temporal, spatial and causal
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order of things, can only be grasped and apprehended by intuition. Intuition is beyond relativity.
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SELF REALIZATION:-
Self-realization (Atma-Jnana) means knowledge of the self or soul. The reason the term ‘realization’
is used instead of ‘knowledge’ is that jnana refers to knowledge of self based on experience, not
mere intellectual knowledge.” Atma-Jnana, literally “knowledge of the soul or supreme spirit”.
Atmadnana is above intuition. It is the highest form of Knowledge. It is the only Reality.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:-
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and
answer questions. Does this mean all scientists follow exactly this process? No. Some areas of
science can be more easily tested than others. For example, scientists studying how stars change
as they age or how dinosaurs digested their food cannot fast-forward a star’s life by a million years
or run medical exams on feeding dinosaurs to test their hypotheses. When direct experimentation is
not possible, scientists modify the scientific method. In fact, there are probably as many versions of
the scientific method as there are scientists! But even when modified, the goal remains the same: to
discover cause and effect relationships by asking questions, carefully gathering and examining the
evidence, and seeing if all the available information can be combined in to a logical answer.
Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information
or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A
process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative
process. Whether you are doing a science fair project, a classroom science activity, independent
research, or any other hands-on science inquiry understanding the steps of the scientific method will
help you focus your scientific question and work through your observations and data to answer the
question as well as possible.
THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD:-

The steps of the scientific method were developed over millennia, since the time of the ancient
Greek and Persian philosophers.
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GENERAL QUESTION:-
The starting point of most new research is to formulate a general question about an area of research
and begin the process of defining it. This initial question can be very broad, as the later research,
observation and narrowing down will hone it into a testable hypothesis.
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Eventually, the researcher will arrive at one fundamental hypothesis around which the experiment
can be designed.
DESIGNING THE EXPERIMENT:-

This stage of the scientific method involves designing the steps that will test and evaluate the
hypothesis, manipulating one or more variables to generate analyzable data. The experiment should
be designed with later statistical tests in mind, by making sure that the experiment has controls and
a large enough sample group to provide statistically valid results.
OBSERVATION:-
This is the midpoint of the steps of the scientific method and involves observing and recording the
results of the research, gathering the findings into raw data. The observation stage involves looking
at what effect the manipulated variables have upon the subject, and recording the results.
ANALYSIS:- the scope of the research begins to broaden again, as statistical analyses are
performed on the data, and it is organized into an understandable form. The answers given by this
step allow the further widening of the research, revealing some trends and answers to the initial
questions.
CONCLUSIONS AND PUBLISHING:- This stage is where, technically, the hypothesis is stated as
proved or disproved. However, the bulk of research is never as clear-cut as that, and so it is
necessary to filter the results and state what happened and why. This stage is where interesting
results can be earmarked for further research and adaptation of the initial hypothesis.
Even if the hypothesis was incorrect, maybe the experiment had a flaw in its design or
implementation. There may be trends that, whilst not statistically significant, lead to further research
and refinement of the process.
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The results are usually published and shared with the scientific community, allowing verification of
the findings and allowing others to continue research into other areas.
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CYCLES:- This is not the final stage of the steps of the scientific method, as it generates data and
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ideas to recycle into the first stage. The initial and wider research area can again be addressed, with
this research one of the many individual pieces answering the whole question. Building up
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understanding of a large area of research, by gradually building up a picture, is the true path of
scientific advancement. One great example is to look at the work of 1.1 Thomson, who gradually
inched towards his ultimate answer.
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Q.2 DISCUSS THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. ALSO EXAMINE THE NEED AND
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATION. (20)
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Answer: Concept of Educational Research: Educational research refers to a variety of methods, in

which individuals evaluate different aspects of education including: “student learning, teaching
methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics”.
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Educational researchers have come to the consensus that educational research must be conducted
in a rigorous and systematic way, although what this implies is often debated. There are a variety of
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disciplines which are each present to some degree in educational research. These include
psychology, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy. The overlap in disciplines creates a broad
range from which methodology can be drawn. The findings of educational research also need to be
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interpreted within the context in which they were discovered as they may not be applicable in every
time or place.
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THE NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATION:- Finding reasons why research is
important may seem like a no-brainer, but many would rather avoid getting involved in research. The
lazy, if not mentally drained, student could say, “Not again.” And a disinterested academic could just
be doing it for promotion purposes. Yet, for those who like to learn -whether or not they are members
of a learning institution – doing research is not just an imperative, but a need. What reasons could
drive one to appreciate research and engage in doing it?
1. A TOOL FOR BUILDING KNOWLEDGE, EFFICIENT LEARNING, BUSINESS SUCCESS, AND
LOB SEARCH:- Research is required not just for students and academics, but for all professionals. It
is also important for budding and veteran writers, both offline and online. For those looking for a job,
research is likewise a necessity.
Among professionals and scribes, finding an interesting topic to discuss and/or to write about should
go beyond personal experience. Determining either what the general public may want to know about
or what researchers want others to realize or to think about can serve as a reason to do research.
The Brain Research Trust acknowledges the importance of research. Undoubtedly, it is crucial to
finding possible cures for diseases, as well as how to prevent them. Thus, research becomes a must
to ascertain if one’s ideas are supported by previous studies or if these ideas still need proof to be
considered as knowledge. An example of this is the 2016 study of several psychologists who
examined how sleep affects memory reactivation. In “Relearn Faster and Retain Longer: Along With
Practice, Sleep Makes Perfect”, they “found that interleaving sleep between learning sessions not
only reduced the amount of practice needed by half but also ensured much better long-term
retention. Sleeping after learning is definitely a good strategy, but sleeping between two learning
sessions is a better strategy.” This study supports the fact that: “Both repeated practice and sleep
improve long-term retention of information”. Their findings also emphasize how highly important
sleep is to healthy brain function.
2. MEANS TO UNDERSTAND VARIOUS ISSUES:- Television shows and movies ooze with
research – both on the part of the writer(s) and the actors. Though there are hosts who rely on their
researchers, there are also those who exert effort to do their own research. This helps them get
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information that hired researchers missed, build a good rapport with the interviewee, and conduct a
good interview in the process. For their part, some film and TV actors would take time to interview
detectives, boxers, scientists, business people, criminals, and teachers, among others. Others would
even immerse themselves in situations that would make them understand social and personal issues
like living behind bars or in a drug rehabilitation center. Many would read literature, biographies, or
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journals to have a better view or context of the story.
As what Terry Freedman says in “The Importance of Research for ICT Teachers” (2011): “Research
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can shed light on issues we didn’t even know existed, and can raise questions we hadn’t realized
even needed asking.” Thus, almost all writers of imaginary and non-fictive tales also do research
because doing so helps them create a good story and/or achieve strong credibility as an academic.
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3. A WAY TO PROVE LIES AND TO SUPPORT TRUTHS:- Ever experienced feeling that your mate
is having an affair behind your back? Some people would overlook that and say that it’s better not to
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know; others though would take discreet action, hiring detectives to do the work. What does
research have to do with that situation? A lot. Doing research to reveal lies or truths involving
personal affairs contributes in either making a relationship work or in breaking away from a
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dysfunctional one. For the monogamous lot, doing research to disprove or prove infidelity is not
simply a trust issue, but a right to find out the truth – unless one’s intimate partner has already
admitted being polyamorous even before the relationship started. When s/he dislikes answering
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relationship-related questions, including her/his whereabouts, it is better to see that as a red flag and
take baby steps to save yourself from what could become a more serious emotional mess later.
Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their claims or those of other
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scientists’. Their integrity and competence depend on the quality – and not just quantity – of their
research. Nonetheless, not everything scientists come up with get accepted or learned by everyone,
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especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to resources and social services
(e.g., education and adequate health programs) either feed the poor majority with lies or deter them
from knowing truths to preserve the status quo.
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4. A SEED TO LOVE READING, WRITING, ANALYZING, AND SHARING VALUABLE

INFORMATION:- Research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help
enable computation and comprehension. Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to
appreciate and get involved in research. Reading opens the mind to a vast horizon of knowledge,
while writing helps a reader use her/his own perspective and transform this into a more concrete
idea that s/he understands. Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral
in conducting research. Interviews, attending knowledge-generating events, and casual talks with
anyone certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can also facilitate the critical thinking
process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a
certain issue and write about such analysis.
With the wide array of ideas available, scholars and non-scholars involved in research are able to
share information with a larger audience. Some view this process as ego-boosting, while others see
it as a means to stimulate interest and encourage further studies about certain issues or situations.
As literacy is integral in improving a person’s social and economic mobility and in increasing
awareness, research then hones necessary basic life skills and makes learning a life-long endeavor.
5. NOURISHMENT AND EXERCISE FOR THE MIND:- Curiosity may kill not just the cat, but the
human as well. Yet, it is the same curiosity that fuels the mind to seek for answers. The College
Admissions Partners (n.d.) notes how scientific research in particular “helps students develop critical
reasoning skills…helpful for any field of higher education…” Such search or the thinking process is
food for the brain, allowing creativity and logic to remain active. It also helps prevent mental illnesses
like Alzheimer’s. Indeed, research and doing research encourage people to explore possibilities, to
understand existing issues, and to disclose truths and fabricated ones. Without research,
technological advancement and other developments could have remained a fantasy. Reading,
writing, observing, analyzing, and interacting with others facilitate an inquisitive mind’s quest for
knowledge and efficient learning. Research serves as an instrument to achieve that goal.
Q.3 EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH ON THE BASIS OF PURPOSE AND EXPLAIN
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THEM WITH SUITABLE EXAMPLE. (20)
ANSWER:-
Research is systematic way to find out facts and knowledge as Kothari (2006) has analyzed that research
is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment; the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem. However there are
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two types of researches one is by Purpose and other is by method. The type by purpose falls into three
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categorize such as Basic, Applied and Action Research.
BASIC RESEARCH:-
Basic research is mainly concerned with generalizations and the formulation of theory. It is driven by
curiosity or interest in a subject. The main motivation is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or
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invent something. Many scientists believe that basic research lays the foundation for the applied research
that follows.
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STRENGTHS OF BASIC RESEARCH:
Therefore it has some merits and according to R. Stephen Berry (2011) basic research has following
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merits:-
1. Basic research is typically curiosity-driven and researchers develop their curiosity through their
observations.
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2. Basic research frequently leads to new insights into the essence of nature, the human mind, and the
complex interactions between their elements.
3. It is usually unpredictable in terms of its course and outcomes.
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4. It requires a special way of thinking that often combines seemingly unrelated facts and explores
unknown fields necessary to make new discoveries. It is for this reason that basic research is frequently
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multidisciplinary in nature.
5. It is the verifiable which makes scientific knowledge a firmer kind of knowledge that anything else we
have. This information includes not only data in databases, but also the information found in journals and
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textbooks, the interpretation of data, and the concepts that underlie these.
LIMITATIONS OF BASIC RESEARCH:-

It is limited in nature as it never helps to make discoveries, create or invent anything. But it just expands
one’s knowledge as it is a theoretical but not practical research.
APPLIED RESEARCH:- It involves practical problems of the society. It can be argued that the goal of
applied research is to improve the human condition. An example of applied research could be a study to
find out how the school feeding program has affected school enrollment rates in drought-prone districts.
Applied research is increasingly gaining favor as it helps to address the problems facing the world today
such as overpopulation, pollution, depletion of natural resources, drought, floods, declining moral
standards and disease. As Anderson, G. J. (1998) also felt that researchers in this field try to find
solutions to existing educational problems. The approach is much more utilitarian as it strives to find
information that will directly influence practice.
STRENGTHS OF APPLIED RESEARCH:- It is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world,
rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s sake and it is used to find solutions to everyday
problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies.
ACTION RESEARCH:- It is a unique form of applied research and a reflective process of progressive
problem solving. It is also called “practitioner research” because of the involvement of the actual
practitioner in real life. Action implies that the practitioner is involved in the collection of data, analysis,
and the interpretation of results. He or she is also involved in implementing results of the research and is
thus well placed to judge the effectiveness of the interventions.
It is done simply by action, hence the name. It can also be undertaken by larger organizations or
institutions, assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies,
practices, and knowledge of the environments within which they practice.
As (Reason & Bradbury, 2002) assessed that action research is an interactive inquiry process that
balances problem solving actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative
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analysis or research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and
organizational change.
STRENGTHS OF ACTION RESEARCH:-

1. It is a practical way for individuals to explore the nature of their practice and to improve it.
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2. Action research encourages practitioners to become knowledge-makers, rather than merely
knowledge-users.
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3. Action research proceeds through a process of planning, action and reflection upon action. This can be
thought of as an action-reflection ‘cycle’.
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LIMITATIONS OF ACTION RESEARCH:-
1. Action researcher works in the hurly burly of her/his own practice. Monitoring closely, this practice as
they act within it, demands space and time which, almost by definition, the practice does not give easily. It
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is therefore difficult to maintain rigor in data gathering and critique.
2. The process can be messy; as research proceeds, wider links are likely to be identified.
3. The result can’t be generalize usually as C.F. Hamilton (1981) also noted that this is true, but someone
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else’s ideas or conclusions can always be tried out by other persons in their own practice, to see if they
work for them or not.
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Q.4 DEFINE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH. WHAT IS DIFFERENT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN USED IN

AN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH? (20)
ANSWER:-
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Experimental Research: Experimental research describes the process that a researcher undergoes of
controlling certain variables and manipulating others to observe if the results of the experiment reflect that
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the manipulations directly caused the particular outcome. This type of research differs from a descriptive
study, and another one of its important aspects is the use of random assignment. If you have decided that
an experiment is the best approach to testing your hypothesis, then you need to design the experiment.
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Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV groups) in
an experiment.
Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants into two
groups, the experimental group and the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental
group and not the control group.
The researcher must decide how he/she will allocate their sample to these IVs. For example, if there are
10 participants, will all 10 participants take part in both conditions (e.g. repeated measures) or will the
participants be split in half and take part in only one condition each?
THREE TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS ARE COMMONLY USED:-

1. INDEPENDENT MEASURES:- Different participants are used in each condition of the independent
variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes a different group of participants. This
should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being
assigned to one group or the other.
Independent measures involves using two separate groups of participants; one in each condition. For
example:
PRO:- Avoids order effects (such as practice or fat gue) as people participate in one condition only. If a
person is involved in several conditions they may become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come
to the second condition, or becoming wise to the requirements of the experiment!
CON: More people are needed than with the repeated measures design (i.e. more time consuming).
CON:- Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example; variations in age,
sex or social background. These differences are known as participant variables (i.e. a type of extraneous
variable).
CONTROL:- After the participants have been recruited, they should be randomly assigned to their groups.
This should ensure the groups are similar, on average (reducing participant variables).
2. REPEATED MEASURES:- The same participants take part in each condition of the independent
variable. This means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of participants.
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PRO: Fewer people are needed as they take part in all conditions (i.e. saves time).
PRO: As the same participants are used in each condition, participant variables (i.e., individual
differences) are reduced.
CON:- There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of the conditions having an effect on
the participants’ behavior. Performance in the second condition may be better because the participants
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know what to do (i.e. practice effect). Or their performance might be worse in the second condition
because they are tired (i.e. fatigue effect). This limitation can be controlled using counterbalancing.
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CONTROL:- To combat order effects the researcher counter balances the order of the conditions for the
participants. Alternating the order in which participants perform in different conditions of an experiment.
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COUNTERBALANCING:-
Suppose we used a repeated measures design in which all of the participants first learned words in ‘loud
noise’ and then learned it in ‘no noise’. We would expect the participants to show better learning in ‘no
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noise’ simply because of order effects, such as practice. However, a researcher can control for order
effects using counterbalancing.
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The sample would split into two groups experimental (A) and control (B). For example, group 1 does ‘A’
then ‘B’, group 2 does ‘B’ then ‘A’ this is to eliminate order effects. Although order effects occur for each
participant, because they occur equally in both groups, they balance each other out in the results.
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condition in terms of any important characteristic which might affect performance, e.g. sex, age,
intelligence etc. One member of each matched pair must be randomly assigned to the experimental group
and the other to the control group.
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PRO: Reduces participant variables because the researcher has tried to pair up the participants so that
each condition has people with similar abilities and characteristics.
PRO: Avoids order effects, and so counterbalancing is not necessary. Con: Very time-consuming trying to
find closely matched pairs. Con: Impossible to match people exactly, unless identical twins!
CON: If one participant drops out you lose 2 PPs’ data.
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CONTROL: Members of each pair should be randomly assigned to conditions. However, this does not
solve all these problems.
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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN SUMMARY:- Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to
the different conditions (or IV groups) in an experiment. There are three types:
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1. Independent measures / groups:-
Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable.
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2. Repeated measures:
The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable.
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3. Matched pairs:-
Each condition uses different participants, but they are matched in terms of important characteristics, e.g.
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sex, age, intelligence etc.
Q.5 DEFINE DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH, WHAT ARE ITS MAJOR FORMS? STRENGTHEN YOUR
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ANSWER WITH THE EXAMPLE OF CASE STUDIES, CAUSAL COMPARATIVE STUDIES AND
CORRELATION STUDIES. (20)
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ANSWER:-
Descriptive Research: Sometimes an individual wants to know something about a group of people.
Maybe the individual is a would-be senator and wants to know who they’re representing or a surveyor
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who is looking to see if there is a need for a mental health program.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:- is a study designed to depict the participants in an accurate way. More
simply put, descriptive research is all about describing people who take part in the study.
MAJOR FORMS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH:-
There are three main types of descriptive methods: observational methods, case-study methods and
survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their
drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream
media, or when reading a research study on your own.
OBSERVATIONAL METHOD:-
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior is
closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation
and laboratory observation. The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that
researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than
laboratory observation, proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations. Proponents of
laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when
using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of
course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of
scientific knowledge.
CASE STUDY METHOD:-

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies
often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be
used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. There are
two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects
include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken while conducting
research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing atypical
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individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity.
SURVEY METHOD:-
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or
questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In
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order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed
properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend. Another consideration
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when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or
rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refer to Jackson, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages
can be found with each type:-
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Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to
analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner.
Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that
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participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to
analyze statistically.
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Q.1: DEFINE POSDCORB. ALSO DISCUSS ITS IMPORTANCE IN EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
AND MANAGEMENT?
ANSWER:-
POSDCORB is an acronym widely used in the field of Management and Public Administration that
reflects the classic view of administrative management. Largely drawn from the work of French
industrialist Henri Fayol, it first appeared in a 1937 staff paper by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick
written for the Brownlow Committee. The acronym stands for steps in the administrative process:-
Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting. These
responsibilities can be summarized into “POSDCORB”. The acronym “”POSDCORB” stands for
following aspects of administration. They are:-
Planning
Organizing
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Staffing
Directing
Coordinating
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Reporting
Budgeting
The strengths of “POSDCORB” lies in the fact that it can be the starting point to analyze the
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management functions in a structured way. The structure also helps to analyze the management
activities. Now, let us have a look at each and every management responsibilities.
PLANNING & ORGANIZING:-
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Various Types of Planning includes Business Plan, Event Planning, Financial Plan, Marketing Plan
and Strategic Planning.
MARKETING PLAN:-
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Marketing Plan helps us understand who are the customers and their key characteristics, needs and
wants, their expectation of our product, their special requirements and perceptions, their perspective
about our organization, products or services and finally the buying intentions of the customer.
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STRATEGIC PLAN:-
A strategic plan is an internal document for internal guidance within an organization. In most cases,
strategic plan is not shared with audience outside the organization. Each department in the
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organization makes sure that their goals are aligned with the strategic plan.
BUSINESS PLAN:-
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A business plan is meant for possible investors outside the organization. A business plan presents
current financial condition, future investment plans, revenues and growth projection to lure investors.
It can also be considered as a branding exercise.
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EVENT PLANNING:-
Event planning deals with planning, budgeting, scheduling, developing a theme and coordinating a
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convention or a party to make it a grant success.
FINANCIAL PLANNING:-
Financial Planning helps a firm to determine the future financial needs or goals and ways to achieve
them. It helps a firm to decide on investments and activities which needs to be taken up under
various financial circumstances, keeping in mind short term and long term financial plan.
ORGANIZING:-
Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the business. Main objective is to
create a clear cut division and coordination of tasks, information flow management inside an
organization. An organizational structure should clearly define the division of labor, delegation of
authority and span of control.
Delegation of authority can be achieved using one of the following principle. Exception principle –
This principle talks about a manager concentrating on tasks which needs immediate attention
(Considerable deviation from the planned) and let his subordinates handle routine tasks. Scalar
chain of command – Talks about a shorter chain of command for a better top down communication.
Decentralization – Delegating of authority to the lower levels in an organization. Parity principle –
Talks about how a manager should keep a balance between responsibility and authority Depart-
mentation
DEPART-MENTATION:-is the process of clubbing multiple jobs and assign it to manager for better
planning, coordination and control.
SPAN OF CONTROL:-
The span of control states the number of employees a manager can supervise, typically 5-6
employees. Based on the level of complexity and priority of the project, the span of control can be
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increased.
STAFFING:-
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Main objective of Staffing is to manage various job profiles created by organizing. Staffing helps to
find the gap between available and required manpower. Staffing is not one time activity. As per
organization growth, new positions should be identified and filled.
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DIRECTING:-
Directing is a continuous task of making decisions and embodying them in specific and general
orders and instructions and serving as the leader of the enterprise. Directing includes
Communicating, Leading and Motivating.
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CONTROLLING:-
Control is one of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing and directing. It helps us
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to keep tab on the day to day activities, analyze the gaps and and rectify/minimize them, so that
organizational objectives are met. Usually organizational control proceed establish standards to
measure performance, compare the results with stated goals and take corrective actions.
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REPORTING:
A document containing information organized in a narrative, graphic, or tabular form, prepared on ad
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hoc, periodic, recurring, regular, or as required basis. Reports may refer to specific periods, events,
occurrences, or subjects, and may be communicated or presented in oral or written form.
BUDGETING:-
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Budgeting for a business is a process. It is the process of preparing a detailed statement of financial
results that are expected for a given time period in the future. There are two keywords in that
statement. The first keyword is “expected.” Expected means something that is likely to happen. The
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second keyword is “future” which is a period in the time to come. So, budgeting is the process of
preparing a detailed statement of financial results that are likely to happen in a period in a time to
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come.
Q.2: WRITE NOTES ON FOLLOWING:-

Answer:-
a) CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
Definition of Conflict Management Conflict management is the practice of being able to identify and
handle conflicts sensibly, fairly, and efficiently. Since conflicts in a business are a natural part of the
workplace, it is important that there are people who understand conflicts and know how to resolve
them. This is important in today’s market more than ever. Everyone is striving to show how valuable
they are to the company they work for and at times, this can lead to disputes with other members of
the team. Conflict Management Styles
Conflicts happen. How an employee responds and resolves conflict will limit or enable that
employee’s success. Here are five conflict styles that a manager will follow according to Kenneth W.
Thomas and Ralph H. Kilmann:
An accommodating manager is one who cooperates to a high degree. This may be at the manager’s
own expense and actually work against that manager’s own goals, objectives, and desired
outcomes. This approach is effective when the other person is the expert or has a better solution.
AVOIDING:- an issue is one way a manager might attempt to resolve conflict. This type of conflict
style does not help the other staff members reach their goals and does not help the manager who is
avoiding the issue and cannot assertively pursue his or her own goals. However, this works well
when the issue is trivial or when the manager has no chance of winning.
COLLABORATING:- managers become partners or pair up with each other to achieve both of their
goals in this style. This is how managers break free of the win-lose paradigm and seek the win-win.
This can be effective for complex scenarios where managers need to find a novel solution.
COMPETING:- This is the win-lose approach. A manager is acting in a very assertive way to achieve
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his or her own goals without seeking to cooperate with other employees, and it may be at the
expense of those other employees. This approach may be appropriate for emergencies when time is
of the essence.
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COMPROMISING:- This is the lose-lose scenario where neither person or manager really achieves
what they want. This requires a moderate level of assertiveness and cooperation. It may be
appropriate for scenarios where you need a temporary solution or where both sides have equally
important goals.
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B) INTEGRATED PLANNING ANSWER:
Integrated Business Planning is a planning process that integrates across two or more functions in a
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business or government entity referred to as an enterprise to maximize financial value. The specific
functional areas in a company as well as the industry domain associated with the company defines
the specific type of IBP process. Examples of IBP processes are:-
• Sales and Operations Planning
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• Healthcare Analytics
• Strategic Corporate Performance Management
• Planning and scheduling across multiple plants in a factory The key requirement for IBP is that two
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or more functional process areas must be involved and maximizing (optimizing) of financial value
should be done. Corporate executives, business unit heads and planning managers use IBP to
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evaluate plans and activities based on the economic impact of each consideration.
BRIDGING CORPORATE PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT AND S&OP:- There has been a lot of
focus on Integrated Business Planning in the context of Sales and Operations Planning. Gartner
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refers to a 5-stage S&OP Maturity model wherein IBP is referred to as the Phased 4 & 5. Integrated
Business Planning however is broader than S&OP. It is an approach that that combine enterprise
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performance management (EPM) and sales and operations planning (S&OP) to provide incremental
capabilities that neither provides individually. In so doing, IBP platforms address long-standing
challenges that financial and operational professionals have struggled to overcome. The result:
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opportunities for step change improvements to how manufacturers plan, manage and govern their
business.
COMPONENTS:- Integrated Business Planning requires the following capabilities to be enabled:: A)
ENTERPRISE MODEL:-
• Ability to create a demand chain model
• Ability to create a supply chain model
• Ability to create a finance chain model
B) INTEGRATED PLANNING
• Ability to create a plan across multiple functions
• Ability to create predictive and collaborative plans
C) ENTERPRISE OPTIMIZATION
• Ability to create optimized plans across multiple constraints
• Ability to create financial integration across optimization
APPLICATIONS:- IBP has been used to model and integrate the planning efforts in a number of
applications, including:-
• Product profitability
• Customer profitability
• Capital expenditures
• Manufacturing operations
• Supply chain
• Business processes (human and information-based)
• Business policy
• Market demand curves
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• Competitive strategy All of the above can be summarized as Enterprise Optimization use cases.
Q.3: DISCUSS WHETHER MANAGEMENT IS SCIENCE OR ARTS, STRENGTHENS YOUR
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POINT OF VIEW WITH THE HELP OF SUITABLE EXAMPLES?
ANSWER:
IS MANAGEMENT A SCIENCE OR AN ART?
I believe that management can be studied and refined to a science. You can study what other great
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managers do, you can read the latest “how to” book to polish your skills and learn how to manage or
handle a particular situation. Leadership on the other hand is a very different matter. A friend of mine
and I were talking the other day about Managers vs. Leaders and he made what I thought was quite
a profound statement. “Managers take a situation and find a way to fix the problem, Leaders see the
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situation before it ever becomes a problem.”
True Leadership is an art. One that cannot be taught or studied, but only learned. Through mistakes
as a “manager” and years of trial and error, you discover what your talents are and what you have to
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offer your team as well as your peers. You discover what your team needs from you to become
successful and you find a way to take them there. A manager will use their tried and true methods
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with each new set of employees they encounter, but a Leader will never steer his people to
greatness the same way twice. Management can be considered as both science as well as an art.
Management is Science because of several reasons like – it has universally accepted principles, it
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has cause and effect relationship etc., and at the same time it is art because it requires perfection
through practice, practical knowledge, creativity, personal skills etc.
Management is both an art and a science. Management combines features of both science as well
as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains
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certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal
possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge & art deals with the application of
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knowledge and skills. A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of
science & the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an
art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art.
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Science teaches to ‘know’ and art teaches to ‘do’. E.g. A person cannot become a good singer
unless he has knowledge about various ragas & he also applies his personal skill in the art of
singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply
them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive
but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.).
The old saying that “Manager are Born” has been rejected in favor of “Managers are Made”. It has
been aptly remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest of science. To conclude, we
can say that science is the root and art is the fruit.
MANAGEMENT AS SCIENCE:- Science is a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to a specific
field of study that contains general facts which explains a phenomenon. It establishes cause and
effect relationship between two or more variables and underlines the principles governing their
relationship. These principles are developed through scientific method of observation and verification
through testing. Science is characterized by following main features:
1. Universally acceptance principles—scientific principles represents basic truth about a particular
field of enquiry. These principles may be applied in all situations, at all time & at all places. E.g. —
law of gravitation which can be applied in all countries irrespective of the time. Management also
contains some fundamental principles which can be applied universally like the Principle of Unity of
Command i.e. one man, one boss. This principle is applicable to all type of organization — business
or non-business.
2. Experimentation & Observation — scientific principles are derived through scientific investigation
& researching i.e. they are based on logic. E.g. the principle that earth goes round the sun has been
scientifically proved. Management principles are also based on scientific enquiry & observation and
not only on the opinion of Henry Fayol. They have been developed through experiments & practical
experiences of large no. of managers. E.g. it is observed that fair remuneration to personal helps in
creating a satisfied work force.
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3. Cause & Effect Relationship — Principles of science lay down cause and effect relationship
between various variables. E.g. when metals are heated, they are expanded. The cause is heating &
result is expansion. The same is true for management, therefore it also establishes cause and effect
co
relationship. E.g. lack of parity (balance) between authority & responsibility will lead to
ineffectiveness. If you know the cause i.e. lack of balance, the effect can be ascertained easily i.e. in
effectiveness. Similarly if workers are given bonuses, fair wages they will work hard but when not
treated in fair and just manner, reduces productivity of organization.
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4. Test of Validity & Predictability — Validity of scientific principles can be tested at any time or any
number of times i.e. they stand the test of time. Each time these tests will give same result.
Moreover future events can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by using scientific principles. E.g.
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H2 & 02 will always give H2O. Principles of management can also be tested for validity. E.g.
principle of unity of command can be tested by comparing two persons —one having single boss
and one having 2 bosses. The performance of 1st person will be better than 2nd. It cannot be denied
that management has a systematic body of knowledge but it is not as ‘exact as that of other physical
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sciences like biology, physics, and chemistry etc. The main reason for the inexactness of science of
management is that it deals with human beings and it is very difficult to predict their behavior
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accurately. Since it is a social process, therefore it falls in the area of social sciences. It is a flexible
science & that is why its theories and principles may produce different results at different times and
therefore it is a behavior science. Ernest Dale has called it as a Soft Science.
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MANAGEMENT AS ART:- Art implies application of knowledge & skill to trying about desired results.
An art may be defined as personalized application of general theoretical principles for achieving best
possible results. Art has the following characters —
1. Practical Knowledge: Every art requires practical knowledge therefore learning of theory is not
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sufficient. It is very important to know practical application of theoretical principles. E.g. to become a
good painter, the person may not only be knowing different color and brushes but different designs,
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dimensions, situations etc. to use them appropriately. A manager can never be successful just by
obtaining degree or diploma in management; he must have also know how to apply various
principles in real situations by functioning in capacity of manager.
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2. Personal Skill: Although theoretical base may be same for every artist, but each one has his own
style and approach towards his job. That is why the level of success and quality of performance
differs from one person to another. E.g. there are several qualified painters but M.F. Hussain is
recognized for his style. Similarly management as an art is also personalized. Every manager has
his own way of managing things based on his knowledge, experience and personality, that is why
some managers are known as good managers (like Aditya Birla, Rahul Bajaj) whereas others as
bad.
3. Creativity: Every artist has an element of creativity in line. That is why he Aims at producing
something that has never existed before which requires combination of intelligence & imagination.
Management is also creative in nature like any other art. It combines human and non-human
resources in useful way so as to achieve desired results. It tries to produce sweet music by
combining chords in an efficient manner.
4. Perfection through practice: Practice makes a man perfect. Every artist becomes more and more
proficient through constant practice. Similarly managers learn through an art of trial and error initially
but application of management principles over the years makes them perfect in the job of managing.
S. Goal-Oriented: Every art is result oriented as it seeks to achieve concrete results. In the same
manner, management is also directed towards accomplishment of pre-determined goals. Managers
use various resources like men, money, material, machinery & methods to promote growth of an
organization. Thus, we can say that management is an art therefore it requires application of certain
principles rather it is an art of highest order because it deals with molding the attitude and behavior
of people at work towards desired goals. 6. Work by effectively. manager manage all problem in
every environment so this is not science, it is an art that how he manage every problem of
organization in every environment.
MANAGEMENT AS BOTH SCIENCE AND ART:- Management is both an art and a science. The
above mentioned points clearly reveals that management combines features of both science as well
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as art. It is considered as a science because it has an organized body of knowledge which contains
certain universal truth. It is called an art because managing requires certain skills which are personal
possessions of managers. Science provides the knowledge & art deals with the application of
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knowledge and skills. A manager to be successful in his profession must acquire the knowledge of
science & the art of applying it. Therefore management is a judicious blend of science as well as an
art because it proves the principles and the way these principles are applied is a matter of art.
Science teaches to ‘know’ and art teaches to ‘do’. E.g. a person cannot become a good singer
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unless he has knowledge about various ragas & he also applies his personal skill in the art of
singing. Same way it is not sufficient for manager to first know the principles but he must also apply
them in solving various managerial problems that is why, science and art are not mutually exclusive
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but they are complementary to each other (like tea and biscuit, bread and butter etc.). The old saying
that “Manager are Born” has been rejected in favor of “Managers are Made”. It has been aptly
remarked that management is the oldest of art and youngest of science. To conclude, we can say
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that science is the root and art is the fruit.
MANAGEMENT AS PROFESSION:- A profession may be defined as an occupation that requires
specialized knowledge and intensive academic preparations to which entry is regulated by a
representative body. The essentials of a profession are: 1. Specialized Knowledge — A profession
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must have a systematic body of knowledge that can be used for development of professionals.
Every professional must make deliberate efforts to acquire expertise in the principles and
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techniques. Similarly a manager must have devotion and involvement to acquire expertise in the
science of management. 2. Formal Education & Training — There are no. of institutes and
universities to impart education & training for a profession. No one can practice a profession without
going through a prescribed course. Many institutes of management have been set up for imparting
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education and training. For example, a CA cannot audit the A/C’s unless he has acquired a degree
or diploma for the same but no minimum qualifications and a course of study has been prescribed
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for managers by law. For example, MBA may be preferred but not necessary. 3. Social Obligations
—Profession is a source of livelihood but professionals are primarily motivated by the desire to serve
the society. Their actions are influenced by social norms and values. Similarly a manager is
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responsible not only to its owners but also to the society and therefore he is expected to provide
quality goods at reasonable prices to the society. 4. Code of Conduct — Members of a profession
have to abide by a code of conduct which contains certain rules and regulations, norms of honesty,
integrity and special ethics. A code of conduct is enforced by a representative association to ensure
self-discipline among its members. Any member violating the code of conduct can be punished and
his membership can be withdrawn. The AIMA has prescribed a code of conduct for managers but it
has no right to take legal action against any manager who violates it. 5. Representative Association
— For the regulation of profession, existence of a representative body is a must. For example, an
institute of Charted Accountants of India establishes and administers standards of competence for
the auditors but the AIMA however does not have any statuary powers to regulate the activities of
managers. From above discussion, it is quite clear that management fulfills several essentials of a
profession, even then it is not a full fledged profession because: – a. It does not restrict the entry in
managerial jobs for account of one standard or other. b. No minimum qualifications have been
prescribed for managers. c. No management association has the authority to grant a certificate of
practice to various managers. d. All managers are supposed to abide by the code formulated by
AIMA, e. Competent education and training facilities do not exist.. f. Managers are responsible to
many groups such as shareholders, employees and society. A regulatory code may curtail their
freedom. g. Managers are known by their performance and not mere degrees. h. The ultimate goal
of business is to maximize profit and not social welfare. That is why Haymes has rightly remarked,
“The slogan for management is becoming — ‘He who serves best, also profits mose.”
i think management is more of art than science.it is the accumulated knowledge which comprises
science. Through exhaustive aquentence with management over the history it has added itself with
knowledge. But when matter comes to practices of management it is purely art with help of
knowledge available.
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Q.4: DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN INSPECTION AND SUPERVISION. HIGHLIGHT THE TYPE OF
EVALUATION IN YOUR JOB PLACE. JUSTIFY EITHER ITS INSPECTION OR SUPERVISION.
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ANSWER:-
Any work in which two or more persons cooperate involves supervision. One must go ahead or think
ahead, and indicate, though perhaps only silently by his own actions, what the others are to do. When the
group is numerous, then special supervisors are needed. When the group is also there for the purpose of
being trained, like the practice teachers in a normal school, then supervision of high quality is necessary;
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mere setting of tasks is not sufficient.
The function of the supervisor is to help the worker to find himself, to discover his own best way of doing
whatever has to be done. Supervision must therefore be sympathetic – working, thinking, feeling, with the
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person supervised. The supervisor should be enthusiastic – should radiate success in every motion and
word – though not at all in the spirit of self-display, wholly to set an example and to encourage. The
discouraged worker must have kindly instruction. Nothing must be done to destroy self-respect; cutting
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remarks must be reserved for the careless or supercilious worker. But the supervisor must have
compelling power – something in him to make the corps of workers feel that their assignments are of
tremendous importance.
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When the hour comes to-morrow those children must be taught, and taught properly, whether you have
time to meet your friend at the train or not. You are an officer in the great educational army, and you must
do your duty.
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Supervisory Control depends for its effectiveness upon agents who possess technical and expert
knowledge of educational processes, and who are capable of employing that knowledge for the
development and advancement of the institutions coming under their control. … It is emphatically
constructive, rather than merely executive. For its best results it demands the completest cooperation
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between the members of the teaching and supervisory staffs. For the proper exercise of this form of
control superintendents, directors, and principals should be given entire freedom of action. Supervisory
control does not lie within the legitimate province of the Board of Education or of other municipal boards
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and officers…. – Elliott, City School Supervision, pp. 11-13. Inspection is quite a different matter. Its
purpose is, not to give help immediately, but to evaluate and report for the guidance of authorities higher
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up in making future arrangements, one of which may be the dismissal or promotion of the person whose
work is inspected. The inspector needs to have merely enough sympathy, or tact, to make his visit as little
of a disturbance as possible. But the indispensable qualifications are, first of all, broad and accurate
judgment, then thorough honesty, with plenty of moral courage.
There are two ways of judging a specialist of any rank, say a kindergartner or a teacher of Latin. One is
by other specialists who are able to appreciate every step of the work; the other is by laymen on the basis
of results merely. Either way has its advantages as well as its disadvantages, so that each needs to be
supplemented by the other. The layman’s view is the ultimate test, but it may be enlightened and guided
by expert views. Our school boards, boards of regents, and commissions of various kinds exist to
represent and make effective the layman’s view; they sometimes include specialists in their own number,
but even then they must occasionally employ outside specialists to investigate, evaluate, and report. The
finances of institutions of all kinds have long been treated in just this way. The treasurer makes his report
to the governing body. A committee is then appointed, including an accountant if possible, to examine the
report and advise whether or not it should be accepted. In some states there are certified public
accountants who make a business of auditing reports. If there is an error in the computations, or a
payment without a voucher, or some overvaluation of assets, the auditor calls attention to it. No treasurer
should be offended at this: that is what the auditor is employed for – to find any flaws that exist.
Inspection is necessary in any large organization, and no one should resent being subjected to it. When
the inspector calls, it is best to welcome him, to throw everything open to his view, and help him to find
out what he wants to know. To appear reticent is certain to raise the suspicion that something is being
concealed. Rather than be overcautious when under the eye of the inspector, it is better to push the work
merrily along even at the risk of making some blunders.
Though supervision and inspection are so different in their nature, they are often combined in the same
office. The person holding such an office is likely to emphasize one phase of his work at the expense of
the other, which one that shall be depending on his nature. Most school principals, supervisors,
inspectors, and superintendents have to do both supervising and inspecting, whatever the title of the
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office may be and whatever their ostensible duty may be. With young persons, and with new recruits of
any age, supervision is especially needed. With persons fitted to their work by years of experience,
occasional inspection is needed to see how well they retain their efficiency and keep up with the times.
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When we rise to the higher ranks of workers, those who are specialists in their respective lines and
whose duties are not strictly standardized like those of bookkeepers, helpful supervision ceases to be
possible, and even inspection is either perfunctory or else it is impertinent meddling: the inspector who
makes an unfavorable criticism of an expert may have a war on his hands. The reason for this is not
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merely that competent supervisors and inspectors can no longer be found, but that the spirit of the
workers is different. These high-grade workers are neither amateurs nor apprentices; they are masters.
They are held to their tasks, not by the necessity of earning a livelihood or fear of discharge, but by sense
of duty, loyalty to the institution, professional honor, love of achievement. To send an inspector to such a
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person is an affront, particularly if the purpose seems to be to find petty faults without coming to an
appreciation of the larger results that are being accomplished.
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Inspectorial Control is similar in nature to supervisory control, yet to be distinguished from it…. It differs
from the supervisory activity in that its primary purpose is not personal, constructive service. Its aim is
toward an impersonal, objective measurement of the results and worth of the school…. There has not
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been, up to the present time, any widespread recognition in American education of the great importance
of the inspectorial form of control. Yet, as the public schools have expanded and have become more
intricate in their organization, so much greater has become the necessity of means whereby the essential
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operations may be subjected to a checking and valuating process. The schools have lacked an audit that
would exhibit how well that which is being attempted is being done; an audit that would reveal the degree
to which the machinery of organization is adapted to its purpose; an audit that would display the essential
facts of census, attendance, and rate of progress of pupils, the accomplishments of teachers, and an
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analysis of the real cost in money of the several and numerous activities that enter into school education.
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(This is not part of assignment the are just tags:- aiou solved assignment 1 code 8605 autumn 2016,
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8605 spring 2017, b.ed code 8605 aiou solved assignment 1 autumn 2016)
Inspectorial control should be exercised by duly constituted agencies distinct from those agencies or
individuals that are primarily responsible for administrative and supervisory direction. Otherwise, there will
be no impersonal judgments of worth founded on actual results and accomplishment. – Elliott, City School
Supervision, pp. 12, 13. … A man who has to inspect the work of five hundred, or even a hundred, others
must do so superficially. He knows nothing of the life and character of the man before him, and must
judge by unimportant or accidental details observed at the moment of inspection (in a superficially
organized army, for instance, mainly by the condition of a man’s clothes or by his look of “smartness” on
parade). Under such conditions, as a school teacher complained to me, “only the coarser and more
obvious forms of success pay.” Work (to use only words which I have written down after actual
conversations) becomes “mechanical,” “inhuman,” “red-tapish,” and those who have to do it become
“system-sick” and suffer from “Potters’ Rot.”
What is worse is that the defects of any system of inspection which ignores the quantitative limitations of
personal intercourse can be “played up to” by the baser kind of employee. A Washington civil servant
was, I believe, typical of many thousand others when he complained to me: “The low-class man who
cares only to draw his pay and intrigue for promotion is happy. The man of public spirit or with the
craftsman’s love of his work is unhappy….”
Much has been done in almost all great businesses and services to prevent the more obvious faults of
superficial inspection. The head of a great business is often warned that he must neither blame nor praise
an individual workman for what he happens to see in a visit to the works. Confidential “dossiers” are
sometimes kept of a man’s whole career, which are consulted before any step is taken to promote or
degrade him. But success in the art of “human” as compared to “mechanical” direction is, I believe, still
largely a matter of accident…. In this difficult task of adjusting the vastness of the Great Society to the
smallness of individual man, one of the most useful ideas to be kept before the inventor of an
organization is the “self-respect” of those who are to be organized. An important means of preserving that
self-respect is, as I have just said, such a system of inspection and control as shall secure that a man is
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judged on his whole character and by his best work.
Q.5: WHAT IS MEANT BY LEADERSHIP STYLES? WRITE DOWN ITS TYPE WITH MERITS AND
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DEMERITS OF EACH.
ANSWER:-
LEADERSHIP STYLES:-
A leadership style is a leader’s style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people
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[citation needed) There are many different leadership styles proposed by various authors that can be
exhibited by leaders in the political, business or other fields. Studies on leadership style are conducted in
the military field, expressing an approach that stresses a holistic view of leadership, including how a
leader’s physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence
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are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader’s intellectual capacity helps to
conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader’s conceptual abilities apply agility,
judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge encompasses
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tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness. Daniel Coleman (2000) in
his article “Leadership that Gets Results” talks about six styles of leadership.
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TYPES OF LEADERSHIP STYLES

AUTHORITARIAN:-
The authoritarian leadership style keeps main emphasis on the distinction of the authoritarian leader and
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their followers; these types of leaders make sure to only create a distinct professional relationship. Direct
supervision is what they believe to be key in maintaining a successful environment and follower ship.
Authoritarian leadership styles often follow the vision of those that are in control, and may not necessarily
be compatible with those that are being led. Authoritarian leaders have a focus on efficiency, as other
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styles, such as a democratic style, may be seen as a hindrance on progress. Examples of authoritarian
leadership: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do his or her assignment, and
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a supervisor instructing a subordinate to clean a workstation. All of these positions require a distinct set of
characteristics that give the leader the position to get things in order or get a point across. Authoritarian
Traits: sets goals individually, engages primarily in one-way and downward communication, controls
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discussion with followers, and dominate interaction. Several studies have confirmed a relationship
between bullying, on the one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling
conflicts or dealing with disagreements, on the other. An authoritarian style of leadership may create a
climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered
futile.
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aiou solved assignment code 8605 autumn 2016
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PATERNALISTIC:-
The way a paternalistic leader works is by acting as a father figure by taking care of their subordinates as
a parent would. In this style of leadership the leader supplies complete concern for his followers or
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workers. In return he receives the complete trust and loyalty of his people. Workers under this style of
leader are expected to become totally committed to what the leader believes and will not strive off and
work independently. The relationship between these co-workers and leader are extremely solid. The
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workers are expected to stay with a company for a longer period of time because of the loyalty and trust.
Not only do they treat each other like family inside the work force, but outside too. These workers are able
to go to each other with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in what they
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say is going to truly help them.

One of the downsides to a paternalistic leader is that the leader could start to play favorites in decisions.
This leader would include the workers more apt to follow and start to exclude the ones who were less
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loyal. In today’s market paternalism is more difficult to come by according to Padavic and Earnest who
wrote “business dimensional and Organizational Counseling.” They believe this because there have
become more lay-offs and stronger unionization. This affects paternalistic leaders because the co-
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workers may not believe that their jobs are 100% ensured. When this happens, workers begin to look for
bigger and better job opportunities instead of staying at one company for a longer period of time. Because
of this, the leader may be thinking that you could be leaving and not fully believe you when you tell them
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something about a job opportunity. This could put the workers and leader at risk for a bad situation.
According to B. M. Bass who wrote Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, workers who
follow paternalistic leadership also have better organization skills. The leader encourages organization
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because they allow the workers to complete tasks so that they can stay on top of their work. The workers
complete tasks this boosts self-confidence and it makes them work harder to reach a goal and exceed the
goal to prove to their boss they are working hard. Having this style of leadership can also help implement
a reward system. This system will allow their workers to work even better because there is something for
them at the end of the tunnel. While doing this they will also be able to accomplish more work in a set
time frame.
DEMOCRATIC:- The democratic leadership style consists of the leader sharing the decision-making
abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practicing social
equality. The boundaries of democratic participation tend to be circumscribed by the organization or the
group needs and the instrumental value of people’s attributes (skills, attitudes, etc.). The democratic style
encompasses the notion that everyone, by virtue of their human status, should play a part in the group’s
decisions. However, the democratic style of leadership still requires guidance and control by a specific
leader. The democratic style demands the leader to make decisions on who should be called upon within
the group and who is given the right to participate in, make and vote on decisions. Traits of a Good
Leader compiled by the Santa Clara University and the Tom Peters Group:-
• Honest — Display sincerity, integrity, and candor in all your actions. Deceptive behavior will not inspire
trust.
• Competent — Base your actions on reason and moral principles. Do not make decisions based on
childlike emotional desires or feelings.
• Forward-looking — Set goals and have a vision of the future. The vision must be owned throughout the
organization. Effective leaders envision what they want and how to get it. They habitually pick priorities
stemming from their basic values.
• Inspiring — Display confidence in all that you do. By showing endurance in mental, physical, and
spiritual stamina, you will inspire others to reach for new heights. Take charge when necessary.
• Intelligent — Read, study, and seek challenging assignments.
• Fair-minded — Show fair treatment to all people. Prejudice is the enemy of justice. Display empathy by
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being sensitive to the feelings, values, interests, and well-being of others.
• Broad-minded — Seek out diversity. Courageous — Have the perseverance to accomplish a goal,
regardless of the seemingly insurmountable obstacles. Display a confident calmness when under stress.
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• Straightforward — Use sound judgment to make a good decisions at the right time.
• Imaginative — Make timely and appropriate changes in your thinking, plans, and methods. Show
creativity by thinking of new and better goals, ideas, and solutions to problems. Be innovative! Research
has found that this leadership style is one of the most effective and creates higher productivity, better
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contributions from group members and increased group morale. Democratic leadership can lead to better
ideas and more creative solutions to problems because group members are encouraged to share their
thoughts and ideas. While democratic leadership is one of the most effective leadership styles, it does
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have some potential downsides. In situations where roles are unclear or time is of the essence,
democratic leadership can lead to communication failures and uncompleted projects. Democratic
leadership works best in situations where group members are skilled and eager to share their knowledge.
It is also important to have plenty of time to allow people to contribute, develop a plan and then vote on
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the best course of action.
LAISSEZ-FAIRE:- The laissez-faire leadership style is where all the rights and power to make decisions is
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fully given to the worker. This was first described by Lewin, Lippitt, and White in 1939, along with the
autocratic leadership and the democratic leadership styles. Laissez-faire leaders allow followers to have
complete freedom to make decisions concerning the completion of their work. It allows followers a self-
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rule, while at the same time offering guidance and support when requested. The laissez-faire leader using
guided freedom provides the followers with all materials necessary to accomplish their goals, but does not
directly participate in decision making unless the followers request their assistance.
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This is an effective style to use when:

 Followers are highly skilled, experienced, and educated.
➢ Followers have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own.
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 Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants are being used.

 Followers are trustworthy and experienced. This style should not be used when:
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 The leader cannot or will not provide regular feedback to their followers.
TRANSACTIONAL:-
Transactional leaders focus their leadership on motivating followers through a system of rewards and
punishments. There are two factors which form the basis for this system,
Contingent Reward and management-by-exception. Contingent reward provides rewards, materialistic or
psychological, for effort and recognizes good performance.
Management-by-exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo. The leader intervenes when
subordinates do not meet acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve
performance. Management by exception helps reduce the workload of managers being that they are only
called-in when workers deviate from course.
This type of leader identifies the needs of their followers and gives rewards to satisfy those needs in
exchange of certain level of performance.
Transactional leaders focus on increasing the efficiency of established routines and procedures. They are
more concerned with following existing rules than with making changes to the organization.
A transactional leader establishes and standardizes practices that will help the organization reach:-
• Maturity
• Goal-setting
• Efficiency of operation
• Increasing productivity.
EFFECT ON WORK TEAMS:- Survey done by Jun Liu, Xiaoyu Liu and Xianju Zeng on the correlation of
transactional leadership and how innovations can be affected by team emotions. The research was
composed of 90 work teams, with a total of 460 members and 90 team leaders. The study found that
there is a relationship between emotions, labor behavior and transactional leadership that affect for the
team. Depending on the level of emotions of the team; this can affect the transactional leader in a positive
or negative way. Transactional leaders work better in teams where there is a lower level of emotions
going into the project. This is because individuals are able to
• Think freely when setting their emotions aside from their work.
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• Have all of their focus on the given task.
A transactional leader is:-
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1. Negatively affected when the emotional level is high.
2. Positively affected when the emotional level is low.
Transactional leadership presents a form of strategic leadership that is important for the organizations
development. Transactional leadership is essential for team innovativeness.
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AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 1 CODE 8605 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
TRANSFORMATIONAL:- A transformational leader is a type of person in which the leader is not limited
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by his or her followers’ perception. The main objective is to work to change or transform his or her
followers’ needs and redirect their thinking. Leaders that follow the transformation style of leading,
challenge and inspire their followers with a sense of purpose and excitement. Transformational leaders
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also create a vision of what they aspire to be, and communicate this idea to others (their
followers).Schultz and Schultz identify three characteristics of a transformational leader:-
• Charismatic leadership has a broad field of knowledge, has a self-promoting personality, high/great
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energy level, and willing to take risk and use irregular strategies in order to stimulate their followers to
think independently
• Individualized consideration
• Intellectual stimulation
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Q. 1 EXPLORE THE ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVITY METHOD WITH THE CONTRAST OF
TRADITIONAL METHOD. (20)
ANSWER:- It requires active problem solving by students in finding patterns in the information
through their own investigation and analysis. With continued practice in these processes, students
learn not the content of the lesson but also develop many other skills.
• It enhances creative aspect of experience.
• It gives reality for learning.
• Uses all available resources.
• Provides varied experiences to the students to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge, experience,
skills and values.
• Builds the student’s self-confidence and develops understanding through work in his/her group.
• Gets experiences, develop interest, enriches vocabulary and provides stimulus for reading.
• Develops happy relationship between students and students, teachers and students.
• An activity is said to be the language of the child. A child who lacks in verbal expression can make
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up through use of ideas in the activity.
• Subjects of all kind can be taught through activity.
• Social relation provides opportunity to mix with others.
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KINDS OF ACTIVITIES: – The activities used in this strategy can be generalized under three main
categories:-
• Exploratory – gathering knowledge, concept and skill.
• Constructive – getting experience through creative works.
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• Expressional – presentations.
The Activities you could focus on:-
EXPERIENCING:-
• watching, observing, comparing, describing, questioning, discussing, investigating, reporting,
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collecting, selecting, testing, trying, listening, reading, drawing, calculating, imitating, modeling,
playing, acting, taking on roles, talking, writing about what one can see, hear, feel, taste,
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experimenting and imagining.
MEMORIZING:-
• Sequencing ordering, finding regularities and patterns, connect with given knowledge, use different
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modes of perception, depict.
UNDERSTANDING:-
• Structuring, ordering, classifying, constructing, solving, planning, predicting, transferring, and
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applying knowledge, formulating ones individual understanding, interpreting, summarizing,

evaluating, judging, explaining and teaching.
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ORGANIZING ACTIVITIES:-
• The process of organizing activities must be based on curricular aims bringing together the needs,
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ideas, interests and characteristics of the children with the knowledge, skill, experience, and
personality of the teacher within a given environment. The extent to which the teacher works with
students individually or in groups affect the relation the teacher has with each child.
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1. Each child has its own speed to grasp things, activity based learning allows kid to learn
fundamentals at their own speed.
2. Horizon of learning is pretty wise, it facilitates learning in groups, and mutual learning. Also it has
a place for self-learning.
3. It allows teacher’s to devote time to individual student needs.
4. Since its activity based and kid is involved in the process – their participation allows them to pick
fundamentals fast.
5. There is no concept of unit test etc, Evaluation is inbuilt in the system which makes it quite child
friendly.
6. On completing the activity, child has a feeling of sense of accomplishment which boosts child’s
confidence.
7. Games are needless to say create more buzz among children.
8. Creative and communicative skills are bound to groom in this way of learning.
9. There is feeling of interaction between teacher and the child, it helps in reducing the barrier
between the two.
10. The most important feature of activity based instruction is learning by doing. So this method of
instruction can fulfil the natural urge of a growing child on one hand also can help them learn their
lesson.
11. The method also promotes better understanding of a lesson among students as they learn the
lesson by practicing the task themselves.
12. It inspires the students to apply their creative ideas, knowledge and minds in solving problems as
well as promoting competitive spirit among them.
13. It also helps learner psychologically as they can express their emotions through active
participation in something useful.
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14. The method also helps in developing their personalities, social traits and inter-personal
management skills.
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Q. 2 EXPLAIN THE STRUCTURE OF CLASSROOM DISCUSSION. DISCUSS
CHARACTERISTICS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLASSROOM DISCUSSION. (20)
Answer:
Don’t let anyone fool you. Don’t let anyone tell you differently. To create an “inviting, safe, inclusive,
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and supportive” environment for students, desks matter. I know this fact firsthand, because one day
at school could have gone very badly if it weren’t for the desk arrangement in my classroom.
In fact, one singular moment for me and an eighth grader named Tim could have gone horribly
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wrong if I had chosen a different way to set up my desks. The head counselor had warned me about
Tim the day before he arrived. It was already the middle of the first week of school when she told
me, “Now, Dru, Tim is a strong-willed student and he may be a little tough, but I’ve gotten good
reports from the reform school.” She slid a plain, one-inch manila folder my way, and it was filled
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with white, yellow, pink and blue papers of various sizes. I put my hand over the folder with some
trepidation, wanting to look inside this archive—this embattled history—to read about Tim and
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prepare myself for his arrival. But as the cold fluorescent lights buzzed above us and mingled with a
growing chorus of student voices, I looked at the contents in the folder and knew there was more to
Tim. I knew Tim was going to be the kid who walked in my eighth grade English Language Arts
classroom door. Sure, I was a little fearful. I was a relatively new teacher, and I didn’t want to let
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anybody down.
WHAT INFORMATION DO MY STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW EVERY DAY?

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Students need daily details in the same place (across the team/grade level): date, agenda,
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assignment, reminders, procedures, 3-5 positively-stated norms (not rules); and specific classroom
roles. This is not only necessary for students, but also for teachers.
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WHAT INSPIRATION DO MY STUDENTS NEED EVERY DAY?

They need to read and see a quote of the day/week/month; college and career symbols (i.e.,
diploma, pennant, shirt); famous historical and everyday heroes (i.e., students!) in each content
area; individual and team awards; famous and everyday art; and blank boards and walls for students
to fill up.
WHAT EDUCATION ARTIFACTS AND ACTIONS DO THEY NEED EVERY DAY?

They need a daily warm-up activity; active Word Walls; purposeful posters/boards; and literacy
resources (writing/reading materials; books, magazines, newspaper articles).
HOW DO I NEED TO STRUCTURE DESKS AND FOR WHAT ACTIVITIES?

For teacher-focused activities, straight rows facing front; chevron pattern angled to face front are
most appropriate and needed when giving/projecting direct information from the front of the
classroom. For student-focused activities, whole/semi-circles, triads and quad groups, and rotation
stations are necessary when working on collaboration, teamwork, relationship-building, and projects.
CHARACTERISTICS AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF CLASSROOM DISCUSSION STUDENT-

ECCENTRIC:- In these classrooms, students play an active role in their learning and teachers serve
as mere guides. They are more facilitators of learning than lecturers. They help students think
critically and learn by doing and act as a resource while their students discover and master new
concepts. Student-centric classroom environments put students’ interests first and are focused on
each student’s needs, abilities and learning styles.
COMPUTING DEVICES:- Computers are readily available in modern classrooms, since they are
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essential tools for 21st` century students and replace the utilities of pen and paper. They not only
give students the means to conduct online research and master the technology skills they need, but
they also give teachers the opportunity to enhance their lessons. The ability to deftly operate a
computer is a critical 21st century skill. Computing devices greatly assist in teaching and learning
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and make them more engaging and effective.
ACTIVE LEARNING:- In modern classrooms, students are actively engaged in what they learn.
Students participate in more active learning by working in groups or on computers and complete
projects and other interesting activities that help them discover new skills. Students can learn
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actively by talking and listening, writing, reading and reflecting. When students are encouraged to
take an active interest in learning, they are more likely to retain the knowledge they’ve accumulated.
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ADAPTIVE LEARNING:- Any classroom will always have students of different types of learning
abilities in it which often makes it difficult for teachers to make sure that all of them understand the
concepts. The modern approach of adaptive learning gives students the freedom to learn at their
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own pace and in the way they are most comfortable with. There are various kinds of software
available for adaptive learning that teachers can use to enhance the learning of their students.
INVITATIONAL ENVIRONMENT:- The classrooms should not be cramped or overcrowded. Modern
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classrooms should have the basic material required for teaching such as, interactive whiteboards
and LCD projectors. The BYOD (Bring-Your-Own-Device) approach can be adopted, so that
students can bring their laptops or tablets to the classroom for better personalized learning.
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Teaching with technological material is more effective, stimulates student engagement, eases the
work of teachers and makes it easy for students to focus on learning.
STUDENTS UNDERSTAND AND FOLLOW THE RULES AND PROCEDURES:- The learning
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environment is carefully planned and well-organized. Class rules, procedures, and notices of
upcoming activities are posted in convenient places to help students stay on track. Students are
constantly encouraged to remind them of their goals and responsibilities. They follow class routines
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and understand what they are expected to achieve each day and how they are to go about it.
MUTUAL RESPECT:- Teachers and students should always have respect for each other. As now
the role of teachers is no longer to be the sage on the stage, students should not forget their value
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as they will always receive guidance from them. Also, teachers should encourage students to speak
with confidence and value their opinions. In a well-disciplined environment, students should also co-
operate with and respect their classmates.
STUDENTS TAKE RESPONSIBILITY OF THEIR LEARNING:- As students are encouraged to
actively participate in their own learning, they become responsible for their learning. Self-directed
students not only encourage each other, but also work with their teacher to achieve academic and
behavioral goals that they themselves have helped establish. Teachers should employ a variety of
strategies to promote responsible decision-making and create self-reliant students.
PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENTS:- Regular performance-based assessments are carried
out by teachers through various methods which are not restricted to tests. These can be by
conducting quizzes and polls. Teachers can utilize projects as well as other products and
performances as assessments to determine student achievements and needs. Assessments are
tailored to the abilities and needs of the students.
COLLABORATIVE LEARNING:- Learning through collaboration is one of the most effective forms of
learning. Teaching and learning in isolation are very restrictive and hinder progress. Learning in
groups enhances the scope of learning and develops critical thinking. Collaborative learning
activities include collaborative writing, group projects, joint problem solving, debates and more.
Collaborative learning redefines traditional student-teacher relationship in the classroom.
Q. 3 DESCRIBE THE NATURE OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING AND EXPLAIN THE

COOPERATIVE LEARNING PRINCIPLES. (20)
Answer:-
Cooperative Learning Students’ learning goals may be structured to promote cooperative,
competitive, or individualistic efforts. In every classroom, instructional activities are aimed at
accomplishing goals and are conducted under a goal structure. A learning goal is a desired future
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state of demonstrating competence or mastery in the subject area being studied. The goal structure
specifies the ways in which students will interact with each other and the teacher during the
instructional session. Each goal structure has its place (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 1999). In the
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ideal classroom, all students would learn how to work cooperatively with others, compete for fun and
enjoyment, and work autonomously on their own. The teacher decides which goal structure to
implement within each lesson. The most important goal structure, and the one that should be used
the majority of the time in learning situations, is cooperation.
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Cooperation is working together to accomplish shared goals. Within cooperative situations,
individuals seek outcomes that are beneficial to themselves and beneficial to all other group
members. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work
together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. It may be contrasted with competitive
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(students work against each other to achieve an academic goal such as a grade of “A” that only one
or a few students can attain) and individualistic (students work by themselves to accomplish learning
goals unrelated to those of the other students) learning. In cooperative and individualistic learning,
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you evaluate student efforts on a criteria-referenced basis while in competitive learning you grade
students on a norm-referenced basis. While there are limitations on when and where you may use
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competitive and individualistic learning appropriately, you may structure any learning task in any
subject area with any curriculum cooperatively.
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COOPERATIVE LEARNING PRINCIPLES:-

Positive Interdependence Students perceive that they need each other in order to complete the
group’s task (“sink or swim together”). Teachers may structure positive interdependence by
establishing mutual goals (learn and make sure all other group members learn), joint rewards (if all
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group members achieve above the criteria, each will receive bonus points), shared resources (one
paper for each group or each member receives part of the required information), and assigned roles
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(summarizer, encourager of participation, elaborator).
FACE-TO-FACE PRO MOTIVE INTERACTION:-

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Students promote each other’s learning by helping, sharing, and encouraging efforts to learn.
Students explain, discuss, and teach what they know to classmates. Teachers structure the groups
so that students sit knee-to-knee and talk through each aspect of the assignment.
INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNTABILITY:-
Each student’s performance is frequently assessed and the results are given to the group and the
individual. Teachers may structure individual accountability by giving an individual test to each
student or randomly selecting one group member to give the answer.
INTERPERSONAL AND SMALL GROUP SKILLS:-

Groups cannot function effectively if students do not have and use the needed social skills. Teachers
teach these skills as purposefully and precisely as academic skills. Collaborative skills include
leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflict-management skills.
GROUP PROCESSING:-
Groups need specific time to discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining
effective working relationships among members. Teachers structure group processing by assigning
such tasks as (a) list at least three member actions that helped the group be successful and (b) list
one action that could be added to make the group even more successful tomorrow. Teachers also
monitor the groups and give feedback on how well the groups are working together to the groups
and the class as a whole.
Q. 4 DEFINE THE TERMS “EVALUATION” AND “STUDENTS EVALUATION” ALSO HIGHLIGHT THE
IMPORTANCE OF STUDENTS’ EVALUATION. (20)
Answer:-
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Evaluation: Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subject’s merit, worth and significance, using
criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization, program, project or any other
intervention or initiative to assess any aim, realizable concept/proposal, or any alternative, to help in
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decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives
and results of any such action that has been completed. The primary purpose of evaluation, in addition to
gaining insight into prior or existing initiatives, is to enable reflection and assist in the identification of
future change. Evaluation is often used to characterize and appraise subjects of interest in a wide range
of human enterprises, including the arts, criminal justice, foundations, non-profit organizations,
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government, health care, and other human services. It is long term and done at the end of a period of
time.
STUDENTS EVALUATION IN AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601 AUTUMN 2016
STUDENTS EVALUATION:-
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Student evaluation is an assessment by learners of the service provided by the institution, be it solely of
the classroom experience or of all aspects of the learning experience. In some countries, such as the
United States and Canada, ‘student evaluation’ has the same meaning as assessment of students’
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learning.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDENTS’ EVALUATION:-
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Assessment is an integral part of instruction, as it determines whether or not the goals of education are
being met. Assessment affects decisions about grades, placement, advancement, instructional needs,
curriculum, and, in some cases, funding. Assessment inspire us to ask these hard questions: “Are we
teaching what we think we are teaching?” “Are students learning what they are supposed to be learning?”
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“Is there a way to teach the subject better, thereby promoting better learning?” Today’s students need to
know not only the basic reading and arithmetic skills, but also skills that will allow them to face a world
that is continually changing. They must be able to think critically, to analyze, and to make inferences.
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Changes in the skills base and knowledge our students need require new learning goals; these new
learning goals change the relationship between assessment and instruction. Teachers need to take an
active role in making decisions about the purpose of assessment and the content that is being assessed.
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When assessment works best, it does the following:-
PROVIDES DIAGNOSTIC FEEDBACK:-

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• What is the student’s knowledge base?

• What is the student’s performance base?
• What are the student’s needs?
• What has to be taught?
HELPS EDUCATORS SET STANDARDS:-

• What performance demonstrates understanding?
• What performance demonstrates knowledge?
• What performance demonstrates mastery?
EVALUATES PROGRESS:-
• How is the student doing?
• What teaching methods or approaches are most effective?
• What changes or modifications to a lesson are needed to help the student?
RELATES TO A STUDENT’S PROGRESS:-

• What has the student learned?
• Can the student talk about the new knowledge?
• Can the student demonstrate and use the new skills in other projects?
MOTIVATES PERFORMANCE:-
For student self-evaluation:-
• Now that I’m in charge of my learning, how am I doing?
• Now that I know how I’m doing, how can I do better?
• What else would I like to learn?
FOR TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION:-
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• What is working for the students?
• What can I do to help the students more?
• In what direction should we go next?
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Q. 5 DISCUSS DIFFERENT KINDS OF AUDIO VISUAL AIDS. (20)
Answer:-
Introduction: Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the
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learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio visual material
and teaching learning process. Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned
components of educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and
stimulation. A.v. aids are multi sensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes
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dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking
and reasoning.
DEFINITIONS:-
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1. According to Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the
learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.
2. According to Burton: audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate
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and reinforce learning.

3. According to Carter.v.Good: audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular
process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation.
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4. Purposes:-
• To supplement and enrich teachers own teaching to make teaching-learning more concrete.
• To serve an instructional role in itself.
• To create interest among the group.
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• To make teaching as an effective process.
ADVANTAGES:-
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1. A.V.Aids helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning.

2. A.V.Aids helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students.
3. A.V.Aids arouses interest and motivates students to learn.
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4. A.V.Aids is helpful in new learning.

5. A.V.Aids helps in saving energy and time of both the teacher’s and students.
6. A.V.Aids provides near realistic experience.
7. A.V.Aids can meet individual demands.
8. A.V.Aids is useful in for education of masses.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING AIDS IN AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601

AUTUMN 2016
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING AIDS:-

TEACHING AIDS SHOULD BE:-
• Meaningful and purposeful
• Motivates the learners
• Accurate in every aspect
• Simple and cheap
• Improvised
• Large in size
• Up-to-date
• Easily portable
ACCORDING TO INTELLECTUAL LEVEL OF STUDENTS SOURCES OF A.V.AIDS:-

• Government
• Educational institutions
• Professional organizations
• Non-governmental organizations
• Voluntary organizations(national and international)
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• Commercial producers of educational material
• Commercial advertisement
• In nursing organizations like TNAI, INC…etc.
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•
CLASSIFICATION OF A.V.AIDS:- Various classifications are given for Audio visual aids according to the
type of projection by various authors.
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I) Classification of A.V.Aids
I) Audio aids:- Audio materials are those which can be heard. Ex: – radio, tape recorder, walkman,
Headphones.
II) Visual aids: these are helpful to visualize the things. Ex:- graphic aids, 3d-aids, display boards, and
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print material.
III) Audio visual aids: these aids can be heard and seen simultaneously. Ex: – projected aids, TV, films.
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II) Classification of A.V.Aids
I) Simple A.V.Aids: It includes graphic aids, display boards, 3d-aids, print material…etc.
II) Sophisticated A.V.Aids: includes audio-visual aids.
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FOLLOWED THESE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE USE OF A.V AIDS IN AIOU SOLVED

ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601 AUTUMN 2016
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PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF A.V.AIDS:-

• Audio visual materials should function as an integral part of the educational program.
• A.v. aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership in educational programs.
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• An advisory committee consisting of representative from all areas of curriculum should be appointed to
assist in selection and coordination of a.v. materials.
• An education program should be flexible.
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• A.v. material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication, easy accessibility and convenient use.
• A.v. material should be available whenever and wherever they needed for effective utilization as an
integral part of curriculum.
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• Budget appropriations should be made regularly for a.v. education programs.

• Periodic evaluation to be done to assess the function of, utilization and expenditure of the program.
PROJECTED A.V. AIDS: OVER HEAD PROJECTOR:- The overhead projector is the most used in all a.v.
aids. It projects transparencies with brilliant screen images suitable for use in a lighted room. The teacher
can write or draw diagrams on the transparency while he teaches; these are projected simultaneously on
the screen by the OHP.
DURING PRESENTATION:-
• Keep the screen above the heads of the participants.
• Keep the screen in full view of participants
• Make sure you are not blocking any ones view when presenting.
• Darken the room appropriately by blocking out sunshine and dimming nearby.
• Turn the screen off between slides if you are going to talk for more than two.
• Talk to the audience, not to the screen
OVER HEAD TRANSPARENCIES: – Transparencies are popular instructional medium. They are simple
to prepare and easy to prepare and easy to operate with the overhead projector which is light weight. A
1090 inches sheet with printed, written or drawn material is placed on the platform of the projector and a
large image is projected on a screen behind you. The projector is used from near to the front of the room
with the teacher standing or sitting beside, facing the student.
THE OPAQUE PROJECTOR: – Opaque projector is the only projector on which you can project a variety
of materials ex: – book pages, objects, coins, postcards, or any other similar flat material that is non-
transparent. The opaque projector will project and simultaneously enlarge, directly from the originals,
printed matter, all kinds of written or pictorial matter in any sequence derived by the teacher. It requires a
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dark room, as projector is large and not reality movables.
SLIDE PROJECTOR:- A slide is a small piece of transparent material on which a single pictorial image or
scene or graphic image has been photographed or reproduced otherwise. Slides are a form of projected
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media that are easy to prepare. They are still pictures on positive film which you can process and mount
individually yourself or send to a film laboratory. The standard size of the slides is 2 “X 2 “any 35mm
camera will make satisfactory slides.
Types of slides
1. Photographic slides: 2″ X 2″ 3″ X4” a) Black and white b) Colored
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2. Handmade slides: can be made with a) Acetate sheet b) Cellophane c) Etched glass d) Plain glass e)
Lumarith
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Slides can be made from photographs and pictures by teachers and pupils taking photographs and
snapshots when they go on fieldtrips for historical, geographical, literacy or scientific excursions. The
arrangement of slides in proper sequence, according to the topic discussed, is an important aspect of
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teaching with them.
FILMSTRIPS:- Film strips are sequence of transparent still pictures with individual frames on 35mm film.
A tap recorded narration can be synchronized with film strip. Each strip contains from 12 to 18 or more
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pictures. It is a fixed sequence of related stills on a roll of 35mm film or 8mm film.
TYPES OF FILMSTRIP:
1) Discussion filmstrip: it is continuous strip of film consisting of individual frames arranged in sequence
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usually with explanatory titles.

2) Sound slide film: it is similar to filmstrip but instead of explanatory titles or spoken discussion recorded
explanation is audible, which is synchronized with the pictures.
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NON PROJECTED A.V. AIDS DISCUSSIONS UNDER AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601
AUTUMN 2016
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NON PROJECTED A.V. AIDS:

GRAPHIC AIDS:
It is a combination of graphic and pictorial material designed for the orderly and logical visualizing of
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relationships between key facts and ideas ex: comparisons, relative amounts developments, processes,
classification or organization. It includes the following
CHARTS:-
INTRODUCTION:- These visual symbols used for summarizing, comparing, contrasting or performing
other services in explaining subject matter. A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or
vertical material, which presents a clear summary.
DEFINITION: Chart is defined as a visual aid which depicts pictorial and written key information in
systematic way to summarize, compare, ex: anatomical charts and figure, diagrams etc.
PURPOSES:-
• To visualize an item, it is otherwise difficult to explain only in words.
• To highlight important points.
• To provide outline for materials covered in presentation.
• To show continuity in process.
• For creating problems and stimulating thinking.
• For showing development of structure.
TYPES OF CHARTS FOR B.ED STUDENTS FOR AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601
SPRING 2017
TYPES OF CHARTS:-
• Narrative chart: Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the events in the process or development
of a significant issue to its point of resolution or we can show an improvement over a period of years.
• The cause and effective chart: Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the relationship between
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rights and responsibilities or between a complex of conditions and change or conflict.
• The chain chart: arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing transitions or cycles.
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THE EVOLUTION CHART:- facts and ideas for expressing changes in specific items from beginning data
and its projections in to future.
STRIP TEASE CHART:- it enables speaker to present the information step by It increases the interest
and imagination of the audience. The information on the chart is covered with thin paper strips to which it
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has been applied either by wax, tape or sticky substance or pins. As the speaker wishes to visually
reinforce a point with words or symbols, he removes the appropriate strip or paper. It produces interest. It
increases learning and aids recall.
PULL CHART:- it consists of written messages which are hidden by strips of thick paper. The message
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can be shown to the viewer, one after another by6 pulling out the concealing strips.
FLOW CHART:- diagrams used to show organizational elements or administrative or functional
relationships. In this chart lines, rectangles, circles, are connected by lines showing the directional flow.
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TABULATION CHART:- it shows the schedule of an activity or of an individual ex: time-table of a class.
These are very valuable aid in the teaching situation where breakdown of a fact or a statement is to be
listed. Also it is a useful aid for showing points of comparison, distinction, and contrasts between two or
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more things. While making the table charts the following points must be kept in the mind. The chart
should be 50 X 75 cm or more in size. The chart should be captioned in bold letters. The vertical columns
should be filled in short phrases rather than complete sentences.
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FLIP CHART:-a set of charts related to specific topic have been tagged together and hang on a
supporting stand. The individual charts will carry a series of related materials or messages in sequence.
The silent points of specific topic will be presented.
PIE CHART:-a circle will be drawn and divisions will be made into different sections, each section will be
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coded differently and code key will be given at right corner of the chart as legend. The circumference is
divided into suitable sections. It is relevant for showing the component part.
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FLASH CARDS
Definition: ”
Flash cards are a set of pictured paper cards of varying sizes that are flashed one by one in a logical
sequence.”
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“Flash cards can be self made or commercially prepared and are made up of chart or drawing paper,
plane paper using colors or ink on them for drawings.”
POSTERS
Definition: “Posters are the graphic aids with short quick and typical messages with attention capturing
paintings.”
PURPOSES:-
• To provide general motivation.
• To create an esthetic or atmospheric effect.
• To communicate a more general idea. To thrust the message for leading to action.
• For the class room and community.
GRAPHS FOR AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601 AUTUMN 2016
GRAPHS
DEFINITION:- Graphs are the visual teaching aids for presenting statistical data and contrasting the
trends or changes of certain attributes.
TYPES:-
PIE GRAPH:-
• These are called as circle diagram. The data are presented thorough the sections of portions of a circle.
• In determining the circumference of a circle we have to take in to consideration a quantity known as pie.
• The surface area of a circle is to cover 360 degree.
• The total frequencies or value us equated to 360 degree and then the angles corresponding to
component parts are calculated.
• After determining their angle, the required sectors in the circle are drawn.
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BAR GRAPH:- The graphic presentation extends the scale horizontally along the length of bars. Each bar
must be of the same width, height of the bar over a period represents the corresponding time of the
variable. Graphs are available in 2 forms that is vertical and horizontal
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LINE GRAPH:- To show the trends and relationships ex: single line shows the relation and the variation in
the quantity. Quantitative data are plotted or when the data is continuous. The concepts are represented
with the help of lines drawn either horizontally or vertically. The plotted points are connected to one
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another, instead of the base thus producing the curve.
PICTORIAL GRAPH:- It is an outstanding method of graphic representation. Pictures are used for the
expression of ideal; they are more attractive and easily understood. Vivid pictures will be used to create
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rapid association with the graphic message; each visual symbol may be used to indicate quantity.
MAPS
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Definition: A map is a graphic aid representing the proportionately as a diagram, the surface of the earth,
world or parts thereof. It conveys the message by lines, symbols, words and colors.
TYPES OF MAPS:
• Political maps: these maps show political divisions of the world, a continent, a nation.
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• Physical maps: shows the physical contour of a place, area, and region.
• Relief maps: it shows the actual elevations and depressions in a place, area, and region. a
• Weather maps: shows the amount of rains, temperature extremes, humidity in an area, region country.
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• Population maps: shows the distribution of population in various parts of region, country.
• Picture or tourist maps: shows historical spots monumental sites.etc..
• Road maps: shows the roads of a region connecting various parts and points together.
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• Railway maps: shows the railway links between various points.

• Air maps: shows the air routes between various points.
• Sea root maps: shows the sea routes between various sea ports
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CARTOONS
The word cartoon has various meanings, based on several very different forms of visual art and
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illustration. The term has evolved over time. The original meaning was in fine art, and there cartoon
meant a preparatory drawing for a piece of art such as a painting.
DEFINITION:- A cartoon is humorous caricature which gives a subtle message. In a cartoon the features
of objects and people are exaggerated along with generally recognized symbols.
NEWS PAPERS
It can furnish health messages in local languages which cancan reach to the public easily. The
information will be available in low cost, easy to read and understand simple language .the people may
learn to read and interpret the contents along with pictures to enhance easy grasping.
COMIC STRIPS:-
Definition: A comic strip is the graphic depiction in a series of pictures or sketches of some character and
events full of action. This medium of communication is found very interesting and exciting by children.
3D AIDS UNDER AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601 AUTUMN 2016
3- DIMENTIONAL AIDS
MODELS:-
Definition: a model is a recognizable representation of a real thing three dimensionally, that is height,
width, and depth is felt as reality.
TYPES OF MODELS:
1. Solid models: it is the replica of an original thing made with some suitable material like clay, plaster of
Paris, wood, iron etc. to show the external parts of the things. Ex: globe, clay model of human and animal.
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2. Cutaway and x-ray models: are the replicas of the original things to show internal parts of a thing.
Cross sectional models are difficult to make in the class room or institutions as they require expertise to
construct them. Ex: cross sectional model of human body.
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3. Working models: these models are either actual working things or their miniature replicas. For
illustrating an operation. Ex: a motor, a generator.
4. Sand models: made by using sand, clay, saw dust, ex: a tribal village, a forest area.
OBJECTS AND SPECIMENS
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Definition: A collection of real things for instructional use refers to objects. A specimen is a sample of the
real object or a material. Using objects and specimens: while using the specimen and objects as teaching
aids, a teacher must keep the following points in her mind.
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• Plan your teaching with certain simple and direct observations of the object or specimen being referred
to.
• Ask questions from the students to elicit more details of the features of the object or specimen under
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observation.
• Clarify and emphasize important structural details of the object or specimen under observation
• Provide review and practice to make learning permanent.
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EXHIBITIONS:-
Many times in the school, a department of the school or a class put up their work for showing it to the
people outside the school, and such a show called exhibitions. The pieces of work done by the students
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for an exhibition are called exhibits.

REQUISITES FOR EXHIBITION:-
• The exhibition should have a central theme with a few sub themes to focus attention to a particular
concept
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• The exhibits should be clean , labeled properly

• The concepts of contrast in color and size should be used for lying out the exhibitions
• The exhibits should be so placed so the most visitors, can see them
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• The place and exhibits should be well lighted

• To capture attention and interest of visitors, both motion and sound should be utilized
• The exhibition should have some exhibits with operative mechanism such as switches, handles, to be
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operated by the visitors to observe some happenings.

• The exhibition should include lot of demonstrations as they involve deeply the students and the visitors
• The exhibition should be able to relate various subjects’ areas to provide integrated learning.
MUSEUMS:-
DEFINITION:- A museum is a building displaying a collection of historical relics, antiques, curiosities,
works of arts, works of science, literature and other artifacts of general interest. Museums can be useful
both for public education and specific class room instructions.
SETTING UP SCHOOL MUSEUM:-
• School should have enough space
• Take the help of students, collect old and new objects and articles
• Accept donations from various organizations who donates the articles
• Students can be guided to prepare the exhibits
• All the collected and prepared articles should be displayed and labeled
• A detailed report book should be maintained giving a brief description of each museum pieces
• The museum rooms should be well lighted
• It should be cleaned and maintained timely.
DIORAMAS:
DEFINITIONS:- A diorama is a three dimensional arrangement of related objects, models, and cut outs to
illustrate a central theme or concept. The objects and models are generally placed in a big box or show
case with a glass covering and background printed with a shade or a scene. Ex: a harvest scene, a
planting scene etc.
MOCK UPS:- It emphasizes the functional relationship between the device reality and its workability.
Certain element of the original reality is emphasized to make it more meaningful for the purpose of
instruction. In common usage, a mockup is a scale model of a structure or device, usually used for
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teaching, demonstration, testing a design, etc. Mockups are also used in the Consumer goods industry,
as part of the product development process, when the size, impression and/or artworks have to be tested
and approved. Mockup is also a frequently used term when talking about an early layout or sketch of a
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Web site or GUI program. Ex: An artificial kidney to demonstrate dialysis.
MOULAGE
Mould can be made up of plastic material to stimulate some life in objects. ex: body which shows
evidence of trauma, infection, disease, surgical intervention.
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IMAGE PERSPECTIVES MOULAGE PROCESS (SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8601 AUTUMN
2016)
The basic material we use to create our soft tissue injuries is very inexpensive; it costs only pennies per
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simulation. If someone walks off with a simulation it can be recreated in a matter of minutes! You are not
limited to mass-produced latex or plastic “one-size-fits-all injuries”. You determine the type, scope and
Size of the injuries and create as many as you wish, in whatever size you need. Our simulations can be
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handled and bandaged, with care, as you would a real injury. The simulations will not shift and/or be
damaged. When bandages are removed, the injury simulation will remain intact. The simulations can be
made liquid-proof, and with care – reusable!
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PUPPETS
One of the old and popular arts in Indian villages is puppetry. Puppetry is an education cum entertaining
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aid in which puppets manipulated by the performer is a person termed as a characters in a story to be
depicted.
DEFINITION:- A puppet is a manipulative doll dressed as a character and the performer is a person
termed as a puppeteer. A good puppeteer has to blend his art with dramatization to produce the desired
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effect. It is used as an effective teaching aid for languages and social sciences.
TYPES OF PUPPETS:-
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1. String or marionettes puppets:-Marionettes consist of puppets with hinged body parts which are
controlled by nine strings produces required movements in the puppet. These puppets are mainly
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manipulated by professional puppeteers.

2. Stick puppets: – stick puppet are the painted cutouts attached by sticks. The actions of these puppets
are manipulated by the teacher and students by hiding behind a screen so that only puppets are visible to
the audience or the class.
3. Shadow puppets: – shadow puppets are silhouettes of cardboard which produce shadows on white
screen. The motion of these silhouettes is manipulated by the teacher and students.
4. Finger of hand puppet: – Hand puppets are round balls painted as heads with overflowing colorful
costumes. These are worn on fingers which operate their movements. These are operated from below the
stage.
DISPLAY BOARDS / CHALK BOARD

DEFINITION:- A chalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are
made with chalk or other erasable markers. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of
black or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are often green or brown and are thus sometimes called
a green board or brown board instead.
FLANNEL BOARD
Sometimes called a flannel graph. This teaching tool is called by different names: Visual Board, Frick
Board, Slap Board, Felt Board, Choreograph, Video graph Flannel graph is a storytelling system that uses
a board covered with flannel fabric, usually resting on an easel. It is very similar to Fuzzy felt, although its
primary use is as a storytelling medium, rather than as a toy
BULLETIN BOARD
DEFINITION It is a soft board which will hold pins or tags almost suitable. Simple device placed either
indoor or outdoor. Items generally displayed are photographs, publications, posters, newspaper cut outs.
PEG BOARD
It is a type of board which contains small holes to fix certain letters into the holes which is used especially
in the offices to display certain items, name of the personal or faculty member.
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MAGNETIC BOARDS
It is a framed iron sheet carrying porcelain coating in some dark color generally black or green. It can be
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used to display pictures, cutouts and light objects with disc magnets or magnetic holders.
AUDITORY AIDS
These are also an effective aid, usually radios, recorders, gram phones come under this category. Using
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a record player for teaching:-
• A record player can be used in the following ways in the actual class room situation
• A record player can be used to supplement a lesson.
• A record player can be used for an appreciation lesson in music.
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• A record player can be used for an appreciation lesson in literature.
• A record player can be used for students to acquire the singing ability, deliver a speech properly, and
recite a poem in the right way.
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• The player can be used to end or conclude a lesson; introduce a lesson and review a lesson.
• A record player can be used for physical exercises accompanied with music.
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TAPE RECORDER:-
A tape recorder is a portable electronic gadget to record, reproduce, erase and rerecord sound on a
magnetic tape. This device can be used without much fuss by anybody by operating the following press
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buttons attached to the recorder, viz, stop, play, wind, rewind, record, pause, and eject.
ACTIVITY AIDS:-
There are certain learning situations in which student participation through direct experiences can be
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easily incorporated, these are called activity aids. The activity teaching aids are really of great value as
they put students in a role of active seekers of knowledge. There are five important activity teaching aids,
which are listed below:-
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1) Field trips
2) Demonstrations
3) Experiments
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4) Dramatizations
FIELD TRIPS
DEANITIONS:-
According to Hedger ken Field trip may be defined as “an educational procedure by which the student
studies firsthand objects and materials in their natural environment.”
TYPES OF FIELD TRIPS: –

Depending on the place of visit and its duration, field trips are mainly of the following four types, namely:-
a) Local school trips b) Community trip c) Educational trips d) The natural hunt
DEMONSTRATIONS:-
Demonstration method is a concrete visual aid, because of its wide use in the teaching of nurses. In
nursing education, it is used for this purpose and also for clinics, conferences, laboratory classes,
symposia, autopsies, and teaching of health to patients. The demonstration method teaches by
explanation and exhibition. In short, it is a performance to show a process or activity to others. When a
teacher demonstrates, students observe and imitate to learn.
EXPERIMENT:-
An experiment is a learning activity in which students collect and interpret observations using measuring
instruments to reach some conclusions. In science subjects experiments are used invariably used as
instructional aid as they encourage learning by doing. While giving a lesson on an experiment, the
teacher should organize the instruction so as to make the students aware of the following steps of the
experiments:-
1) Objectives of the experiments
2) Apparatus required
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3) Procedure or methodology
4) Observations of data
5) Computation (totaling) of the observations made.
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6) Results or conclusion
7) Precautions
8) Ideas for future work
The student performs the experiment and writes a report on it. Showing the cause and effect relationship.
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DRAMATIZATION:-
Dramatization is a very potent method of keeping the class room instruction lively and interesting. When a
teacher dramatizes a lesson, the students become both the spectators and participants. This makes
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learning easy and permanents.
TYPES OF DRAMATIZATIONS SUITABLE FOR CLASS ROOM INSTRUCTION:-
1) Role-play 2) Play lets 3) Pageant 4) Pantomime 5) Tableaux
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aiou solved assignment 2 code 8601 autumn 2016

Q.1:- WHAT IS CURRICULUM CONTENT? HIGHLIGHT THE PRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA FOR
SELECTING THE CURRICULUM CONTENT. (20)
ANSWER:-
Curriculum Content Curriculum development is both a political and technical process. Given the
importance of curriculum for society (i.e. from the point of view of its identity; development prospects;
etc.), curriculum is a matter of public interest. Curriculum entails nevertheless technical aspects that
are the responsibility of curriculum specialists (technicians). Curriculum specialists and specialized
committees ought to work in synergy with the support of curriculum-specialized institutions.
Curriculum processes should benefit from extensive capacity development and sharing, as well as
from the participation of relevant education agents and stakeholders.
Currently, all jurisdictions2 have written curricula that are laid down in different curriculum
documents. The clearest and most successful curricula are described in curriculum frameworks
which set subject curricula/ syllabuses in a wider structure. However, some jurisdictions described
their curricula mainly through learning materials, such as textbooks; teacher guides; assessment
guides. This makes curriculum transparent to education agents and stakeholders: everybody can
see what is intended and required in terms of curriculum provisions and learning results. However,
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for the sake of coherence and consistency, learning materials, such as textbooks, should be
developed in line with the broader curriculum perspective that is usually defined in a curriculum
framework.
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Curriculum content is another main lever of education quality. The knowledge, skills and attitudes
imparted by learning areas/subjects, cross-cutting approaches and extra-curricular activities is a
main source of systematic and comprehensive learning. While learners may learn from many other
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different sources (especially in an informal way from the Media and Internet), curriculum’s
advantages in structuring and sequencing learning represents a major asset for sustainable
acquisitions that ought to be well exploited and capitalized on. Given the many perspectives on
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learning and achievement that may exist in a society, defining the appropriate content of the
curriculum is very often a source of tensions. However, it may also become an occasion for working
together on consensus building.
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PRINCIPLES AND CRITERIA FOR SELECTING THE CURRICULUM CONTENT

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The criteria below can be utilized in the selection of subject matter for micro curriculum, and for the
content, subjects needed for the curricular program or course, of the macro curriculum.
1:- Self-sufficiency:-
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To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical manner is the main guiding
principle for subject matter or content selection (Scheffler, 1970) as cited by Bilbao et al., (2008).
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Economy of learning refers to less teaching effort and less use of educational resources; but
students gain more results. They are able to cope up with the learning outcomes effectively. This
means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This allows
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them to learn independently. With this principle in mind, I suggest that for a high school curriculum or
preparatory year, there should be a one day independent learning activity each week. However, this
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should be carefully planned by the teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs
from the activity.
2:- Significance:-
The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of
learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning
namely the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and considers the cultural aspects of the
learners. Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the
subject matter must be culture-sensitive. In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve
the overall aim of the curriculum.
3:- Validity
Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that the
topics are not obsolete. For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college
students. It should be about the computer or Information Technology (IT). Thus, there is a need to
check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it if necessary. Do not
wait for another 5 years in order to change it. Modern curriculum experts are after current trends,
relevance and authenticity of the curriculum; otherwise, your school or country will be left behind.
4:- Interest
This criterion is true to learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is
meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject-
centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously and teach only what
is in the book. This may somehow explain why many fail in the subject.
5:- Utility
Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject
matter or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they don’t
study. Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job? Will it give
meaning to my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it be part of the test?
Will I have a passing mark if I learn it? Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful
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to them.
6:- Learnability
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The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their
experiences. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how
subjects are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the
students. Page 2 of 26
7:- Feasibility o.
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It means that the subject matter can be fully implemented. It should consider the real situation of the
school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable time
and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish. For
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example, you have only one week to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month for the
students to complete it. This is not feasible.
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Q.2 DESCRIBE THE STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CURRICULUM EVALUATION PROCESS.

SUGGEST DIFFERENT MEASURES TO IMPROVE CURRICULUM EVALUATION PROCESS IN
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PAKISTAN. (20)
Answer:
Steps Involved In the Curriculum Evaluation Process
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1:- Specify the Objectives of the evaluation

PURPOSE:- The purpose statement should succinctly indicate the reason why the evaluation is
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being undertaken.
SCOPE:- The scope statement in essence should state what will be focussed on in the evaluation.
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2. CHOOSE AN APPROPRIATE EVALUATION DESIGN / METHOD:-

PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:- These are used when no control groups are available. In such
cases a post test only, or pre-and post-tests, will be used to determine the outcomes of a program.
OUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:- These are used in cases where control groups are available but
where subjects/cases cannot be assigned to groups on the basis of random selection.
3. IDENTIFY THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION / DATA:-

✓ The data / information needed for Evaluation of Curriculum may be collected from one are more of
the following potential sources:
✓ Present students
✓ Ex-students (Alumni)
✓ Teachers
✓ Heads of institutions
✓ Curriculum Coordinators
✓ Officers of examining bodies
4. CONSTRUCT INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION:-

✓ Questionnaires containing fixed response, restricted response and or open ended questions.
✓ Interview schedules
✓ Observation schedules to be used during on site visits (Checklists and Rating Scales) Attitude
scales
✓ Achievement Tests
5. SELECT OR DEVELOP STRATEGIES FOR DATA COLLECTION

✓ Mailing out the questionnaire.
✓ Administering the questionnaire in person.
✓ Conducting personal interviews.
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✓ Making on site visits for observation. Observations have to be made In unobtrusive manner to the
extent possible.
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✓ Inspecting samples of the products of the students and publications of the institution. Following the
procedures laid down for the experimental design chosen.
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6. CONDUCT PILOT SCALE EVALUATION
✓ To provide a trial run of the data collection approach
✓ To test out the data-collection instrument
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✓ To provide some pilot data to test out the data analysis techniques planned
✓ To give the evaluation team experience in working with the sample
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7. CONDUCT LARGE-SCALE EVALUATION:-

During this stage the data collection plan drawn up in Step WILL BE IMPLEMENTED
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8. ANALYZE THE DATA

✓ Quantitative data
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✓ Qualitative data
✓ Methods of data analysis
✓ establishing validity & reliability
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9. PREPARE REPORTS AND FEEDBACK TO DECISION MAKERS

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✓ Written Report ✓ Outline of an Evaluation Report

✓ The evaluation report should be written in a style and language that will be easily understood by
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the audience.
✓ The contents, length and nature of the report is partly a matter for negotiation between evaluators
& clients.
✓ Oral Report / Presentation to decision makers
DIFFERENT MEASURES TO IMPROVE CURRICULUM EVALUATION PROCESS IN PAKISTAN:-

Universal primary education in Pakistan is contingent on several factors, such as the existence of
cost-effective schools, better curricula, and an awareness among parents, especially in rural areas,
of the importance of education. However, the single most important factor in getting children to
complete primary school is improving the structure of Pakistan’s school system.
Currently, there exist many obstacles on the road to a smoothly functioning system. These include
political interference, corruption, and over-centralization, a lack of school autonomy, underdeveloped
managerial capacity and poor information systems.
However, there are five institutional reforms that can help improve Pakistan’s educational structure
so that it can achieve the goal of universal primary education.
The first reform is the decentralization of decision-making, which improves education administration.
Presently, Pakistan educational system is highly centralized even though it is widely understood that
basic education is better provided in a system that is administered at the district and village level. A
highly centralized system does not respond as effectively to local needs. The bureaucracy interferes
with the flow of resources and information. It also means higher level administrators have less time
to devote to important issues like program design, implementation, and monitoring.
This decentralization means governments must develop partnerships with communities, NGOs, and
the private sector to delegate responsibility effectively in order to achieve universal primary
education. A second step necessary for improving the system is greater autonomy for the schools.
Currently, school principals have a limited decision-making capacity. In addition, schools do not have
control over issues like curriculum, teacher appointment, discipline, and evaluation. There are
virtually no opportunities for local staff development programs or resource mobilization. .
By giving schools more independence, principals would have the authority to appoint personnel and
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determine crucial issues that affect the day-to-day affairs of schools. Principals, not upper-level
bureaucrats, are in a better position to make these decisions since they deal with the daily realities
of school life.
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A third important reform is providing better support to, supervision of, and coordination of the school
system at the district and provincial level. By making the district the key level for planning and
management, state-level and central education bodies can focus more on policy-making, resource
management and regulation.
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One way to do this is by promoting good principals and teachers at the school level to enhance the
institutional capacity of district level organizations. The lack of sufficient manpower is the most
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serious problem at the district and sub-district level.
A fourth necessary reform is to encourage decision-making be based on educational, not political,
considerations. At present, politicians hand out teaching jobs as patronage appointments. Federal
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and provincial funds provided for education sometimes remain unused, especially in rural areas,
since feudal landowners are opposed to educating “their” people.
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The final necessary reform is to expand the information and research base of education in Pakistan.
Effective management and administration of the education system depends on the quality of the
information system. Without reliable information, decision-makers cannot improve education policy
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and programs at the national, district and school levels.

One way of collecting reliable information about the state of education is to conduct standardized
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testing that measures student performance against national curriculum goals. These can be used to
compare learning achievement across schools, districts and regions over time.
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Q.3 DISCUSS THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT. COMPARE THE
FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL APPROACHES TO EDUCATION FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN
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PAKISTAN. (20)
ANSWER:
The Concept Education for Rural Development The meaning of rural development has been the
subject of much debate and little agreement. The definition of rural development varies from one
point of view to the other. The definition or rural development may be centered on income criterion in
which the concept is made to address the problem of rural poverty. Or it may be defined in
sociological concept in which the rural poor represents a reservoir of untapped talent a target group
that should be given the opportunity to enjoy the benefits of development through improved
education, health and nutrition. This is one of the most important definitions of rural development as
the provision of social infrastructures could provide the catalyst that would transform the rural areas.
Rural development may also be seen as an ideology and a practice. It may mean planned change
by public agencies based outside the rural areas such as the national Government and International
organization; It may also be the bringing of the countryside into an active state, as well as the
transformation of the inferior nature of the country side into something more superior in terms of
activities.
Rural development as the improvement in the living standard of the rural dwellers by engaging them
in productive activities such as the establishment of rural industries that will increase their income. It
is seen by these scholars as a means of raising the sustainable living of the rural poor by giving
them the opportunity to develop their full potentials.
Rural development can be distinguished from agricultural development which it entails and
transcends. In essence Rural Development may imply a broad based re-organization and
mobilization of rural masses in order to enhance their capacity to cope effectively with the daily task
of their lives and with changes consequent upon this. According to the World Bank Rural
Development must be clearly designed to increase production. It recognizes that improved food
supplies and nutrition, together with basic services, such as health and education, not only directly
improve the physical well-being and quality of life of the rural poor, but can also indirectly enhance
their productivity and their ability to contribute to the national economy.
Rural Development ensures the modernization of the rural society and the transition from its
traditional isolation to integration with the national economy. It is concerned with increased
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agricultural production for urban and international markets. This is essential so as to generate
foreign exchange, and to attract revenue to finance public and private consumption and investment.
In order to encourage increased production rural development may offer a package of inputs and
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welfare services for the rural masses. Such inputs and welfare services include physical inputs (such
as the provision of feeder roads, water and electrification), social inputs—(namely health and
educational facilities) and institutional inputs such as credit facilities, agricultural research facilities,
rural expansion services among others.
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Formal Approaches to Education for Rural Development In Pakistan

Mindless urbanization of rural areas may not be conceived as rural development. Neither the
creation of consumerism can be judged as rural development, nor can the provision of goods and
services enjoyed by urban folk to the rural masses serve the desired purpose. Moreover centralized
macro-perspectives will also not generate the desired results, since every village/region is a different
entity and it is impossible to implement centrally planned and even well-conceived programmes
uniformly in all the areas while ignoring their micro level variations. The bureaucratic and impersonal
process of implementation of rural programm should therefore be discarded. Any development
programme aiming at the transformation of rural societies should take into account the socio-
economic aspects and the behavioral pattern of rural society. Any change aimed at improving
efficiency and income of rural people should not attempt to sever their relationship from their social
and cultural heritage.
At the same time the development model or programme should have the essence of horizontal
movement and not vertical linearity in order to maintain the balance between economic and social
aspects on the one hand and encourage participatory enthusiasm, in planning, implementation and
execution of developmental efforts on the other. Thus any developmental effort has to be slow and
gradual but persistent, so as to allow the rural people to absorb the spirit of change in the
perspective of social harmony. The process of human resource development and the investments in
infrastructure should move along these lines. For achieving the fore stated goals and purposes, a
well thought out and carefully designed local institutional/organizational structure needs to be
established. Under this set-up the institutions should think and plan locally and at the same time
have an understanding of the outside world. This alone can promote both economic and non-
economic factors (i.e. nutrition, health, education etc.) alike.
NON-FORMAL APPROACHES TO EDUCATION FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

Due to population explosion and swiftly increasing demand for education even developed countries
are unable to overcome the prevailing challenges through formal system of education. Most of the
developing countries are in miserable situation regarding level of education and literacy. Attacking
poverty has become an international concern for placing in the paradigm of ‘education and learning
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for sustainable development’ in consideration of the reality that almost half of the world’s population
live in poverty. Pakistan is the sixth populous country in the world and unfortunately, more than half
of the population is living below the poverty line. Educated and well off urban population lives not so
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very differently from their counterparts in other countries of similar income range, or even of their
counterparts in Western countries. However, the poor and rural inhabitants of Pakistan are being left
behind (World Bank, 2002). Due to scarce resources and financial constraints developing countries
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are unable to cope with the drastic demand for education and consequently non-formal education
(NFE) seems blessing to meet this challenge of poverty alleviation. Existing formal system of
education especially in developing countries obviously cannot cope with the drastic demands of
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trained personnel. The demand for the trained personnel in Non-Formal Education as an alternative
of formal education is being increased throughout the world. NFE consists of assortment of
organized and semi organized activities operating outside the regular structure and routine of the
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formal system, aimed at serving a great variety of learning needs of different sub-group of population
both young and old. NFE consists of assortment of organized and semi organized activity operating
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outside the regular structure and routine of the formal system, aimed at serving a great variety of
learning needs of different sub-groups of population, both young and old. There are more than 9500
personnel involved in the human resource development through non-formal system of education in
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Punjab. At this stage formal system of education is unable to cope with the challenges of drastically
increased demand for education. In this scenario non-formal education seems only cure for the
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development of human resources in rural areas. It has begun to play a dramatic role in elimination of
poverty by educating those who have long been ignored in Pakistan; the countries rural and its poor.
Education, as a fundamental human right, is considered very important and strategic for developing
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their human resources. The right to education imposes an obligation upon countries to ensure that
all children and citizens have opportunities to meet their basic learning needs. Pakistan, the second
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largest country in South Asia, is sixth most populous country in the world with a population of 176
million, of which approximately 61 percent lives in rural areas. Literacy 2 rate of Pakistan is nearly 54
percent: 65.25% for men, and 41.75% for women. While the rural (44% overall, 58% for men, and
29% for women) literacy rate indicates the alarming situation of the rural population. Embarrassing
situation of literacy especially in rural areas of Pakistan is the result of low financial priority to
education as well as ill-conceived non-consistent policies in the past. For Pakistan to meet its
education targets, the formal primary education system may undergo long-term reforms to reduce
drop-out rates and increase access and quality of education. However, a short-term solution is also
needed to ensure educational opportunities for children who have either dropped out or never joined
the formal education system. To this end, the National Commission on Human Development
establishes a network of community based nonformal schools. These non-formal schools are
working as a support system addressing the immediate needs of the education sector while the
Ministry of Education builds its own capacity to cover all of Pakistan. Children who graduate from the
NFBE programmes can either join formal schools or vocational training programmes. The
commission is implementing the Non-Formal Basic Education (NFBE) programmes through selected
NGOs. The human development incubators in each district are fund support and building capacities
of NGOs delivering non-formal education. Incubators are provided with hired services such as
school budgeting, account management and teacher training. The NFBE programmes are helping
Government of Pakistan to achieve its primary education goals. In the rural areas of Gujranwala
region 500 NFBE schools were being run by NGOs for the elimination of poverty and gender
discrimination.
Q.4 COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF CANADA,

RUSSIA AND UNITED KINGDOM. (20)
Answer:
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF CANADA:-
Curriculum development in Canada has gone from teaching survival skills, both practical and
cultural, to emphasizing self-fulfillment and standards-based achievements. This evolution mirrors
that which has occurred in other developed countries, namely in Europe.
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The term curriculum comes from the Latin currere, which means to run or proceed and refers to the
experiences that shape children as they grow to mature adults. In modern times, curriculum includes
statements of desired pupil outcomes (currently referred to as “standards”), descriptions of materials,
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and the planned sequence that will be used to help students attain specified educational objectives.
Curricula are embodied in official documents (typically curriculum “guidelines” for teachers) and
made mandatory by provincial and territorial ministries of education.
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The primary focus of a curriculum is on what content should be taught and when it should be taught
during the school or academic year. Teachers have traditionally possessed a considerable amount
of discretion in deciding how this should be done. Learning objectives — not the instructional
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approaches — were mandated by provinces and territories. In practice, however, there has been no
clear distinction between curriculum content and pedagogy since the manner in which a topic is
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taught often determines what is taught. For this reason, and for others, there is need to distinguish
the official or planned curriculum — the formally approved program of study — from the de facto or
lived (sometimes called hidden) curriculum — the norms, values, and beliefs that are often learned
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within classrooms and the broader social environment.
HISTORY:-
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The history of Canadian curriculum development has been largely a battle among ideological camps
for control over, or for greater space within, the curriculum. The direction and scope of curriculum
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change at any given time is often a fair reflection of which of the competing interests within
mainstream educational circles has captured the educational agenda. These and outside advocacy
groups — be they cultural, linguistic, intellectual, economic, political and religious — have noticeable
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impact on new direction.

The term “curriculum” seems to have been rarely used in Canada before Confederation.
Nevertheless, the Jesuit term Ratio Studiorum (“plan of studies”) was introduced in New France in
the 1630s. Although the Ratio Studiorum was created for secondary education in Europe, New
France Jesuits put it forth at the elementary level since Aboriginal communities had long maintained
oral traditions but not texts — a key Jesuit focus was on literacy. Early French-Canadian education
was expected to “render children good servants of the King … and of God.” Later, in Nova Scotia
and Upper Canada, Anglophone education took up similar goals, which were expressed in the
teaching of Judeo-Christian morality and British patriotism. Not surprisingly, when education came
under provincial jurisdiction after Confederation, the curriculum was based on common conservative
social values. As such, schooling served, and continues to serve, a cultural imperative: to maintain
or enhance the distinctive identities of selected groups in the Canadian mosaic. Some have argued
that, given Canada’s geographic expanse, the autonomy of provincial curriculum development is
essential.
INFLUENCES:-
Prior to 1840, schooling in Canada was an informal and intermittent experience not yet separated
from work. It took place in a parent- and church-controlled “system” aimed at teaching basic literacy
and religious precepts. In New France, a formal curriculum was available to only an elite minority
who were trained for religious and other privileged vocations — a system similar to our European
counterparts’ of the time. Following the British Conquest in 1759-60, church-controlled schooling in
Quebec was a primary agent of cultural survival and remained so until 1964, serving to maintain the
French language and the Catholic religion.
It is important to note that our notions of schooling and the general organization of schools is largely
a result of the Prussian model that was particularly influential after the French Revolution. This
system required that all children between the ages of S and 13 years attend schools. Children were
taught a national curriculum consisting of reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as ethics, discipline
and obedience. This model was very successful — boasting an average literacy level of
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approximately 85 per cent by the later part of the 18th century — and was quickly adopted across
much of Europe and was later emulated in North America and Japan.
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SCHOOL PROMOTERS:-
In Anglophone Canada, cultural survival was linked to fears of Americanization and to concerns
raised with the arrival of the “famine Irish” and other dispossessed immigrants in the 1840s. School
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promoters such as Egerton Ryerson, the founding father of Canadian curriculum development,
promoted secular reforms in Upper Canada that were designed to keep power from any one church.
He saw state-controlled schooling as the primary means of assimilating “alien” elements and led
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School Acts that established libraries in every school, a centralized text book press (which used
Canadian authors), and professional development conventions for teachers, and land grants for
universities — one of which bears his name in downtown Toronto.
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Over the next half-century, school promoters elsewhere in Canada followed Ryerson’s lead. They
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established administrative structures that enabled them to sort children into classes and grades,
create a trained and hierarchically organized teaching force, and to devise a common curriculum for
their province. This curriculum was implemented through uniform textbooks and was policed through
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inspection and examinations in a system that aspired to have all children taught to believe, to think
and to behave in a similar way (see History of Education).
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PROGRESSIVES:-
During the interwar years, further progressive (mainly American) ideas were adopted — including
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new notions of standardized testing, mental health, and administrative structures based on business
management models — while the cultural content of the Anglophone curriculum remained British.
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Postwar affluence, the baby boom, and unprecedented public demands led to an expansion of
schooling at the same time that a conservative backlash emerged against the supposed excesses of
progressive education. The after-effect of this backlash created a shift to a more subject-centred
curriculum (see School Systems). This shift had been reinforced by 1960, as Canadians followed
their American neighbours in demanding greater educational rigour, especially in science and
mathematics, in order to “catch up with the Russians.” This was to be achieved by teaching the
“structure” (basic concepts and unique forms of reasoning) of each discipline by means of inquiry or
“discovery” methods, which ironically owed much to the despised progressive theories. These ideas
gained cautious approval in Canada where, typically, a lack of resources forced curriculum
developers to rely on British and American innovations.
INNOVATION:-
After 1965, a new permissiveness in school curriculum was manifested by a relaxation of centralized
control, a proliferation of regionally developed courses of study, and a revived but modified child-
centered thrust in elementary education. New knowledge, students’ desire for more practical and
more relevant schooling, a larger and more diverse school population — particularly in urban centers
— and tensions in society resulting from a breakdown of the old social consensus and from a
questioning of traditional values, led to demands for innovation. With renewed fears of
Americanization, with the rise of Quebec separatism, and in response to the demands of Aboriginal
and other minority groups for equality, curriculum developers moved to establish bilingual,
multicultural and Aboriginal studies programs, while also seeking to counter racism and sexism
through more balanced and accurate treatment of minorities and women in textbooks. Special
curricula were designed for the estimated 1 million exceptional children (see Special Education).
Ontario’s master list of approved classroom materials increased from 61 titles (1950) to 1648 (1972).
Advocacy groups included not only liberal proponents of “values education” but conservative
advocates of “values schools.” The latter group demanded the inclusion of traditional Christian
beliefs, the censorship of some curriculum materials, and stricter discipline.
ADVOCACY GROUPS:-
A plethora of new advocacy groups — federal agencies, human rights, environmental and consumer
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organizations, foundations, professional associations, labour and business groups and others who
saw the school as a proselytizing agency — pressed for changes in the curriculum and directed
streams of teaching materials at classrooms. What was most striking about these efforts to influence
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the curriculum (which continue to the present) is the implied faith both in the potential of curriculum
revision to reform classroom practices and, in turn, in the power of schooling to redress social and
economic inequities.
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As the struggle over curriculum became more public, provincial policymakers were frequently forced
to respond in an ad hoc fashion to broad but fleeting popular concerns. Sometimes demands led to
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immediate action for which teachers were often ill-prepared. Many cart-before-the-horse reforms
hastily introduced curricular changes without adequate pilot testing and appropriate support
materials and professional development to ensure a smooth transition. By 1980, ministries of
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education were reverting to centralization as demands for “accountability” and “standards” led to
restoration, in most provinces, of previously abandoned province-wide testing. These and other
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trends revealed a new interest in “scientific” curriculum development, entailing precise statements of
“objectives” and the assessment of pupil “behaviours” measured by skill performance in the
traditional “three Rs” (reading, writing and artithmetic).
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LATER TRENDS:-
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In the early 1990s, rallying around a call to prepare students for the 21st century, several provinces
embarked on large-scale school reform. Debate about Canada’s continued competitiveness in the
global economy was fuelled by international studies comparing performance of students from
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Canada unfavorably to other industrialized countries and by perceptions of excessively high student
drop-out rates. The perception was that swift action was needed to prepare our children for the
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demands of the new knowledge economy. There was also concern that more equitable, inclusive
curriculum was required to attend to the diversity of students’ abilities, interests, backgrounds, and
orientations. Among other changes, this meant going beyond what often was mere token
representation of females and other groups in textbooks to a reshaping of curriculum and instruction
to engage these groups. In many provinces children with disabilities were to be integrated into the
main stream so that they spent the majority of their school day in regular classrooms with non-
disabled students. Thus, the main curricular developments of the 1990s were on two fronts:
establishing sets of common or essential elements that
Formed the “basics for all,” and providing for flexibility so that students might pursue individual
interests and ambitions.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF RUSSIA:-

The Russian Federation has developed new “Federal State Educational Standards” (FSES) that
define higher education programs at the bachelor, master and specialist level in terms of “workload
credit units”, replacing the traditional system of expressing student workload in terms of hours. The
introduction of “credit units” – aatiermwii eAmmmu/ zachetnaja edinitsa in Russian – is a result of
Russia’s participation in the Bologna process, which requires the use of credits that are compatible
with the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) as one tool in increasing
student mobility in Europe.
The FSES are the outlines of curricular structure and content mandated for use at all levels of
education throughout the Russian Federation. The development of a credit system in Russian higher
education was first approved in 2002. The Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia began using a
credit system in 2005. By 2007, over 100 higher education institutions and branches of institutions
were using the credit system. The 2009 Bologna process National Report of the Russian Federation
states that 50-75% of programs at Russian higher education institutions were using ECTS credits at
that time. However, the use of credits was not mandated until the publication of the most recent
“Federal State Educational Standards”, which define the student workload for each section of the
curriculum for programs of study at the bachelor, master, and specialist levels in terms of “credit
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units”. The new credit unit is defined as representing 36 academic hours per credit. The academic
hour in Russia is 45 minutes. A full-time year consists of 60 credits, making the Russian system
compatible with the ECTS credit system. The four-year bachelor requires 240 credits. The five-year
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specialist requires 300 credits, while the six-year specialist program in medicine requires 360 credits.
The two-year master, which follows the bachelor, requires 120 credits. The credit system is not used
for the research-based degrees, the Candidate of Sciences and Doctor of Sciences.
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The Russian ENIC, the National Information Center on Academic Recognition and Mobility, reports
that the implementation of the credit-based FSES will take place in increments over the next several
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years. Students who began studies under previous iterations of the FSES will continue under the
requirements of those programs and will receive a diploma and diploma addendum (transcript) in the
state standard format of 2012. (Samples of all Russian academic documents in formats through
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2012 are available on the Russian ENIC Web site.) Students who begin studies under the new
FSES using the credit system will receive a newly-formatted diploma supplement that will show
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credits. The Russian ENIC will be posting the new document formats in the near future.
The rollout of the new FSES and the corresponding completion documentation is planned as follows:
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Bachelor (6axanaap): The FSES for bachelor studies were introduced in 2009-10. The first batch of
diplomas with the new diploma supplement showing credits will be issued in 2014. Specialist
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(zoinnom [higher education diploma] with kaanwkimammg [professional qualification]): The specialist
FSES took effect in 2010-2011. The first batch of diplomas with the new diploma supplement will be
issued in 2015. Master (marmaep): The FSES were introduced in 2009-2010, and some institutions
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have already begun awarding diplomas with the new diploma supplement format.
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CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF UNITED KINGDOM

Curriculum development in the United Kingdom (UK) is inseparable from the politics and cultural
milieu of the times. It is perhaps astonishing to readers in other countries, that in the UK almost
every aspect of the school system today (except for the statutory age ranges of schooling) would be
almost unrecognizable to a teacher from twenty years ago. That this amount of change has been
possible and achieved through legislation and statute, often with minimum amounts of consultation,
research and teacher involvement, is unprecedented and says much about the political psyche of
the key players in curriculum development and about the rather loose and anarchic situation that
existed for much of the 20th Century. This chapter inevitably has limits. It deals with the curriculum
bounded by the compulsory age range of the school system, which is currently from age S to 16
(though some reference is made to the post 16 curriculum where relevant) and what is discussed
applies mainly to the situation in England’. Analysis and reflection are limited to the post 1944
period. ‘Curriculum’ is an elusive concept in the UK setting. For Goodson (1988) it is a complex,
interacting matrix that includes, schools in the state and private sectors, teachers and how they are
trained, resources available and of course the subjects taught. It is interesting to note that, in the UK,
the word ‘curriculum’ hardly enters the educational language until the 1970s (Bourdillon and Storey,
2002). Philip Taylor, writing for an Open University course book on curriculum development in 1971,
commented that only one book on curriculum theory and practice in the UK appeared in the literature
at this time (Taylor, 1971)— since the 1980s there have been hundreds. For many in the UK,
curriculum development has become synonymous with the post-1989 National Curriculum and so,
wrongly in the author’s opinion, with ‘imposed change’ rather than the more voluntary, less coercive
term ‘development’.
COMPONENTS AND PARTNERSHIPS:-
To understand curriculum development in the UK it is necessary to consider two triadic relationships,
one determining students’ experience of learning and the other the key players whose policies and
actions shape experiences in the school system. These relationships are shown diagrammatically as
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solved assignment 1 code 8603 b.ed

CURRICULUM CONTENT, POLICY AND PRACTICE
Before the National Curriculum the 1944 Education Act established statutory schooling for all
between the ages of 5 and 13 and a tripartite secondary school system of grammar, technical and
vocational/modern schools. It did little, however, to change the content of a curriculum that had
existed for much of the first half of the 20th Century. The secondary school curriculum devised by
the Board of Education in 1904 comprised subjects taught in the (selective and private) public and
grammar schools of the day, the classics or a ‘modern’ foreign language, English literature, history
and geography, science, drawing (art) and either manual work (for boys) or housewifery (for girls).
This subject-based framework has changed little and is mostly still in place. Some see the 1904
subject list as a clear attempt at social division, preserving a privileged education for an elite ruling
and bureaucratic class whilst creating something different for the blue and white-collared workers of
the lower middle and working classes who serviced the nation’s factories and offices (Goodson,
1988; Kelly, 2004). Hence, the foundations of a vocational—academic divide were laid, something
that has bedeviled curriculum development to this day. As in the 1904 curriculum, subjects were
recommended by the state in the 1944 act but they were not prescribed or controlled by the state,
with the exception of religious education. This left schools and teachers, in partnership with their
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Local Education Authorities, (LEAs) a remarkable degree of freedom to determine the precise nature
of what could be included and how it should be taught, within certain limitations imposed by
examination boards. Grace (1987) considers this decentralized autonomy in curriculum and
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pedagogy as reflecting a unique British sense of democracy in attitudes to schooling and a certain
degree of faith in the professional integrity of teachers. It may also have been that the alternative, a
prescriptive, state-controlled system, smacked of totalitarianism — anathema to the post-war Labour
government of the time (Bourdillon and Storey, 2002).
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THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM:- The pre-national curriculum period of curriculum development is
regarded by some as a sort of relative ‘golden-age’ where teachers could effectively decide what
they wanted to teach (Lawton, 1980). The truth of the matter is that this degree of ‘curricular
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autonomy’ was already being eroded by a succession of government initiatives. In 1982 for example,
in response to a perceived need to modernise the curriculum of secondary schools and again to
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address the vocational-academic divide, the government introduced the Technical and Vocational
Initiative (TVEI). Substantial sums of money were on offer for schools to invest in curriculum
innovation in sciences, craft and technical subjects and on information technology. At first schools
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and teachers were suspicious of TVEI as it challenged their professionalism and represented a
major shift towards centralised control of the curriculum. In effect research has shown that initiatives
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at local level were often vehicles for innovative and creative teachers to engage in professional
growth and develop high-risk teaching (Harland, 1987). Harland describes some of these ‘TVEI-
warm’ teachers as ‘released prisoners’ (p.47) able to shake off complacency about their teaching
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and to begin to develop into what Schein has called ‘reflective practitioners’ (Schan, 1987).
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The 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA) that introduced the National Curriculum for all state-run
schools in England and Wales from 1989 required schools to provide pupils with a ‘balanced and
broadly-based curriculum’ that included a core (English, maths and science) and foundation subjects
(design technology, information technology, history, geography, art, physical education, music and in
secondary schools a modern foreign language). The content of each subject to be taught was
statutory, devised by subject working groups and framed as age-related ‘programmes of study’
(DES, 1989). Programmes of study were defined for each of four age groups or ‘Key Stages’ (5-7, 7-
11, 11-14, 14-16). Content for advanced study beyond 16 was not part of the National Curriculum
and so this remained a contested area. A statutory assessment system was developed and
appeared for core subjects as a series of ‘Attainment Targets’ each containing criterion-referenced
statements of expected knowledge, understanding and skills all assessed on a 10-level scale. In
science for example the 1989 version of the National Curriculum contained 17 Attainment Targets
(ATs) and over 460 ‘statements of attainment’ (SoAs). The introduction of such a massive statutory
edifice was viewed suspiciously by some who saw little of educational value in it, but plenty of
political and ideological motives as an attempt by a Conservative government to reign in the power
of (mainly) Labour controlled LEAs (Arnot, 1992; Burton and Weiner, 1990).
ASSESSING THE CURRICULUM:-

THE PUBLIC EXAMINATION SYSTEM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PRE-1988
The assessment system set up after the 1944 Act introduced examinations at 16 (ordinary or ‘O’-
level General Certificate of Education – GCE) and at 18 (the advanced or ‘A’-level GCE). These
examinations were designed to certificate traditional academic subjects taught in grammar schools
but it soon became apparent that a means of recognizing the achievement of students who had
failed the 11 plus tests and were taught in modern and vocational schools was needed. Thus the
Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) examination was devised. After raising the school leaving
age to 16 in 1972, the number of CSE syllabuses proliferated. Some were based on content solely
devised, examined and moderated by teachers with minimal involvement of examination boards.
Thus the teacher controlled CSE system was different in that it developed in response to curriculum
need rather than as a measure to control and constrain it. National curriculum assessment and
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testing and its effects on curriculum The Education Reform Act in 1988 (DES, 1988a) made clear
that government wanted, in addition to the GCSE, a system to judge students’ achievement at each
of the ‘Key Stages’ defined in the National Curriculum (i.e., at 7, 11 and 14). This was to be done
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through a combination of teacher judgments and externally set assessment ‘tasks’. The Task Group
on Assessment and Testing (TGAT) chaired by Paul Black at Kings College, London was set up with
the purpose of designing a system to achieve this (DES, 1988b). TGAT strongly supported teacher
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assessment ‘for formative and diagnostic purposes’ whilst also setting a 10-level scale of criterion
referenced assessment to measure and report students’ progress. By applying a common scheme
across all four Key Stages, TGAT provided a radically different solution to assessment —one
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offering progression and continuity through a common language of educational outcomes
recognising knowledge, skill and understanding and applied across the entire age range of statutory
schooling. The system was clearly meritocratic with potential to be understood by many different
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users; students, parents, school inspectors and so on.
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PEDAGOGY — LAST CORNER OF THE ‘SECRET GARDEN’?

So, to the final element of the triadic relationship governing students’ learning experiences (Triad A
— figure 1) — pedagogy, or the way in which curriculum is translated through teaching as student
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learning experiences. To what extent has the educational establishment (particularly teachers) been
able to cling to any vestige of control in the drive to increased centralism that characterized much of
the 1980s and 1990s. The answer is a rather guarded and qualified — ‘to a certain extent’. Attempts
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by government to influence and change pedagogy in schools have been more subtle compared with
the legislative changes used to influence organization, structure, content and assessment of the
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curriculum. Development has been through a process of persuasion, sometimes attrition, typically by
publication of government reports and political pamphlets, each seeking to open up public debate on
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what has been termed the ‘secret garden’ in British education2. Pressure for change has been
increased through the combined use of highly persuasive (though not statutory) government
‘strategies’, funding incentives, in-service training and school inspection. Each has attempted to
influence (sometimes to criticize) teaching methods.
Q.5 WRITE SHORT NOTES ON THE FOLLOWING: (20)

1:- SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF METHODS
Answer:-
If you are working on a course design, and now it is time to decide on the content and how to
organize it. As is often the case, we have far more to say about a topic than we can possibly cover in
a term. One rule of thumb is to have students spending from 8-10 hours per week on your course,
including in-class time. So how to decide? Following are some tips to help with these time-
consuming yet crucial tasks.
FINDING CONTENT
• Check in your department for past syllabi if you are offering a pre-existing course. Also be sure to
check your institution’s course calendar and read the course description to ensure that your course
meets that stated description.
• Locate similar courses at other institutions if your course is new (or you would like some new
ideas). Talk to your colleagues in your discipline area or go to the Web to find courses.
• Review textbooks in your discipline area. This can be a very easy way to locate not only possible
content to cover but also ready-made organizational structures. Publishers will send out texts for you
to review. Keep your students in mind when choosing texts — not only their abilities and past
experience with the topic areas but also their time limitations.
• If texts are not available or not appropriate, you may need to create a reading package or course
notes. It will take more time to compile this type of resource, so set aside a few months for this
activity. Also, be sure to factor in the time that may be needed to receive copyright clearance for
copying and selling published materials. Your institution may have a copyright agreement which
makes this less of an issue, but be sure to investigate what is possible in advance so you avoid
basing part of your course on materials that you cannot easily secure for the students.
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SELECTING CONTENT:- Set some type of criteria to help select appropriate content for your
course. Course design literature suggests the following criteria. Course content should:-
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• Fit with your course learning goals
• Have importance in the discipline
• Be based on or related to research
• Appeal to student interests
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• Not overlap excessively with student past experience or knowledge
• Be multi-functional (help teach more than one concept, skill, or problem)
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• Stimulate search for meaning
• Encourage further investigation
• Show interrelationships amongst concepts
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ORGANIZING CONTENT:-
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Many variations on concept mapping techniques exist to help you decide on an organizational
structure for your content. The key idea is to name, in a word or two, the major topics or concepts for
your course, then try to visually place them on the page. You can use a hierarchical approach or put
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the concept in the centre of the page and work out from there. Put the words into boxes or bubbles
and connect them with lines or arrows to show how the material connects. You may also want to put
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verbs on the connectors to clarify the relationships between ideas. For an even more flexible
approach, try using an index card or sticky note for each concept, instead of boxes on one sheet of
paper, and physically move them around until you see an organization that makes sense. For more
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linear thinkers, creating lists of headings and subheadings is equally effective. Some suggestions for
ordering the topics or concepts include:-
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• Topic by topic —There are no set relationships amongst the topics, so the ordering is not critical.
This works well for courses that revolve around current issues, for example.
• Chronological — Moving from past to present is a very common and easy to implement
organizational pattern.
• Causal — The course presents a number of events or issues that culminate in some final effect or
solution.
• Cumulative — Each concept builds on the previous one(s).
• Problem-centred — Problems, questions, or cases represent the principal organizing features of
the course.
• Spiral — Key topics or concepts are revisited throughout the course, with new information or insight
developing each time. Within each class, also consider how to organize your material so that
students can both learn and retain it. Different philosophies of learning are represented. Some ideas
to consider are:
• Start with what students already know and then move to the abstract model or theory.
• Start with concrete examples, such as cases, news items, or other real-world situations, then
generate the abstract concepts.
• Start with a solution, conclusion, or model and work backwards to the question.
• Give students time to reflect, individually or through discussion, on what and how they are learning.
• Build in practice time, with feedback, either in class or on assignments so that students learn to
work with the concepts and can receive assistance with problem areas.
II. TAXONOMIES OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

ANSWER:-
One of the most widely used ways of organizing levels of expertise is according to Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. (Bloom et al., 1994; Gronlund, 1991; Krathwohl et al., 1956.)
Bloom’s Taxonomy (Tables 1-3) uses a multi-tiered scale to express the level of expertise required
to achieve each measurable student outcome. Organizing measurable student outcomes in this way
will allow us to select appropriate classroom assessment techniques for the course. There are three
taxonomies. Which of the three to use for a given measurable student outcome depends upon the
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original goal to which the measurable student outcome is connected. There are knowledge-based
goals, skills-based goals, and affective goals (affective: values, attitudes, and interests); accordingly,
there is a taxonomy for each. Within each taxonomy, levels of expertise are listed in order of
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increasing complexity. Measurable student outcomes that require the higher levels of expertise will
require more sophisticated classroom assessment techniques.
The course goal in Figure 2–“student understands proper dental hygiene”–is an example of a
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knowledge-based goal. It is knowledge-based because it requires that the student learn certain facts
and concepts. An example of a skills-based goal for this course might be “student flosses teeth
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properly.” This is a skills-based goal because it requires that the student learn how to do something.
Finally, an affective goal for this course might be “student cares about proper oral hygiene.” This is
an affective goal because it requires that the student’s values, attitudes, or interests be affected by
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the course.
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To determine the level of expertise required for each measurable student outcome, first decide
which of these three broad categories (knowledge-based, skills-based, and affective) the
corresponding course goal belongs to. Then, using the appropriate Bloom’s Taxonomy, look over the
descriptions of the various levels of expertise. Determine which description most closely matches
that measurable student outcome. As can be seen from the examples given in the three Tables,
there are different ways of representing measurable student outcomes, e.g., as statements about
students (Figure 2), as questions to be asked of students (Tables 1 and 2), or as statements from
the student’s perspective (Table 3). You may find additional ways of representing measurable
student outcomes; those listed in Figure 2 and in Tables 1-3 are just examples.
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a convenient way to describe the degree to which we want our students to
understand and use concepts, to demonstrate particular skills, and to have their values, attitudes,
and interests affected. It is critical that we determine the levels of student expertise that we are
expecting our students to achieve because this will determine which classroom assessment
techniques are most appropriate for the course. Though the most common form of classroom
assessment used in introductory college courses–multiple choice tests–might be quite adequate for
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assessing knowledge and comprehension (levels 1 and 2, Table 1), this type of assessment often
falls short when we want to assess our students knowledge at the higher levels of synthesis and
evaluation (levels 5 and 6).4 Multiple-choice tests also rarely provide information about achievement
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of skills-based goals. Similarly, traditional course evaluations, a technique commonly used for
affective assessment, do not generally provide useful information about changes in student values,
attitudes, and interests.
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Thus, commonly used assessment techniques, while perhaps providing a means for assigning
grades, often do not provide us (or our students) with useful feedback for determining whether
students are attaining our course goals. Usually, this is due to a combination of not having
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formalized goals to begin with, not having translated those goals into outcomes that are measurable,
and not using assessment techniques capable of measuring expected student outcomes given the
levels of expertise required to achieve them. Using the CIA model of course development, we can
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ensure that our curriculum, instructional methods, and classroom assessment techniques are
properly aligned with course goals. Note that Bloom’s Taxonomy need not be applied exclusively
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after course goals have been defined. Indeed, Bloom’s Taxonomy and the words associated with its
different categories can help in the goals-defining process itself. Thus, Bloom’s Taxonomy can be
used in an iterative fashion to first state and then refine course goals. Bloom’s Taxonomy can finally
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be used to identify which classroom assessment techniques are most appropriate for measuring
these goals.
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III. CRITERIA OF CONTENT SELECTION

ANSWER:-
The 7 criteria below can be utilized in the selection of subject matter for micro curriculum, and for the
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content, subjects needed for the curricular program or course, of the macro curriculum.
1:- SELF-SUFFICIENCY:- To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical
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manner is the main guiding principle for subject matter or content selection (Schaffer, 1970) as cited
by Bilbao et al., (2008). Economy of learning refers to less teaching effort and less use of
educational resources; but students gain more results. They are able to cope up with the learning
outcomes effectively. This means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and
do field study. This allows them to learn independently. With this principle in mind, I suggest that for
a high school curriculum or preparatory year, there should be a one day independent learning
activity each week. However, this should be carefully planned by the teacher. When the students
return, they should present outputs from the activity.
2:- SIGNIFICANCE:- The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the
development of learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains
of learning namely the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and considers the cultural aspects
of the learners. Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the
subject matter must be culture-sensitive. In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve
the overall aim of the curriculum.
3:- VALIDITY:- Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make
sure that the topics are not obsolete. For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned
by college students. It should be about the computer or Information Technology (IT). Thus, there is a
need to check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it if necessary.
Do not wait for another 5 years in order to change it. Modern curriculum experts are after current
trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum; otherwise, your school or country will be left
behind.
AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8603 AUTUMN 2016
4:- INTEREST:- This criterion is true to learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the
subject matter is meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the
curriculum is subject-centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously
and teach only what is in the book. This may somehow explain why many fail in the subject.
5:- UTILITY:- Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that
a subject matter or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they
don’t study.
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Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job? Will it give meaning
to my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it be part of the test? Will I
have a passing mark if I learn it? Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to
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them.
6:- LEARNABILITY:- The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It
should be within their experiences. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in
capacity of the students.

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order to know how subjects are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning
7:- FEASIBILITY:- It means that the subject matter can be fully implemented. It should consider the
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real situation of the school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within
the allowable time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to
finish. For example, you have only one week to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a
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month for the students to complete it. This is not feasible.

IV. PROBLEMS OF RESEARCH DESIGN IN CURRICULUM EVALUATION.
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Answer:-
We have decided to take a group-based action research approach to the development of an
introductory undergraduate module on the use of computer-mediated communications, entitled
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Elements of Information Management: communicating effectively in the networked organization. This

activity has been supported by funding from Sheffield University Curriculum Development Fund,
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enabling one of us to devote time to formalizing a suitable action research approach. We hope to
develop a model based upon our experience which will be transferable to other curriculum
development initiatives.
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Our curriculum design seeks to address two major objectives in undergraduate education: firstly, to
enable students to experience “deep” learning; and secondly, to facilitate the development of
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transferable skills. It has long been recognised that traditional teaching techniques often fail to
encourage “deep” learning of subject content, which goes beyond short-term rote memorisation to
enable the assimilation of new knowledge in a way which allows re-application to novel situations
(Entwhistle, 1988). Strategies to develop transferable skills in areas such as thinking and learning,
self-management, communication, group work and information management, are intended to
prepare students for work outside of the academic contexts in which they are learned initially.
The teaching strategy we have decided upon uses experiential and constructivist learning principles
(Duffy & Jonassen, 1992;Kolb,1984; Boud, et al., 1985). For much of the module, students are
engaged in a group-based collaborative project supported by the use of computer-mediated
communication technologies such as electronic mail, asynchronous conferencing and synchronous
chat. This is complemented by a range of individually-based learning activities. Students are
provided with a range of on-line information resources, and have access to tutor support via
electronic mail and face-to-face meetings as necessary. A major issue for us as action researchers
is to come to an understanding of the nature and level of support required by students to gain the
most from their learning activities. A key question associated with this is: what is the necessary
balance between externally-imposed structure and control and the students freedom to be self-
directed?
A number of features of the way we have decided to work on this module mark the approach as
being one of action research:
We aim to apply the model offered by the action research cycle. Although not yet complete, the
development of the module is following the action research cycle illustrated earlier. By completion of
the first cycle, we will have:-
• identified a number of objectives and formed initial working hypotheses about meeting them. For
instance, a key objective is to provide an appropriate framework for deep learning, for which we
believe it will be necessary to encourage maximum student ownership of the learning process;
• planned a curriculum model and devised materials and processes to support it. For instance, a key
feature of our curriculum model is students’ engagement in collaborative group project work.
Materials and processes to support this include process workbooks and learning diaries for
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individual work, process workshops to support positive group functioning, and on-line tutor support.
• put these into practice by running the module. The module is based upon one hour of theory
workshop and two hours of project work per week, over one semester. The main form of assessment
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is by coursework (the group project), supplemented by individually-produced learning diaries.
• made observations on our practice and evaluated its effects. Evaluation and self-assessment
strategies include a range of on-going student feedback mechanisms and tutor debriefings.
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• reflected upon the results of the evaluation, in preparation for modifying our practice for the second
implementation of the module. For instance, at present the choice of focus for student project work is
relatively limited. Given that students participating in the module come from a very wide diversity of
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academic disciplines, which are likely to hold distinctive perspectives on computer-mediated
communication, we would like to open this up to greater student choice in future if appropriate.
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We intend that the inquiry is critical in spirit and purpose:-
We believe that it is useful for our own development to perceive ourselves as a “critical community”
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of practitioners who not only want to improve the quality of teaching and learning in higher education
within the constraints and practical considerations imposed upon us, but who also seek to be change
agents of those constraints. For instance, assessment by examination is traditionally imposed at
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University level for this type of module; we anticipate and hope that its outcomes will justify the future
elimination of this form of assessment in future implementation.
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We aim to be reflective and self-evaluating:-

Insights gained from reflection and analysis of our practice will be fed back into practice. There will
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be continuous re-assessment of the module and its structure. Built into the module are mechanisms
which remind and encourage us to reflect systematically on our activities. For instance, as tutors we
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keep a collaborative on-line ‘tutor diary’ in which we share our reflections on teaching performance,
content, course structure, student response, etc., relating them to prior experience and to
teaching/learning theory. Individual experience is thus made available between colleagues for
comment and analysis, and we attempt to challenge as well as support each other. This semi-public
sharing of experience creates a collegial, collaborative approach to our personal professional
development.
We are accountable:-
We intend to make public the results of our evaluation, and the process by which it was achieved,
both locally and more widely.
We are engaged in participative problem-solving:-

Those doing the research and those doing the teaching are one and the same. We have not
employed external evaporators to assess the module; rather, we work together to gather data during
its development and implementation which will then be analyzed collectively, taking account of the
point of view of each of us. We believe that reporting of the project should similarly embrace all
points of view, and reports will be jointly written.
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Q.1 WHAT IS MEANT BY RESEARCH TOOLS? WHAT ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH
TOOLS? (20)
Answer:-
RESEARCH TOOLS:-
Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your study is called a research tool or a
research instrument. For example, observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires, and
interview guides are all classified as research tools.
TYPES OF RESEARCH TOOLS:-

OBSERVATION:-
Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings,
observation employs the senses. In science, observation can also involve the recording of data via
the use of instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity.
Observations can be qualitative, that is, only the absence or presence of a property is noted, or
quantitative if a numerical value is attached to the observed phenomenon by counting or measuring.
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OBSERVATION IN SCIENCE:- The scientific method requires observations of nature to formulate
and test hypotheses. It consists of these steps:-
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1. Asking a question about a natural phenomenon
2. Making observations of the phenomenon
3. Hypothesizing an explanation for the phenomenon
4. Predicting logical, observable consequences of the hypothesis that have not yet been investigated
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5. Testing the hypothesis’ predictions by an experiment, observational study, field study, or
simulation
6. Forming a conclusion from data gathered in the experiment, or making a revised/new hypothesis
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and repeating the process
7. Writing out a description of the method of observation and the results or conclusions reached
8. Review of the results by peers with experience researching the same phenomenon
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OBSERVATIONAL PARADOXES:- In some specific fields of science the results of observation differ
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depending on factors which are not important in everyday observation. These are usually illustrated
with “paradoxes” in which an event appears different when observed from two different points of
view, seeming to violate “common sense”.
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RELATIVITY:-
In relativistic physics which deals with velocities close to the speed of light, it is found that different
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observers may observe different values for the length, time rates, mass, and many other properties
of an object, depending on the observer’s velocity relative to the object. For example, in the twin
paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who
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stayed at home. This is not a paradox: time passes at a slower rate when measured from a frame
moving with respect to the object. In relativistic physics, an observation must always be qualified by
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specifying the state of motion of the observer, its reference frame.

QUANTUM MECHANICS:-
In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to
observe a system without changing the system, and the “observer” must be considered part of the
system being observed. In isolation, quantum objects are represented by a wave function which
often exists in a superposition or mixture of different states. However, when an observation is made
to determine the actual location or state of the object, it always finds the object in a single state, not
a “mixture”. The interaction of the observation process appears to “collapse” the wave function into a
single state. So any interaction between an isolated wave function and the external world that results
in this wave function collapse is called an observation or measurement, whether or not it is part of a
deliberate observation process.
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:-
Interview is a face to face or one to one situation in which the interviewer gathers information about
the behaviour, problems and future plans of the pupil. It is also designed to assist the pupil to
understand himself and his environment, so as to be able to solve his problems or modify his plans.
There are various types of interviews depending upon their purpose and design.
When interview is used as a tool for gathering data for research purpose it is called “research
interview” When interview is used for clinical purpose or to secure information about a pupil’s
problems, his past history, adjustment patterns etc. it is called clinical interview. Similarly, interview
can cover only one pupil at a time or a group of pupils. Accordingly, interview can be “individual
interview or group interview”. Interviews are also classified as “structured interview” and
“unstructured interview.” But our concern is to have a clear-cut look on interview schedule.
Interview schedule is another procedure under self-reporting technique of individual data collection.
In the interview the individual is made to answer several questions put to him related to a specific
aspect in a face to face situation. In conducting interview the interviewer (guidance personnel) may
use questions specified beforehand. This is called structured interview. If the interviewer doesn’t
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have any pre-specified questions while conducting interview, it is called unstructured interview.
Besides the above types, interviews may be counseling interview, diagnostic interview, non-directive
interview, authoritarian interview and non-authoritarian interview. For guidance purpose non directive
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interview seems to be most useful and helpful. The counselor follows the student’s needs, reflex and
helps to clarify his feeling. He doesn’t inject his own ideas into the conversation by questions or
suggestions or by giving information or advice.
USES OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:- The interview schedule has the following uses:-
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1. It is self-reporting technique which provides considerable flexibility to the interviewer.
2. Questions can be clarified, if necessary the interview can be given an opportunity to qualify or
modify his answer and the interviewer can carefully observe the individual during the session, noting
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down the feeling attached to his answer the topic or cases when he seems to be evasive “and areas
on which he is most vocal.
3. If the interviewer is experienced and trained, he can go beyond external purposes of the interview
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and he understands his inner feelings, wishes, desires, likes and dislikes.
4. While interviewing, the behavior of the subject can be observed and information with regard to his
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emotional complex can be observed which will be greatly helpful for individual guidance.
5. It is a potent and indispensable tool for getting data that no other research tool can do.
6. It can be adaptable, capable of being used with all types of individuals.
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LIMITATIONS OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:- The Interview schedule has the following limitations so
far as its application in the field of guidance is concerned:-
1. It is extremely time consuming process.
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2. Information obtained is not standardized from one person to another.

3. It suffers from bias of the interviewer.
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4. Sometimes interviewers own Masses influence the questions that are asked.
5. Some of the interviewers are becoming too rigid in taking judgments, while some others get
influenced by others’ judgments.
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6. A great deal of differences are found among the interviewers. As a result, the results obtained
can’t be called reliable.
7. Uniformity can’t be maintained from one interview situation to another. In spite of the above
limitations, interview technique may be quite useful for guidance. If the interviewer is trained and if
he possesses professional knowledge manners, maturity, objectivity, adequacy, well-defined social
values, the interview technique can get a high achieving situation in individual guidance service.
QUESTIONNAIRE:-
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for
the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for
statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by
the Statistical Society of London in 1838. A copy of the instrument is published in the Journal of the
Statistical Society, Volume 1, Issue 1,1838, pages 5-13.
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not
require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such standardized answers
may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be
able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a
survey by questionnaire may not be concrete.
TYPES:-
A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables,
and questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index. Questionnaires
with questions that measure separate variables, could for instance include questions on:
• Preferences (e.g. political party)
• Behaviors (e.g. food consumption)
• facts (e.g. gender) Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index,
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include for instance questions that measure:-
• Latent traits (e.g. personality traits such as extroversion)
• attitudes (e.g. towards immigration)
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• an index (e.g. Social Economic Status)
EXAMPLES:-
A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) is a questionnaire the type of diet consumed in people, and
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may be used as a research instrument. Examples of usages include assessment of intake of
vitamins or toxins such as acrylamide.
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QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION
QUESTION TYPES:-
Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has to answer in a
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set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions. An open-ended
question asks the respondent to formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has
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the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-
ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for
closed-ended questions are distinguished:-
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• Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options

• Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options
• Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options
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• (Bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale

A respondent’s answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale afterwards. An
example of an open-ended question is a question where the testie has to complete a sentence
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(sentence completion item).

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QUESTION SEQUENCE:- In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To
achieve the best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive,
from the factual and behavioral to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more specific.
There typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in regards to the
order that the questions are asked. The order is as follows:-
• Screens
• Warm-ups
• Transitions
• Skips
• Difficult
• Changing Formula Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not
someone should complete the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest
in the survey, and may not even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to
make different areas flow well together. Skips include questions similar to “If yes, then answer
question 3. If no, then continue to question 5.” Difficult questions are towards the end because the
respondent is in “response mode.” Also, when completing an online questionnaire, the progress bars
lets the respondent know that they are almost done so they are more willing to answer more difficult
questions. Classification, or demographic question should be at the end because typically they can
feel like personal questions which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish
survey.
Q.2 WHAT IS A TEST? AND WHAT ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TESTS USED IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH. (20)
ANSWER:-
TEST:-
A test or examination (informally, exam) is an assessment intended to measure a test-taker’s
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knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics (e.g., beliefs). A test
may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a test
taker to physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and requirements. For example, in
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a closed book test, a test taker is often required to rely upon memory to respond to specific items
whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one or more supplementary tools such as a
reference book or calculator when responding to an item. A test may be administered formally or
informally. An example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a parent to a
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child. An example of a formal test would be a final examination administered by a teacher in a
classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a
grade or a test score. A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or
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occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large
number of participants. An exam is meant to test a child’s knowledge or willingness to give time to
manipulate that subject.
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TESTS USED IN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

WHAT IS A ‘T-TEST’
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A t-test is an analysis of two population’s means through the use of statistical examination; a t-test
with two samples is commonly used with small sample sizes, testing the difference between the
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samples when the variances of two normal distributions are not known. A t-test looks at the t-
statistic, the t-distribution and degrees of freedom to determine the probability of difference between
populations; the test statistic in the test is known as the t-statistic. To conduct a test with three or
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more variables, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) must be used.
BREAKING DOWN:- ‘T-Test’ A form of hypothesis testing, the t-test is just one of many tests used
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for this purpose. Statisticians must use tests other than the t-test to examine more variables, as well
as for test with larger sample sizes. For a large sample size, statisticians use a z-test. Other testing
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options include the chi-square test and the f-test.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE T-TEST:-

The formula used to calculate the test is a ratio: The top portion of the ratio is the easiest portion to
calculate and understand, as it is simply the difference between the means or averages of the two
samples. The lower half of the ratio is a measurement of the dispersion, or variability, of the scores.
The bottom part of this ratio is known as the standard error of the difference. To compute this part of
the ratio, the variance for each sample is determined and is then divided by the number of
individuals the compose the sample, or group. These two values are then added together, and a
square root is taken of the result.
Example:-
For example, consider that an analyst wants to study the amount that ennsylvanians and
Californians spend, per month, on clothing. It would not be practical to record the spending habits of
every individual (or family) in both states, thus a sample of spending habits is taken from a selected
group of individuals from each state. The group may be of any small to moderate size — for this
example, assume that the sample group is 200 individuals.
The average amount for Pennsylvanians comes out to $500; the average amount for Californians is
$1,000. The t-test questions whether the different between the groups is representative of a true
difference between people in Pennsylvania and people in California in general or if it is likely a
meaningless statistical difference. In this example, if, theoretically, all Pennsylvanians spent $500
per month on clothing and all Californians spent $1,000 per month on clothing, it is highly unlikely
that 200 randomly selected individuals all spent that exact amount, respective to state. Thus, if an
analyst or statistician yielded the results listed in the example above, it is safe to conclude that the
difference between sample groups is indicative of a significant difference between the populations,
as a whole, of each state.
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WHAT IS ANOVA TEST?
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests the hypothesis that the means of two or more populations are
equal. ANOVAs assess the importance of one or more factors by comparing the response variable
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means at the different factor levels. The null hypothesis states that all population means (factor level
means) are equal while the alternative hypothesis states that at least one is different.
To perform an ANOVA, you must have a continuous response variable and at least one categorical
factor with two or more levels. ANOVAs require data from approximately normally distributed
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populations with equal variances between factor levels. However, ANOVA procedures work quite
well even if the normality assumption has been violated, unless one or more of the distributions are
highly skewed or if the variances are quite different. Transformations of the original dataset may
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correct these violations. For example, you design an experiment to assess the durability of four
experimental carpet products. You put a sample of each carpet type in ten homes and you measure
durability after 60 days. Because you are examining one factor (carpet type) you use a one-way
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ANOVA.
If the p-value is less than your alpha, then you conclude that at least one durability mean is different.
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For more detailed information about the differences between specific means, use a multiple
comparison method such as Tukey’s.
The name “analysis of variance” is based on the approach in which the procedure uses variances to
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determine whether the means are different. The procedure works by comparing the variance
between group means versus the variance within groups as a way of determining whether the
groups are all part of one larger population or separate populations with different characteristics.
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Minitab has different types of ANOVAs to allow for additional factors, types of factors, and different
designs to suit your specific needs.
ANOVA = type Model and design properties
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One-way = One fixed factor (levels set by investigator) which can have either an unequal
(unbalanced) or equal (balanced) number of observations per treatment.
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Balanced = Model may contain any number of fixed and random factors (levels are randomly
selected), and crossed and nested factors, but requires a balanced design.
General linear = Expands on Balanced ANOVAs by allowing unbalanced designs and covariates
model (continuous variables).
WHAT IS CHI-SQUARED TEST?

A chi-squared test, also written as X2 test, is any statistical hypothesis test wherein the sampling
distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared distribution when the null hypothesis is true. Without
other qualification, ‘chi-squared test’ often is used as short for Pearson’s chi-squared test. Chi-
squared tests are often constructed from a sum of squared errors, or through the sample variance.
Test statistics that follow a chi-squared distribution arise from an assumption of independent
normally distributed data, which is valid in many cases due to the central limit theorem. A chi-
squared test can be used to attempt rejection of the null hypothesis that the data are independent.
Also considered a chi-squared test is a test in which this is asymptotically true, meaning that the
sampling distribution (if the null hypothesis is true) can be made to approximate a chi-squared
distribution as closely as desired by making the sample size large enough. The chi-squared test is
used to determine whether there is a significant difference between the expected frequencies and
the observed frequencies in one or more
EXAMPLES OF CHI-SQUARED TESTS WITH SAMPLES:-
One test statistic that follows a chi-squared distribution exactly is the test that the variance of a
normally distributed population has a given value based on a sample variance. Such tests are
uncommon in practice because the true variance of the population is usually unknown. However,
there are several statistical tests where the chi-squared distribution is approximately valid:
Pearson’s chi-squared test
Pearson’s chi-squared test, also known as the chi-squared goodness-of-fit test or chi-squared test
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for independence. It was developed in the year 1900. When the chi-squared test is mentioned
without any modifiers or other precluding contexts, this test is often meant. For an exact test used in
place of the chi-squared test, see Fisher’s exact test.
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YATES’S CORRECTION FOR CONTINUITY:- using the chi-squared distribution to interpret
Pearson’s chi-squared statistic requires one to assume that the discrete probability of observed
binomial frequencies in the table can be approximated by the continuous chi-squared distribution.
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This assumption is not quite correct, and introduces some error. To reduce the error in
approximation, Frank Yates suggested a correction for continuity that adjusts the formula for
Pearson’s chi-squared test by subtracting 0.5 from the difference between each observed value and
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its expected value in a 2 x 2 contingency table.(1) This reduces the chi-squared value obtained and
thus increases its p-value.
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Other chi-squared tests
• Cochran—Mantel—Haenszel chi-squared test.
• McNemar’s test, used in certain 2 x 2 tables with pairing
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• Tukey’s test of additivity

• The portmanteau test in time-series analysis, testing for the presence of autocorrelation
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• Likelihood-ratio tests in general statistical modelling, for testing whether there is evidence of the
need to move from a simple model to a more complicated one (where the simple model is nested
within the complicated one).
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CHI-SQUARED TEST FOR VARIANCE IN A NORMAL POPULATION

If a sample of size n is taken from a population having a normal distribution, then there is a result
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(see distribution of the sample variance) which allows a test to be made of whether the variance of
the population has a pre-determined value. For example, a manufacturing process might have been
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in stable condition for a long period, allowing a value for the variance to be determined essentially
without error. Suppose that a variant of the process is being tested, giving rise to a small sample of n
product items whose variation is to be tested. The test statistic T in this instance could be set to be
the sum of squares about the sample mean, divided by the nominal value for the variance (i.e. the
value to be tested as holding). Then T has a chi-squared distribution with n – 1 degrees of freedom.
For example, if the sample size is 21, the acceptance region for T with a significance level of 5% is
between 9.59 and 34.17.
EXAMPLE CHI-SQUARED TEST FOR CATEGORICAL DATA:-
Suppose there is a city of 1 million residents with four neighborhoods: A, B, C, and D. A random
sample of 650 residents of the city is taken and their occupation is recorded as “white collar”, “blue
collar”, or “no collar”. The null hypothesis is that each person’s neighborhood of residence is
independent of the person’s occupational classification.
A related issue is a test of homogeneity. Suppose that instead of giving every resident of each of the
four neighborhoods an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, we decide in advance how many
residents of each neighborhood to include. Then each resident has the same chance of being
chosen as do all residents of the same neighborhood, but residents of different neighborhoods would
have different probabilities of being chosen if the four sample sizes are not proportional to the
populations of the four neighborhoods. In such a case, we would be testing “homogeneity” rather
than “independence”. The question is whether the proportions of blue-collar, white-collar, and no-
collar workers in the four neighborhoods are the same. However, the test is done in the same way.
APPLICATIONS
In cryptanalysis, chi-squared test is used to compare the distribution of plaintext and (possibly)
decrypted cipher text. The lowest value of the test means that the decryption was successful with
high probability this method can be generalized for solving modern cryptographic problems.
Q.3 DEFINE SAMPLING. WHAT ARE DIFFERENT SAMPLING DESIGNS USED IN

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH? (20)
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ANSWER:-
SAMPLING:-
When you collect any sort of data, especially quantitative data, whether observational, through
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surveys or from secondary data, you need to decide which data to collect and from whom. This is
called the sample. There are a variety of ways to select your sample, and to make sure that it gives
you results that will be reliable and credible.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POPULATION AND SAMPLE:-
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Ideally, research would collect information from every single member of the population that you are
studying. However, most of the time that would take too long and so you have to select a suitable
sample: a subset of the population.
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PRINCIPLES BEHIND CHOOSING A SAMPLE:-
The idea behind selecting a sample is to be able to generalize your findings to the whole population,
which means that your sample must be: Representative of the population. In other words, it should
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contain similar proportions of subgroups as the whole population, and not exclude any particular
groups, either by method of sampling or by design, or by who chooses to respond.
• Large enough to give you enough information to avoid errors. It does not need to be a specific
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proportion of your population, but it does need to be at least a certain size so that you know that your
answers are likely to be broadly correct. If your sample is not representative, you can introduce bias
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into the study. If it is not large enough, the study will be imprecise.
However, if you get the relationship between sample and population right, then you can draw strong
conclusions about the nature of the population.
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SAMPLE SIZE:- how long is a piece of string? How large should your sample be? It depends how
precise you want the answer. Larger samples generally give more precise answers.
Your desired sample size depends on what you are measuring and the size of the error that you’re
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prepared to accept. For example:-

To estimate a proportion in a population:
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Sample size =( (z-score)’ x p(1-p) J + (margin of error(‘

The margin of error is what you are prepared to accept (usually between 1% and 10%); The z-score,
also called the z value, is found from statistical tables and depends on the confidence interval
chosen (90%, 95% and 99% are commonly used, so choose which one you want); p is your estimate
of what the proportion is likely to be. You can often estimate p from previous research, but if you
can’t do that then use 0.5. To estimate a population mean: Margin of error = t x (s + square root of
the sample size). Margin of error is what you are prepared to accept (usually between 1% and
10%);; As long as the sample size is larger than about 30, t is equivalent to the z score, and
available from statistical tables as before; s is the standard deviation, which is usually guessed,
based on previous experience or other research.
SELECTING A SAMPLE
Probability sampling is where the probability of each person or thing being part of the sample is
known. Non-probability sampling is where it is not.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING:- Probability sampling methods allow the researcher to be precise about
the relationship between the sample and the population. This means that you can be absolutely
confident about whether your sample is representative or not, and you can also put a number on
how certain you are about your findings (this number is called the significance, and is discussed
further in our page on Statistical Analysis). In simple random sampling, every member of the
population has an equal chance of being chosen. The drawback is that the sample may not be
genuinely representative. Small but important sub-sections of the population may not be included.
Researchers therefore developed an alternative method called stratified random sampling. This
method divides the population into smaller homogeneous groups, called strata, and then takes a
random sample from each stratum.
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PROPORTIONAL STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING:- takes the same proportion from each
stratum, but again suffers from the disadvantage that rare groups will be badly represented. Non-
proportional stratified sampling therefore takes a larger sample from the smaller strata, to ensure
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that there is a large enough sample from each stratum.
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING:- relies on having a list of the population, which should ideally
be randomly ordered. The researcher then takes every nth name from the list.
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CLUSTER SAMPLING:- is designed to address problems of a widespread geographical population.
Random sampling from a large population is likely to lead to high costs of access. This can be
overcome by dividing the population into clusters, selecting only two or three clusters, and sampling
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from within those. For example, if you wished to find out about the use of transport in urban areas in
the UK, you could randomly select just two or three cities, and then sample fully from within these.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:- Using non-probability sampling methods, it is not possible to say
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what is the probability of any particular member of the population being sampled. Although this does
not make the sample ‘bad’, researchers using such samples cannot be as confident in drawing
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conclusions about the whole population.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:- selects a sample on the basis of how easy it is to access. Such
samples are extremely easy to organize, but there is no way to guarantee whether they are
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representative.
QUOTA SAMPLING:- divides the population into categories, and then selects from within categories
until a sample of the chosen size is obtained within that category. Some market research is this type,
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which is why researchers often ask for your age: they are checking whether you will help them meet
their quotas for particular age groups.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING:- is where the researcher only approaches people who meet certain
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criteria, and then checks whether they meet other criteria. Again, market researchers out and about
with clipboards often use this approach: for example, if they are looking to examine the shopping
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habits of men aged between 20 and 40, they would only approach men, and then ask their age.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING is where the researcher starts with one person who meets their criteria,
and then uses that person to identify others. This works well when your sample has very specific
criteria: for example, if you want to talk to workers with a particular set of responsibilities, you might
approach one person with that set, and ask them to introduce you to others.
Q.4 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL? EXPLAIN MAJOR PARTS OF A RESEARCH

PROPOSAL.(20)
ANSWER:-
RESEARCH PROPOSAL:- A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed
research. It sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area
of study within which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent
debates on the topic:-
I. INTRODUCTION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A:- “The introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the background information for the
research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that readers
can understand how it is related to other research” (Wilkinson, 1991, p. 96).
B:- IN AN INTRODUCTION, THE WRITER SHOULD

1. create reader interest in the topic,
2. lay the broad foundation for the problem that leads to the study,
3. place the study within the larger context of the scholarly literature, and
4. reach out to a specific audience. (Creswell, 1994, p. 42)
C:- If a researcher is working within a particular theoretical framework/line of inquiry, the theory or line of
inquiry should be introduced and discussed early, preferably in the introduction or literature review.
Remember that the theory/line of inquiry selected will inform the staterinent of the problem, rationale for
the study, questions and hypotheses, selection of instruments, and choice of methods. Ultimately,
findings will be discussed in terms of how they relate to the theory/line of inquiry that undergirds the
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study.
D:- Theories, theoretical frameworks, and lines of inquiry may be differently handled in quantitative and
qualitative endeavors.
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1. “In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the beginning of the plan for a
study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus begins the study advancing a theory, collects
data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory was confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the
study. The theory becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizing model for the research
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questions or hypotheses for the data collection procedure” (Creswell, 1994, pp. 87-88).
2. In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the nature of the
investigation. In studies aiming at “grounded theory,” for example, theory and theoretical tenets emerge
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from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to test or verify theory, hence in these cases
the theoretical framework, as in quantitative efforts, should be identified and discussed early on.
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II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
A. “The problem statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general analysis
approach” (Wiersma, 1995, p. 404).
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B. “A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a
need for the study” (Creswell, 1994, p. 50).
C. It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can easily recognize it.
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Sometimes, obscure and poorly formulated problems are masked in an extended discussion. In such
cases, reviewers and/or committee members will have difficulty recognizing the problem.
D. A problem statement should be presented within a context, and that context should be provided and
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briefly explained, including a discussion of the conceptual or theoretical framework in which it is

embedded. Clearly and succinctly identify and explain the problem within the framework of the theory or
line of inquiry that undergirds the study. This is of major importance in nearly all proposals and requires
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careful attention. It is a key element that associations such as AERA and APA look for in proposals. It is
essential in all quantitative research and much qualitative research.
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E. State the problem in terms intelligible to someone who is generally sophisticated but who is relatively
uninformed in the area of your investigation.
F. Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to be conducted.” If a
researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and without resorting to hyper
speaking (i.e., focusing on problems of macro or global proportions that certainly will not be informed or
alleviated by the study), then the statement of the problem will come off as ambiguous and diffuse.
G. For conference proposals, the statement of the problem is generally incorporated into the introduction;
academic proposals for theses or dissertations should have this as a separate section.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

A. “The purpose statement should provide a specific and accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the
study” (Locke, Spirduso, & Silverman, 1987, p. 5). If the purpose is not clear to the writer, it cannot be
clear to the reader.
B. Briefly define and delimit the specific area of the research. You will revisit this in greater detail in a later
section.
C. Foreshadow the hypotheses to be tested or the questions to be raised, as well as the significance of
the study. These will require specific elaboration in subsequent sections.
D. The purpose statement can also incorporate the rationale for the study. Some committees prefer that
the purpose and rationale be provided in separate sections, however.
E. Key points to keep in mind when preparing a purpose statement.
1. Try to incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is …” This will clarify your
own mind as to the purpose and it will inform the reader directly and explicitly.
2. Clearly identify and define the central concepts or ideas of the study. Some committee Chairs prefer a
separate section to this end. When defining terms, make a judicious choice between using descriptive or
operational definitions.
3. Identify the specific method of inquiry to be used.
4. Identify the unit of analysis in the study.
AIOU SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2 CODE 8604 AUTUMN 2016 IS TOTALLY FREE
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IV. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
A. “The review of the literature provides the background and context for the research problem. It should
establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area”
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(Wiersma, 1995, p. 406).
B. The literature review accomplishes several important things.
1. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the study being reported
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 1990).
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2. It relates a study to the larger, ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps and
extending prior studies (Marshall & Rossman, 1989).
3. It provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study, as well as a benchmark for
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comparing the results of a study with other findings.
4. It “frames” the problem earlier identified.
C. Demonstrate to the reader that you have a comprehensive grasp of the field and are aware of
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important recent substantive and methodological developments.
D. Delineate the “jumping-off place” for your study. How will your study refine, revise, or extend what is
now known?
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E. Avoid statements that imply that little has been done in the area or that what has been done is too
extensive to permit easy summary. Statements of this sort are usually taken as indications that the writer
is not really familiar with the literature.
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F. In a proposal, the literature review is generally brief and to the point. Be judicious in your choice of
exemplars—the literature selected should be pertinent and relevant (APA, 2001). Select and reference
only the more appropriate citations. Make key points clearly and succinctly.
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G. Committees may want a section outlining your search strategy—the procedures you used and sources
you investigated (e.g., databases, journals, test banks, experts in the field) to compile your literature
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review. Check with your Chair.

V. QUESTIONS AND/OR HYPOTHESES
A. Questions are relevant to normative or census type research (How many of them are there? Is there a
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relationship between them?). They are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in
quantitative inquiry is becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are
typically used only in quantitative inquiry. When a writer states hypotheses, the reader is entitled to have
an exposition of the theory that led to them (and of the assumptions underlying the theory). Just as
conclusions must be grounded in the data, hypotheses must be grounded in the theoretical framework.
B. A research question poses a relationship between two or more variables but phrases the relationship
as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations between two or more
variables (Kerlinger, 1979; Krathwohl, 1988).
C. Deciding whether to use questions or hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the
study, the nature of the design and methodology, and the audience of the research (at times even the
taste and preference of committee members, particularly the Chair).
D. The practice of using hypotheses was derived from using the scientific method in social science
inquiry. They have philosophical advantages in statistical testing, as researchers should be and tend to
be conservative and cautious in their statements of conclusions (Armstrong, 1974).
E. Hypotheses can be couched in four kinds of statements.
1. Literary null—a “no difference” form in terms of theoretical constructs. For example, “There is no
relationship between support services and academic persistence of nontraditional-aged college women.”
Or, “There is no difference in school achievement for high and low self-regulated students.”
2. Operational null—a “no difference” form in terms of the operation required to test the hypothesis. For
example, “There is no relationship between the number of hours nontraditional-aged college women use
the student union and their persistence at the college after their freshman year.” Or, “There is no
difference between the mean grade point averages achieved by students in the upper and lower quartiles
of the distribution of the Self-regulated Inventory.” The operational null is generally the preferred form of
hypothesis-writing.
3. Literary alternative—a form that states the hypothesis you will accept if the null hypothesis is rejected,
stated in terms of theoretical constructs. In other words, this is usually what you hope the results will
show. For example, “The more that nontraditional-aged women use support services, the more they will
persist academically.” Or, “High self-regulated students will achieve more in their classes than low self-
regulated students.”
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4. Operational alternative—Similar to the literary alternative except that the operations are specified. For
example, “The more that nontraditional-aged college women use the student union, the more they will
persist at the college after their freshman year.” Or, “Students in the upper quartile of the Self-regulated
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Inventory distribution achieve significantly higher grade point averages than do students in the lower
quartile.”
F. In general, the null hypothesis is used if theory/literature does not suggest a hypothesized relationship
between the variables under investigation; the alternative is generally reserved for situations in which
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theory/research suggests a relationship or directional interplay.
G. Be prepared to interpret any possible outcomes with respect to the questions or hypotheses. It will be
helpful if you visualize in your mind=s eye the tables (or other summary devices) that you expect to result
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from your research (Guba, 1961).
H. Questions and hypotheses are testable propositions deduced and directly derived from theory (except
in grounded theory studies and similar types of qualitative inquiry).
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I. Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent and independent variables and be certain
they are clear to the reader. Be excruciatingly consistent in your use of terms. If appropriate, use the
same pattern of wording and word order in all hypotheses.
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VI. THE DESIGN–METHODS AND PROCEDURES:-

A. “The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. The activities should
be described with as much detail as possible, and the continuity between them should be apparent”
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(Wiersma, 1995, p. 409).

B. Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question or to test every hypothesis
illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section.
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C. All research is plagued by the presence of confounding variables (the noise that covers up the
information you would like to have). Confounding variables should be minimized by various kinds of
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controls or be estimated and taken into account by randomization processes (Guba, 1961). In the design
section, indicate
1. the variables you propose to control and how you propose to control them, experimentally or
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statistically, and
2. the variables you propose to randomize, and the nature of the randomizing unit (students, grades,
schools, etc.).
D. Be aware of possible sources of error to which your design exposes you. You will not produce a
perfect, error free design (no one can). However, you should anticipate possible sources of error and
attempt to overcome them or take them into account in your analysis. Moreover, you should disclose to
the reader the sources you have identified and what efforts you have made to account for them.
E. SAMPLING
1. The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity—the extent to which the
interpretations of the results of the study follow from the study itself and the extent to which results may
be generalized to other situations with other people (Shavelson, 1988).
2. Sampling is critical to external validity—the extent to which findings of a study can be generalized to
people or situations other than those observed in the study. To generalize validly the findings from a
sample to some defined population requires that the sample has been drawn from that population
according to one of several probability sampling plans. By a probability sample is meant that the
probability of inclusion in the sample of any element in the population must be given a priori. All
probability samples involve the idea of random sampling at some stage (Shavelson, 1988). In
experimentation, two distinct steps are involved.
Random selection—participants to be included in the sample have been chosen at random from the same
population. Define the population and indicate the sampling plan in detail.
Random assignment—participants for the sample have been assigned at random to one of the
experimental conditions.
3. Another reason for being concerned with sampling is that of internal validity—the extent to which the
outcomes of a study result from the variables that were manipulated, measured, or selected rather than
from other variables not systematically treated. Without probability sampling, error estimates cannot be
constructed (Shavelson, 1988).
4. Perhaps the key word in sampling is representative. One must ask oneself, “How representative is the
sample of the survey population (the group from which the sample is selected) and how representative is
the survey population of the target population (the larger group to which we wish to generalize)?”
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5. When a sample is drawn out of convenience (a nonprobability sample), rationale and limitations must
be clearly provided.
6. If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
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or other relevant group membership).
7. Detail procedures to follow to obtain informed consent and ensure anonymity and/or confidentiality.
F. INSTRUMENTATION
o.
1. Outline the instruments you propose to use (surveys, scales, interview protocols, observation grids). If
instruments have previously been used, identify previous studies and findings related to reliability and
validity. If instruments have not previously been used, outline procedures you will follow to develop and
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test their reliability and validity. In the latter case, a pilot study is nearly essential.
2. Because selection of instruments in most cases provides the operational definition of constructs, this is
a crucial step in the proposal. For example, it is at this step that a literary conception such as “self-efficacy
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is related to school achievement” becomes “scores on the Mathematics Self-Efficacy Scale are related to
Grade Point Average.” Strictly speaking, results of your study will be directly relevant only to the
instrumental or operational statements (Guba, 1961).
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3. Include an appendix with a copy of the instruments to be used or the interview protocol to be followed.
Also include sample items in the description of the instrument.
4. For a mailed survey, identify steps to be taken in administering and following up the survey to obtain a
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high response rate.

G. DATA COLLECTION
1. Outline the general plan for collecting the data. This may include survey administration procedures,
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interview or observation procedures. Include an explicit statement covering the field controls to be
employed. If appropriate, discuss how you obtained entre.
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2. Provide a general outline of the time schedule you expect to follow.

H. DATA ANALYSIS
1. Specify the procedures you will use, and label them accurately (e.g., ANOVA, MANCOVA, HLM,
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ethnography, case study, grounded theory). If coding procedures are to be used, describe in reasonable
detail. If you triangulated, carefully explain how you went about it. Communicate your precise intentions
and reasons for these intentions to the reader. This helps you and the reader evaluate the choices you
made and procedures you followed.
2. Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available and expect to use (e.g., Ethnograph, NUDIST,
AQUAD, SAS, SPSS, SYSTAT).
3. Provide a well thought-out rationale for your decision to use the design, methodology, and analyses
you have selected.
VII. LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATION

A. A limitation identifies potential weaknesses of the study. Think about your analysis, the nature of self-
report, your instruments, the sample. Think about threats to internal validity that may have been
impossible to avoid or minimize—explain.
B. A delimitation addresses how a study will be narrowed in scope, that is, how it is bounded. This is the
place to explain the things that you are not doing and why you have chosen not to do them—the literature
you will not review (and why not), the population you are not studying (and why not), the methodological
procedures you will not use (and why you will not use them). Limit your delimitation to the things that a
reader might reasonably expect you to do but that you, for clearly explained reasons, have decided not to
do.
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VIII. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

A. Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under
investigation. Note that such refinements, revisions, or extensions may have either substantive,
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theoretical, or methodological significance. Think pragmatically (i.e., cash value).

B. Most studies have two potential audiences: practitioners and professional peers. Statements relating
the research to both groups are in order.
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C. This can be a difficult section to write. Think about implications—how results of the study may affect
scholarly research, theory, practice, educational interventions, curricula, counseling, policy. D. When
thinking about the significance of your study, ask yourself the following questions.
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1. What will results mean to the theoretical framework that framed the study?
2. What suggestions for subsequent research arise from the findings?
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3. What will the results mean to the practicing educator?

4. Will results influence programs, methods, and/or interventions?
5. Will results contribute to the solution of educational problems?
6. Will results influence educational policy decisions?
7. What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
8. How will results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?
Q.5 SUPPOSE YOU HAVE TO CONDUCT RESEARCH ON A TOPIC I.E. “PROBLEMS OF HEAD
TEACHERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN LAHORE”. DEVELOP A RESEARCH PROPOSAL ON THIS
TOPIC. (20)
ANSWER:
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Education Sector
RESEARCH AREA
Research Area Problems of head teachers in secondary schools in Lahore
SUB-AREA
Teaching Staff Problems Research Topic What are the problems of the head teachers in secondary
schools in Lahore Research question
• Aim of the Research
• What are the root causes of these problems which are facing by head teachers at secondary level in
Lahore?
• Who is responsible for these problems?
• How can authorities overcome these problems?
IDENTIFY PROBLEM(S)
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To identify the responsibilities of the head teachers in secondary schools in Punjab.
• To identify the responsibilities of the head teachers in secondary schools in Lahore
• Will compare the responsibilities, duties, rights, benefits of other districts’ head teachers with Lahore at
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secondary level.
• To investigate the core issues of the head teachers
• To Find out the root causes behind these problems, which are facing by head teachers at secondary
level in Lahore.
Approach, Selected Paradigm & Methodology:-

• Approach:-
o.
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1. Quantitative
2. Qualitatively
3. Data analysis Population and Sample Population All Head Teachers at Secondary Level in Lahore,
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who are currently working on their positions in 2016.
Sample
Male and female Head Teachers (accessible population) approx:30 Keeping in view the sensitivity of the
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issue, participants with reference to their education and background be selected.

Data Collection Tools
1. Questionnaire for the candidate.
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2. Interviews with Specialized design Questionnaire.

3. Interviews from the higher authorities.
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DATA COLLECTION PLAN

FIRSTLY,
By Questionnaire (Male/female head teachers at secondary level in Lahore)
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SECONDLY:-
By interview with the policy makers of the educational system of Punjab Province.
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THIRDLY:-
By interview with the Head Teachers working in Private Sector and in International Schools.
DATA ANALYSIS:-
The Collection of data from all three sources i.e general Questioner and specific design Questioner as
well as interviews from the concern persons and make comparison with the other international Papers.
PLANNED OUTCOMES:-
• By the Investigative study of all the relevant material our are able to give some constructive and positive
feedback to the policy maker to make positive changes in the educational structure to overcome the
problems of the head teachers.
• By this Research our are able to overcome the problems of the head teachers, and will be able to
provide facilities to our staff in accordance to modern educational sector.
BIBLIOGRAPHY WRITING SYSTEMS
• The APA (American Psychological Association) Style
• The footnote system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Use the appropriate and required format for listing references.
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Q.1: HOW PROJECT COST AFFECT PROJECT PLANNING? EXPLAIN PROVIDING EXAMPLES.
ANSWER: –
Project Cost Management (PCM) is a method that uses technology to measure cost and productivity
through the full life cycle of enterprise level projects. Beginning with estimating, a vital tool in PCM,
actual historical data is used to accurately plan all aspects of the project.
• Management asks, Would you like more time? We respond, Thank you, no. I’ll take some M-O-N-
E-Y.
• Customers offer, Would you like to reduce the scope? We answer, Thank you, no. I’ll take some M-
O-N-E-Y.
• Sponsors demand a speedier schedule. We respond, Thank you, no. I’ll take some M-O-N-E-Y.
Get the point?
From IT to construction, most projects have to purchase materials: routers and cables, shingles and
cement, and so on. We almost always must buy some things to complete the project work. Think
back to your last project; didn’t you have to buy something? A piece of software. A book. A large
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double-cheese and sausage pizza for your team. Someone, you or the organization you work for,
had to cough up the cash to buy that stuff. Regardless of scope or schedule, projects need funds to
complete the work. Technically, even projects that use only labour have funds attached to them;
someone, somewhere is paying for that labour. What happens if you don’t have the correct amount
of funds to complete the project scope? Your project is doomed.
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GOT YOUR MONEY ON YOUR MIND?
Now do we know what a project will cost? We really don’t, until the project is complete. I sound more
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like a car mechanic than a project manager, but the truth is, and this may sting just a little, we can’t
know the final project cost until the project is complete because we can’t accurately predict the
future. What we can do is create an estimate. An estimate is more than pulling a random number out
in
of the air, adding 20% for good measure, and then saying, That’ll work. A real estimate evolves as
project details become available. This is progressive elaboration. Project estimates start out broad,
and as the project deliverables come into focus we’re able to more accurately define our estimates.
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Each estimate should provide an acceptable range of variance, the conditions of the estimates, and
any assumptions made by the estimate provider. For example, an estimate to build a new
warehouse may state that the warehouse will cost $350,000, +/- 10%, is valid for 30 days, and
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assumes that the warehouse will be built in the month of June.

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Notice the range of variance, the assumptions, and the stated work? A good estimate clearly defines
what the project will accomplish, the assumptions made, how long the estimate is valid, and how
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much the project will cost based on current information. A good estimate presents to the stakeholder
everything relevant to the proposed work, without holding back any secrets. If there’s a
disagreement in price, assumptions, or range variance, it’s better to discuss this issue now rather
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than four months into the project execution. There are three major estimate types that project
managers should rely on:-
• THE BALLPARK ESTIMATE:- is also known as the Rough Order of Magnitude (ROM). A ROM
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estimate is based on high-level objectives, provides a bird’s-eye view of the project deliverables, and
has lots of wiggle room. Most ROM estimates, depending on the industry, have a range of variance
from -25% all the way to +75%. Like I said, lots of wiggle room.
• THE PROJECT MANAGER:- shouldn’t invest too much time in creating these initial estimates, just
as the customer shouldn’t place too much confidence in the accuracy of the ROM estimate.
Unfortunately for both parties, there’s a consistent breakdown in expectations when it comes to
ROM estimates. Typically the project manager blindly throws out the ROM estimate like a bride
tossing her bouquet, and the customer clings to the ROM bouquet like the maid of honour at the
same wedding. ROM estimates, regardless of your role in the project, are simply for eyeballing the
project’s initial perceived costs.
• THE BUDGET ESTIMATE:- (or top-down estimate) is a bit more accurate. Formulated fairly early
in the project’s planning stage, the budget estimate is most often based on analogous estimating,
taking budget lessons learned from a similar project and applying them to the current project. Do a
little maths magic and we’ve got ourselves a budget estimate. Abra-cadaver! • With the budget
estimate, we start at the top and work our way down into the project details. Like the ROM, this
estimate should include conditions, a range of variance, and any assumptions that went into your
calculations. A budget estimate is quick, but not very accurate. The range of variance on the budget
estimate is from -10 percent to +25 percent.
• THE DEFINITIVE ESTIMATE:- (or bottom-up estimate) is the most accurate of the estimate types,
but takes the most time to create. The definitive estimate requires a Work Breakdown Structure
(WBS). A WBS is not a list of activities. (I know, everyone at your office says it is, but they’re all
wrong.) A WBS is a deliverables-oriented decomposition of the project scope. That’s decomposition
of the deliverables that your project will create for the customer, nouns, not verbs. For example,
suppose you need to create a network from scratch in your organization’s headquarters. Your WBS
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will stem from the project name HQ Network. Below HQ Network, you create a family tree of major
deliverables: LAN, WAN, server room, workstations, and so on. Then you decompose these major
deliverables into smaller deliverables.
You need a WBS in order to create the definitive estimate because you and/or your experts will
account for the cost of each deliverable. In some organizations, that cost can include more than just
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the materials, it may take into account labour, consultants, team development, and so on. The point
is that each deliverable in the WBS can have time and costs associated with it. Depending on the
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size of your project, you may want or need to create a WBS dictionary to take advantage of the code
of accounts for each of the WBS elements: defining each element, the party responsible for the
element, time and costs associated with each component, and other notes or relevant facts.
A WBS dictionary, coupled with the code of accounts, helps to prevent or resolve
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miscommunications, provide accurate references, and organize the project deliverables. Tied to the
W8S dictionary are time, costs, and relevant info on each deliverable. Now you and Larry from
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Accounting can be best friends forever. You can move to any deliverable in the project and give an
accurate estimate of what each thing will cost to implement.
A definitive estimate takes lots of time to create, but it’s the most accurate estimate you can provide.
You may know this as a bottom-up estimate because you start from zero (the bottom) and account
for each freakin’ thing the project will purchase, create, or deliver. The range of variance on a
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definitive estimate is relatively low: -5% to +10%. This makes sense because it’s much easier to
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predict how much something will cost when you can see everything the project will create. How
many projects have you been involved in where you can see everything the project will create from
the word go? Probably not too many, or only projects that you’ve completed repeatedly and
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therefore know exactly what’s expected. For example, an IT integrator may have a project template
that defines all of the work to implement a prepackaged solution in any environment.
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While definitive estimates are ideal for accuracy, they’re not easy to create because so much effort
has to go into the project before the project manager can create the definitive estimate. This requires
education not just for you as project manager, but for your stakeholders, who need to understand
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that the only way a precise estimate can be created is to invest time in the project itself, by creating
the WBS. With any type of estimate, the project manager must provide the range of variance and an
explanation of how the estimate was created. Without these explanations, the customer is led to
believe that the price you’ve quoted, the price you’ve “promised,” is the final price that the customer
will see. And should the price tag change, there’ll be hell to pay.
GOT YOUR MIND ON YOUR MONEY? As the project moves toward completion, there will likely be
a need to revise the project’s price. If the project started with a ROM estimate, the original estimate
could be wildly wrong. The customer who reads the ROM estimate should know that the final cost is
likely to be much different from that estimate. No doubt the customer will be anxious to hear your
more accurate definitive estimate. Of course, from ROM to definitive, estimates can be just plain
wrong. It’s not fun to have to approach your sponsor, stakeholders, or customer with hat in hand and
beg, plead, scrounge for more cash because your project estimate was way, way off. Poor planning
is the major cause of poor estimates. Rushed estimates, bloated estimates, or estimates that are
“low-balled” just to get the project moving are bound for budget reviews, unpleasant conversations,
and project reassessments.
Sometimes, thankfully, it’s not the project manager’s fault when the estimate must change: The cost
of materials has changed, the anticipated time to complete the project work was wrong, or the bases
for decisions were faulty. In these instances, the project manager still has to communicate the
variances, which isn’t fun, but it’s easier than taking the blame when that blame is all yours.
Poor estimates can also be the fault of the customer, stakeholders, or even the project sponsor.
When the stakeholder is responsible, the increase in cost is usually tied to a change request.
Contrary to public opinion, change requests are not good things. Ideally, when the customer and the
project sponsor sign off on the scope statement, no changes should ever be made to that scope. Of
course, errors and omissions, technological enhancements, and value-added changes all affect the
scope’s resistance to change. If the customer demands new deliverables in the project scope,
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however, a price tag is usually associated with those demands. The monies needed to implement
the change have to come from somewhere, and not your wallet. Even changes that replace current
scope components may have a price; time and monies may already have been invested in these
deliverables. In my opinion, change after the scope statement is a bad, bad thing.
We’ll talk more about change management in a future article. For now, know this: When the project
scope changes, the budget usually has to change as well. Changes generally cost something, and
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that means a budget increase.
IT AND PROJECT COST CONTROL:- Do you ever feel like you’re playing on the budget dartboard?
The vendor’s cost has increased. The historical information is flawed. Time estimates are incorrect.
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The project team is spread too thin. The bribe was lower than expected. Excuses, excuses, right? IT
suffers from a universal law: the first-time, first-use penalty. The concept of the first-time, first-use
penalty is that it’s next to impossible to accurately estimate the cost of something that has never
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been attempted. IT is so unique, so multifaceted, and has so many fronts that the constant
movement of its variables creates a love-hate relationship for any organization trying to create an IT
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cost estimate. Consider any IT project, from replacing hardware to rolling out an entire new system,
and I bet you’ve got a first-time, first-use scenario in there somewhere. Sure, that type of work may
have been done before, but not in this project’s specific environment. You’ve got different types of
hardware, firmware, software, and don’t forget users, banging up against your solutions. All of these
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factors are often ignored, dismissed, or assumed to be non-issues. Mistake! When it comes to cost
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and things that can affect cost, the project manager must consider the risk and ramifications of the
first-time, first-use penalty. This universal law can spell disaster for any IT project. The longer a
project manager goes without at least nodding in the direction of the first-time, first-use penalty, the
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bigger the pending fall.

COST AND THE PROJECT MANAGER:- Project managers are in a tough spot: They’re the liaison
between the customer and the project team that will complete the customer’s project. In most
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organizations, it’s generally easier to get more time than money, and there’s usually more concern
about how much than how long. Project managers and their stakeholders need to go into any project
with a common goal: Identify an affordable scope and a plan of how to achieve it. Too often, and
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maybe because of the subject matter itself, cost is ignored in project planning. For projects to be
successful, someone has to foot the bill, and until the estimate is requested or provided, it’s not a
mystery, just a constant dread.
Q2: A) WRITE DOWN CRITERIA OF STUDENT’S CLASSIFICATION IN CLASSES.

Answer:
CRITERIA FOR STUDENT CLASSIFICATION
a. History (Some plans for Students)
b. General Criteria for Student Classification
c. Common Pattern
(A). HISTORY (SOME PLANS FOR STUDENT CLASSIFICATION)
i. Background
ii. Winnetka Plan
iii. Unit Plan
iv. Techniques of Instruction
v. Summer School
vi. Grouping
vii. Non-Grading Elementary School
(I). BACKGROUNDS
• Purpose of the school is to serve the needs of the pupils
• Administrator is to organize the school and classify the pupils to facilitate the achievement of this
purpose
• Division of the grades helped to solve the problems related to the textbook, facilities, materials and
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methods
• New problem “Lock Step” system created
• “Lock Step” means “Grade Standard” which created difficulties to meet the needs of the individual
pupils Administrator use different methods to adjust the students through different teachers, grades,
or subjects etc
• Administration needs to classify the pupil by keeping the view of individual differences
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• Many innovations in curriculum, teaching method & organization have been tried.
(II). WINNETKA PLAN
• Plan of individual instruction for elementary school children within the grade was inaugurated at
Winnetka, Illinois.
• Curriculum divided into two parts;
1. Common essentials
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2. Group activities
1. COMMON ESSENTIALS
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o Knowledge 7 Skills are considered necessary elements for pupils( Division was into units or
“Goals”)
o Assignment sheets, work sheets, diagnostic practice test, and test for each unit were considered
o Emphasis on each pupil to get mastery in each unit
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o Promotion to the next unit were provided until the mastery of the previous one
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2. GROUP ACTIVITIES
o Designed on part of the pupil
o Activities like art & crafts, music, physical education for standard goals to be met
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o Activities provide socialism & creative experience

(III). UNIT PLAN:-
o It is a teaching procedure & requires no changes in school organization
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o Different methods are to be used like project, activity & problem assignment
o All methods are of the distinct departures from the traditional subject matter recitation type of
teaching
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o It has great influence in elementary schools by focusing upon the attention upon organization of
the subject matter for the purpose of meeting the needs of the individual pupils
o It has influence upon the curriculum being offered in many schools
(IV). TECHNIQUES OF INSTRUCTION:-
o Needs can be met through the changed curriculum but it also requires techniques of instruction
o Few suggestions are related to the instruction to meet the individual needs are;
1. Develop units on life problems rather than on abstract subject matter problems
2. Teach to focus on the satisfaction of needs recognized by the learners
3. Provide adequate counseling and guidance services
4. Utilize more fully teaching resources such as films, radio, television, teaching machines and the
local community environment
5. Use wide variety of printed material
(V). SUMMER SCHOOL:-
o Many school districts operated for adjusting the pupils
o Operated primarily for those students who have failed or for those who wish to make additional
credits in order to complete high schools in three years
o Treated the failure students of regular terms in the school
o Used to get measurable grade standard or subject if they are achieving before
o Mostly emphasized on the subjects like music, arts, sports and games, but recently few more
added like math, science and foreign languages
(VI). GROUPING:-
o Emphasis was given for chronological age grouping
o Homogeneous grouping usually be done according to the mental abilities, or achievement in the
subject matter
o Mental abilities tested through different tests or teacher’s judgment
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o Great emphasis as given on the achievement of the subject matter
o More preference was on the homogeneous grouping because instruction can be done effectively
Few arguments were for making homogeneous grouping;
o Usually be taught by the same method Saves the teacher’s time and energy 133 Subject may be
covered in same period of time (13 Poor students are not discouraged
o Specially trained teachers can be used for proper pupils
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o Homogeneous group can be taught as an individually
o Brighter students are encouraged 69 Loafing on the part of superior pupil is reduced or eliminated
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Some suggestions were against of the homogeneous grouping;
o No basis for grouping has been developed which is sufficiently objective 1?3 Unwholesome
competition may be engendered
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o People are not strictly grouped in their life occupations according to ability
o Status distinctions, characteristics of the class society, may be fostered
o Group can not be formed which are homogeneous in each curriculum area because abilities of the
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single student vary from subject to subject 123 No practical way has been found to group on the
basis of special ability 17.1 Grouping according to the ability often cases jealousy and resentment
(anger) on the part of the pupils and parents
(VII). NON-GRADED ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
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o It was the movement which was slowly gaining supporters

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o Classifying the students was attributed to the results of the child study movement which reveals
that students differ in different way
o It classified the students according to the levels rather than to the grade numbers
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o Levels usually based on reading abilities and consists of 10-12 levels in the first three grades
o Pupils progress through the levels at their own rate without usual stigma (disagree)
o Pupils may complete their work of three years in two or may take 4 years • Plans used extensively
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at primary grades
o Provide three major organizational advantages in classifying students;
1. A unit plan of ears that is adaptable to the lags and sports normally accompanying the
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development of child
2. Progress levels that permit a child to pick up after an absence from school at the point where he
previously left off
3. A time range that permit children of approximately the same chronological age to remain together
while progressing at different academic rates suited to individual capacities
(B). GENERAL CRITERIA FOR STUDENT CLASSIFICATION:-
o In the past teacher dealt all students of different ages and subject equally, but with the increase of
population more teacher hired for then and children were divided into groups
o age was common selection factor
o Age 1-12 handed over to one teacher and age 12- above handed over to the next teacher
o As population grew then more classification be done
o Major purpose for grouping is individualization
o Classification was due to the individual differences, academic and social characteristics
o Age was used originally for the selection of the candidates because it is correlated with social
characteristics
o When age selection factor came into use then student were being differentiated on the basis of
their academic achievements which was named as homogeneous grouping, which based on the
performance, reading readiness tests etc
o Students were divided in two classrooms, one for those who achieved above the standard
readiness score and those who were below of that
(C). COMMON PATTERNS:-
1. Ungraded Grouping
2. Inter- Classroom Subject Grouping
3. Inter- Classroom Ability Grouping
4. Split-half Grouping
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5. Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping
6. Special Ability Grouping
7. Inter-Classroom Individualized Grouping
1. UNGRADED GROUPING:-
o Grade levels were abandoned (neglected)
o There was no classification of the students in one classroom
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o Usually ungraded grouping were distinguished between lower elementary and upper elementary,
upgraded primary & Upgraded intermediate
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o First three year schooling were assigned to ungraded primary then promotion was on the basis of
age, social maturity, academic ability or some combination of factors
o School might have three or more ungraded primary classrooms and teacher might stay with the
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same students for three years for knowing them
2. INTER-CLASSROOM SUBJECT GROUPING
o Grouping based on subject matter
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o Most common pattern in grouping junior and senior high schools

o Used in elementary schools when teacher train them for different subjects
o During the 2hr period teacher A has reading with class A for the first hour and reading with the
class B for second hour and teacher B follows the opposite schedule for mathematics
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3:- INTER- CLASSROOM ABILITY GROUPING:-

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o Classification based on their performance in intelligence and achievement tests

o Those scoring from grade level or higher are assigned to one classroom while all those scoring
from grade level or below are assigned to another
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o A higher school might use placement tests for assigning English or Mathematics courses or even
totally different tracks
o Assignment may be for one day or for the subjects, or to pull the disabled readers from their
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classes for instruction

4:- SPLIT- HALF GROUPING:-
o Students were divided into split half day schedule for reducing the class size for critical subjects
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o Commonly used in the primary grades means when half of the class receives instruction for few
hours and then 2nd class will receive instruction after that time
5. INTRA-CLASSROOM ABILITY GROUPING:-
o Students are to be classified on the basis of their abilities
o Pattern is mostly common in reading when they are given reading achievement tests and then do
grouping as per their level as high group, middle group and low group.
o This ability had been used at all grads from kindergarten through high schools
6:- SPECIAL ABILITY GROUPING:-
o Students are assigned for short period
o Promotion is to be done on their ability
o Teacher uses remedial instruction for half an hour below a certain reading level and an enrichment
teacher might work with students above a certain level
7. INTRA- CLASSROOM INDIVIDUALIZED GROUPING:-
o One time instruction for one pupil
o Reading programmes called “Individualized Reading” follow this pattern
o This pattern has become popular for the last 10 years because of the availability of published, sub-
instructional material
o The best use of the continuous progress selecting students into individual group varies widely and
sometimes name is used , student just work alone
NEED FOR CLASSIFICATION

More than a million species of living organisms have been discovered and described so far and a
large number of them are yet to be discovered. Scientists involved in this task, called taxonomists,
estimate that there may be around 30 million species of living organisms of which the known number
of species forms a very small percentage.
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Any systematic study on a given plant or animal can be made easier only when the organism is
identified as one belonging to a particular group that has some specific characters. The vast number
of plant and animal species that have been identified and described, exhibit a great deal of variation
in their form, structure, mode of life and various other aspects. Unless the plants and animals are
divided into discrete groups based on the differences and similarities between them, it becomes
practically impossible to study them.
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The scientific practice of identifying, naming and grouping of living organisms is called classification.
The branches of biology that deal with classification are called taxonomy and systematic. Taxonomy,
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as the name indicates, deals with describing and naming organisms while systematic deals with
grouping and arranging the described taxa into a hierarchical classification.
ADVANTAGES OF BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION:- The scientific grouping of organisms has
some specific advantages:-
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• It makes the study of living organisms convenient.
• It helps in the specific identification of any given organism.
• The study of a few representatives from each distinct group helps us to integrate the idea of life as
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a whole.
• It reveals the relationships among various groups of organisms.
• It provides information about plants and animals, which occur in specific geographical regions.
• It indicates the evolutionary relationship by establishing the gradually increasing complexity of form
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and structure in different groups of organisms.

B) EXPLAIN DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT.
Answer: Student behaviors like shouting out, not paying attention, task avoidance, disrespect,
refusal, and engaging in power struggles take your focus away from teaching and students’ focus
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away from learning. In order to create and maintain a productive classroom setting and bring the
focus back to teaching and learning, use these classroom management strategies to decrease
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disruption and increase compliance.

UNDERSTAND YOUR STUDENTS:-
Get to know each student as an individual. Build relationships with them based on trust and
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understanding. Be sure to let your compassion for each student reflect through your nonverbal
behavior and your preverbal communication.
BE PATIENT:-
Keep in mind that you have a choice about how you respond to disruptive student behavior. Choose
not to take the behavior personally, and use positive self-talk. For example, instead of thinking, “I
can’t take this disrespect anymore,” think, “I’ve seen this before. Why am I letting it get to me today?”
SET LIMITS:-
Be sure to post your classroom’s rules prominently. Keep to a few rules and make sure that they’re
clear, simple, and positive. For example, instead of stating, “NO FOOD OR DRINKS ALLOWED,”
state, “Please leave food and drinks in the cafeteria.”
KEEP TO THE SCHEDULE YOU SET:- Following your own rules is key to modeling timeliness and
productivity. The more organized you are, the more opportunity there is to focus on teaching and
learning. This will help your students respect schedules and work within designated time frames.
BE AWARE OF THE CAUSES OF BEHAVIOR:- Being mindful of Precipitating Factors and early
warning signs helps you focus on prevention. One way to avert difficult behavior is to seat disruptive
students strategically. For example, if a student tends to be loud, inattentive, or noncompliant, seat
her away from others who might tempt her to challenge you or engage in a power struggle with you.
WALK AROUND:- When a student is inattentive, rowdy, or challenging, it distracts others. As you’re
teaching, move toward the student while continuing to talk to the class as a whole. Most students will
not continue being disruptive if you stand near them as you’re teaching. You can also try making
friendly eye contact with the student. Be consistent in your practice of these classroom management
techniques. When students know what to expect from you, and what you expect from them, they’re
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more likely to be productive learners. Put these effective classroom management tips to use to
manage disruptive behavior with confidence.
Q.3: CONDUCT AN INTERVIEW FROM SCHOOL TEACHERS AND DISCUSS, WHAT IS DIFFERENCE
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BETWEEN LEARNING RESOURCES AND EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES?
ANSWER:-
Learning Resources: Learning resources are texts, videos, software, and other materials that teachers
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use to assist students to meet the expectations for learning defined by provincial or local curricula. Before
a learning resource is used in a classroom, it must be evaluated and approved at either the provincial or
local level. Evaluation criteria may include curriculum fit, social considerations, and age or developmental
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appropriateness.
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LEARNING RESOURCES INCLUDE:-

Textbooks (print and digital) Workbooks Worksheets Manipulatives (blocks, beads, etc.) Flashcards
Educator workshops Non-fiction books Posters Educational games
Apps Websites Software Online courses Activity books Graphic novels Reference books DVDs CDs
Magazines & periodicals
Study guides Teacher guides Labs Models Movies Televisions shows Webcasts Podcasts Maps &
atlases
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES:-
The idea of open educational resources (OER) has numerous working definitions. The term was firstly
coined at UNESCO’s 2002 Forum on Open Courseware and designates “teaching, learning and research
materials in any medium, digital or otherwise, that reside in the public domain or have been released
under an open license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation and redistribution by others with no or
limited restrictions. Open licensing is built within the existing framework of intellectual property rights as
defined by relevant international conventions and respects the authorship of the work”. Often cited is the
William and Flora Hewlett Foundation term which defines OER as: teaching, learning, and research
resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license
that permits their free use and re-purposing by others. Open educational resources include full courses,
course materials, modules, textbooks, streaming videos, tests, software, and any other tools, materials, or
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techniques used to support access to knowledge. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) defines OER as: “digitised materials offered freely and openly for educators,
students, and self-learners to use and reuse for teaching, learning, and research. OER includes learning
content, software tools to develop, use, and distribute content, and implementation resources such as
open licences”. (This is the definition cited by Wikipedia’s sister project, Wikiversity.) By way of
comparison, the Commonwealth of Learning “has adopted the widest definition of Open Educational
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Resources (OER) as ‘materials offered freely and openly to use and adapt for teaching, learning,
development and research’. The WikiEducator project suggests that OER refers “to educational
resources (lesson plans, quizzes, syllabi, instructional modules, simulations, etc.) that are freely available
OER: fo
for use, reuse, adaptation, and sharing’. The above definitions expose some of the tensions that exist with
• NATURE OF THE RESOURCE: Several of the definitions above limit the definition of OER to digital
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resources, while others consider that any educational resource can be included in the definition.
• SOURCE OF THE RESOURCE: While some of the definitions require a resource to be produced with
an explicit educational aim in mind, others broaden this to include any resource which may potentially be
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used for learning

• LEVEL OF OPENNESS: Most definitions require that a resource be placed in the public domain. Others
require for use to be granted merely for educational purposes, or exclude commercial uses. At the same
time, these definitions also share some universal commonalities, namely they all:
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• cover both use and reuse, repurposing, and modification of the resources; include free use for
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educational purposes by teachers and learners

• encompass all types of digital media. Given the diversity of users, creators and sponsors of open
educational resources, it is not surprising to find a variety of use cases and requirements. For this reason,
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it may be as helpful to consider the differences between descriptions of open educational resources as it
is to consider the descriptions themselves. One of several tensions in reaching a consensus description
of OER (as found in the above definitions) is whether there should be explicit emphasis placed on specific
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technologies. For example, a video can be openly licensed and freely used without being a streaming
video. A book can be openly licensed and freely used without being an electronic document. This
technologically driven tension is deeply bound up with the discourse of open-source licensing. For more,
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see Licensing and Types of OER later in this article.
There is also a tension between entities which find value in quantifying usage of OER and those which
see such metrics as themselves being irrelevant to free and open resources. Those requiring metrics
associated with OER are often those with economic investment in the technologies needed to access or
provide electronic OER, those with economic interests potentially threatened by OER, or those requiring
justification for the costs of implementing and maintaining the infrastructure or access to the freely
available OER. While a semantic distinction can be made delineating the technologies used to access
and host learning content from the content itself, these technologies are generally accepted as part of the
collective of open educational resources.
Since OER are intended to be available for a variety of educational purposes, most organizations using
OER neither award degrees nor provide academic or administrative support to students seeking college
credits towards a diploma from a degree granting accredited institution. In open education, there is an
emerging effort by some accredited institutions to offer free certifications, or achievement badges, to
document and acknowledge the accomplishments of participants.
Q.4: A) EXPLAIN THE MODES OF KEEPING RECORD OF SCHOOL.

ANSWER:-
Record keeping in school is the maintenance of information about each student, which includes basic
biographical data, contact information, educational progress and modifications, attendance, discipline,
and medical concerns. These records not only document information about the student, they also contain
information on which a school is judged and funded. Many laws exist concerning the use and availability
of these records to non-school personnel.
Record keeping in education is a very big part of the “business” of school, as accurate records keep
educators accountable and facilitate the transfer of students, who are less likely to finish school in the
system in which they started than they were years ago. Accurate biographical information, transcripts,
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medical records and special needs modifications must be transferred with a student from school to
school, whether the school is within or outside the student’s previous system. Decisions about a child’s
future education are often made based on school records, stressing the need for accuracy. Because of
the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, parents of students younger than 18 and students who
are 18 or older have the right to inspect and amend school records. Decision about the school’s future are
also made based on school records, and federal funding often relies on information contained in them.
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Each school or school system must utilize a method of creating, keeping, storing and disposing of records
that maintains their integrity and privacy.
MODES OF KEEPING RECORD OF SCHOOL:-

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CUMULATIVE FILE:- This may be little more than a profile card with personal identification data,
standardized test scores and report cards.
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CONFIDENTIAL FILE:- This is often kept in the school district’s central administrative office, where the
special education program offices are located. The file typically includes:-
• All of the reports written as a result of the school’s evaluation for special education and related services
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• Records of independent educational evaluations, if your child was evaluated this way
• Medical records you’ve agreed to release to the school
• Results of vision and hearing tests done by the school
• Summary reports of the evaluation team and eligibility committee meetings
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• Your child’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) or 504 plan

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• Correspondence between you and school personnel
COMPLIANCE FILE:- This file shows that the school system has met the timelines, notification and
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consent regulations required by federal law. The records in this may include:-
• Reports of eligibility determination meetings for children being considered for special education services
• Correspondence between school officials, including notifications ad consent
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DISCIPLINE FILE:- This may include notes about behavior and discipline issues that involve long-term
suspension or expulsion. If a student has a behavior intervention plan ((MP), it may be filed here.
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ATTENDANCE FILE:- This contains a record of a student’s school attendance. It might also include notes
from parents regarding excused absences.
PART B OF Q # 4
B) DISCUSS KINDS OF SCHOOL RECORD USED IN YOUR SCHOOL/INSTITUTE. HIGHLIGHT PROS
AND CONS OF KEEPING RECORD UPDATE.
ANSWER:-
(Part A & Part B have to same answers as both questions are interchangeable.) Record keeping in school
is the maintenance of information about each student, which includes basic biographical data, contact
information, educational progress and modifications, attendance, discipline, and medical concerns. These
records not only document information about the student, they also contain information on which a school
is judged and funded. Many laws exist concerning the use and availability of these records to non-school
personnel.
Record keeping in education is a very big part of the “business” of school, as accurate records keep
educators accountable and facilitate the transfer of students, who are less likely to finish school in the
system in which they started than they were years ago. Accurate biographical information, transcripts,
medical records and special needs modifications must be transferred with a student from school to
school, whether the school is within or outside the student’s previous system. Decisions about a child’s
future education are often made based on school records, stressing the need for accuracy. Because of
the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, parents of students younger than 18 and students who
are 18 or older have the right to inspect and amend school records. Decision about the school’s future are
also made based on school records, and federal funding often relies on information contained in them.
Each school or school system must utilize a method of creating, keeping, storing and disposing of records
that maintains their integrity and privacy.
MODES OF KEEPING RECORD OF SCHOOL:-
CUMULATIVE FILE:- This may be little more than a profile card with personal identification data,
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standardized test scores and report cards.
CONFIDENTIAL FILE:- This is often kept in the school district’s central administrative office, where the
special education program offices are located. The file typically includes:-
• All of the reports written as a result of the school’s evaluation for special education and related services
Records of independent educational evaluations, if your child was evaluated this.way Medical records
you’ve agreed to release to the school Results of vision and hearing tests done by the school
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• Summary reports of the evaluation team and eligibility committee meetings
• Your child’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) or 504 plan
• Correspondence between you and school personnel
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COMPLIANCE FILE:- This file shows that the school system has met the timelines, notification and
consent regulations required by federal law. The records in this may include:-
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• Reports of eligibility determination meetings for children being considered for special education services
• Correspondence between school officials, including notifications ad consent
DISCIPLINE FILE: This may include notes about behavior and discipline issues that involve long-term
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suspension or expulsion. If a student has a behavior intervention plan (BIP), it may be filed here.
ATTENDANCE FILE: This contains a record of a student’s school attendance. It might also include notes
from parents regarding excused absences.
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Q.5: WRITE A NOTE ON IMPROVING MANAGEMENT THROUGH EVALUATION. MAKE AN

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EVALUATION PLAN FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE/SCHOOL OF YOUR OWN

CHOICE.
ANSWER:-
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Performance in schools is increasingly judged on the basis of effective learning outcomes. Information is
critical to knowing whether the school system is delivering good performance and to providing feedback
for improvement in student outcomes. The OECD has launched the Review on Evaluation and
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Assessment Frameworks for Improving School Outcomes to provide analysis and policy advice to
countries on the following overarching policy question: “How can assessment and evaluation policies
work together more effectively to improve student outcomes in primary and secondary schools?”
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Countries use a range of techniques for the evaluation and assessment of students, teachers, schools
and education systems. Many countries test samples and/or all students at key points, and sometimes
follow students over time. International assessments such as PISA provide additional information and
useful external comparators. Some countries also use inspection services to evaluate teachers and/or
schools and teacher evaluation is becoming more widely used. In all countries, there is widespread
recognition that evaluation and assessment frameworks are key to building stronger and fairer school
systems. Countries also emphasize the importance of seeing evaluation and assessment not as ends in
themselves, but instead as important tools for achieving improved student outcomes. Although each
country context is unique, some common policy challenges are emerging from the OECD’s Review.
These can be grouped under five main headings.
GOVERNANCE AND IMPLEMENTATION:- The common policy challenges that emerge concerning
governance and implementation are: ensuring articulations within the evaluation and assessment
framework; developing competencies for evaluation and for using feedback; securing links with classroom
practice; and overcoming the challenges of implementation.
STUDENT ASSESSMENT:- Several common policy challenges arise concerning student assessment:
aligning educational standards and student assessment; balancing external assessments and teacher
based assessments in the assessment of learning and integrating student formative assessment in the
evaluation and assessment framework.
TEACHER EVALUATION:- Common policy challenges in teacher evaluation are: combining the
improvement and accountability functions of teacher evaluation; accounting for student results in
evaluation of teachers; and using teacher evaluation results to shape incentives for teachers.
SCHOOL EVALUATION:- School evaluation presents common policy challenges concerning: aligning
external evaluation of schools with internal school evaluation; providing balanced public reporting on
schools and improving data handling skills of school agents.
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SYSTEM EVALUATION:- Common policy challenges for evaluation of education systems are: meeting
information needs at system level; monitoring key outcomes of the education system; and maximizing the
use of system-level information. n many countries there has been a move away from school evaluation
which emphasizes compliance with central policies and procedures towards much greater stress being
placed on the need for schools to evaluate themselves as part of wider strategies of school improvement.
Partly as a result of this strengthened school autonomy, the role of external evaluation has undergone
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significant change and achieving a much closer alignment between self-evaluation and external
evaluation has become a key policy objective.
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Self-evaluation has the merit of being immediate, responsive to the school’s specific needs and
circumstances and its results are ‘owned’ by the school. However, self-evaluation which serves the needs
of accountability is subject to inevitable tensions between rigour and depth on the one hand and a natural
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desire not to undermine the confidence of parents and superiors on the other. As a result, self-evaluation
is more a tool for managing development than for challenging assumptions or for arriving at conclusions
which threaten key actors in the school’s hierarchy.
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The involvement of externality in school evaluation, therefore, both provides that element of distance from
the internal dynamics of the school and gives the kind of perspective and challenge to assumptions and
to the interpretation of evidence. This can lead to greater rigour in the process. Externality can be
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achieved in a variety of ways. Who evaluates, what is evaluated and how, and the ways in which the
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results are agreed and communicated must be explicit concerns for policy from the outset. Clarity is
needed about the nature of externality and about the contexts within which it is important.
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Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017
Q.1 Give answers to the following short questions.
(1) The Personal Qualities of a Teacher
Here I want to try to give you an answer to the question: What personal qualities are desirable in a
teacher? Probably no two people would draw up exactly similar lists, but I think the following would be
generally accepted.
First, the teacher's personality should be pleasantly live and attractive. This does not rule out people
who are physically plain, or even ugly, because many such have great personal charm. But it does rule
out such types as the over-excitable, melancholy, frigid, sarcastic, cynical, frustrated, and over-bearing: I
would say too, that it excludes all of dull or purely negative personality. I still stick to what I said in my
earlier book: that school children probably 'suffer more from bores than from brutes'.
Secondly, it is not merely desirable but essential for a teacher to have a genuine capacity for sympathy -
in the literal meaning of that word; a capacity to tune in to the minds and feelings of other people,
especially, since most teachers are school teachers, to the minds and feelings of children. Closely related
with this is the capacity to be tolerant - not, indeed, of what is wrong, but of the frailty and immaturity
of human nature which induce people, and again especially children, to make mistakes.
Thirdly, I hold it essential for a teacher to be both intellectually and morally honest. This does not mean
being a plaster saint. It means that he will be aware of his intellectual strengths, and limitations, and will
have thought about and decided upon the moral principles by which his life shall be guided. There is no
contradiction in my going on to say that a teacher should be a bit of an actor. That is part of the
technique of teaching, which demands that every now and then a teacher should be able to put on an
act - to enliven a lesson, correct a fault, or award praise. Children, especially young children, live in a
world that is rather larger than life.
A teacher must remain mentally alert. He will not get into the profession if of low intelligence, but it is
all too easy, even for people of above-average intelligence, to stagnate intellectually and that means to
deteriorate intellectually. A teacher must be quick to adapt himself to any situation, however
improbable (they happen!) and able to improvise, if necessary at less than a moment's notice. (Here I
should stress that I use 'he' and 'his' throughout the book simply as a matter of convention and
convenience.)
On the other hand, a teacher must be capable of infinite patience. This, I may say, is largely a matter of
self-discipline and self-training; we are none of us born like that. He must be pretty resilient; teaching
makes great demands on nervous energy. And he should be able to take in his stride the innumerable
petty irritations any adult dealing with children has to endure.
Finally, I think a teacher should have the kind of mind which always wants to go on learning. Teaching is
a job at which one will never be perfect; there is always something more to learn about it. There are
three principal objects of study: the subject, or subjects, which the teacher is teaching; the methods by
which they can best be taught to the particular pupils in the classes he is teaching; and - by far the most
important - the children, young people, or adults to whom they are to be taught. The two cardinal
principles of British education today are that education is education of the whole person, and that it is
best acquired through full and active co-operation between two persons, the teacher and the learner.
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The Professional Qualities of a Teacher
A great teacher is one a student remembers and cherishes forever. Teachers have long-lasting impacts
on the lives of their students, and the greatest teachers inspire students toward greatness. To be
successful, a great teacher must have:
1. An Engaging Personality and Teaching Style

A great teacher is very engaging and holds the attention of students in all discussions.
2. Clear Objectives for Lessons
A great teacher establishes clear objectives for each lesson and works to meet those specific
objectives during each class.
3. Effective Discipline Skills
A great teacher has effective discipline skills and can promote positive behaviors and change in the
classroom.
4. Good Classroom Management Skills
A great teacher has good classroom management skills and can ensure good student behavior,
effective study and work habits, and an overall sense of respect in the classroom.
5. Good Communication with Parents
A great teacher maintains open communication with parents and keeps them informed of what is
going on in the classroom as far as curriculum, discipline, and other issues. They make themselves
available for phone calls, meetings, and email.
6. High Expectations
A great teacher has high expectations of their students and encourages everyone to always work at
their best level.
7. Knowledge of Curriculum and Standards
A great teacher has thorough knowledge of the school's curriculum and other standards they must
uphold in the classroom. They ensure their teaching meets those standards.
8. Knowledge of Subject Matter
This may seem obvious, but is sometimes overlooked. A great teacher has incredible knowledge of
and enthusiasm for the subject matter they are teaching. They are prepared to answer questions and
keep the material interesting for the students.
9. Passion for Children and Teaching
A great teacher is passionate about teaching and working with children. They are excited about
influencing students' lives and understand the impact they have.
10. Strong Rapport with Students
A great teacher develops a strong rapport with students and establishes trusting relationships.
(2) What is a case method?
The case method combines two elements: the case itself and the discussion of that case. A teaching case
is a rich narrative in which individuals or groups must make a decision or solve a problem. A teaching
case is not a "case study" of the type used in academic research. Teaching cases provide information,
but neither analysis nor conclusions. The analytical work of explaining the relationships among events in
the case, identifying options, evaluating choices and predicting the effects of actions is the work done by
students during the classroom discussion.
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(3) Define and compare active learning and Cooperative Learning.
Active learning is any teaching method that gets students actively involved; cooperative learning is one
variety of active learning which structures students into groups with defined roles for each student and
a task for the group to accomplish. Lecture-based library instruction is often unsuccessful for many
reasons, including poor student attention, simplified examples, and too much material presented at one
time. Active and/or cooperative teaching techniques involve the students in the class and increase
retention of information following the class period. Active learning techniques are easier to apply and
take less class time, while cooperative learning techniques require more advance planning and may take
an entire class period. Choosing a teaching technique must be done carefully, with an understanding of
the goals of the class session. Several possible goals are detailed, along with suggested techniques for
meeting each one.
(4) What is lesson planning? Write down the five merits of lesson planning for the teachers.
Lesson planning is one of the most crucial parts of your work in the classroom: Get it right, and it’s a
great day of teaching. Get it wrong, and the lesson feels painfully long for both you and your students.
Building technology into your lesson can be even more cumbersome, particularly as teachers and
students transition to a more technology-centered learning environment. Setting classroom norms can
take time.
The five merits of lesson planning for the teachers
1.Sharing
The power to share lesson plans in the cloud lets teachers adapt and improve their efforts in a
classroom quicker than they could in the past. Before cloud sharing, exchanging lesso n plans
included a hassle-filled morning at the copy machine or extensive hand-written notes. Today,
student information systems allow teachers to collaborate on a larger repository of ideas that are
proven and tested in the real world.
Administrators can also access lessons and communicate with teachers directly. Teachers can also
share lessons with colleagues and save lesson plans to a template collection, for easy reuse in the
future.
2. Access
Speaking of home computers, lots of teachers have a computer at home that they might prefer to
use instead of bringing home their school-provided laptop. Of course, this is only possible if they
have access to school information at home.
Storing school information in the cloud allows teachers and staff the freedom to work on school-
related tasks from any device, not just school-provided laptops. In addition to the increased ability
to collaborate (see #1), teachers have access to all their information via the cloud and can work
from their preferred device regardless of location.
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3. Efficiency
As Teach Thought points out, if your current lesson plan system isn’t making teacher's lives easier, it
might be time for an upgrade. For example, if your school is considering moving from an on-
premises system to the cloud, the new tools should enable users to do a better job with less effort.
This includes reducing word processing time and duplicated work by keeping records and planning
enclosed within the same system.
Moving lessons and other digital resources to the cloud can also make schoolwork more efficient for
students. When worksheets are available as downloads from a central location, students don’t have
to worry about leaving important papers at school – they can just print out a new copy from their
home computer. And once students are comfortable with this system, teachers won’t have to print
as many assignments and waste as much paper at school.
4. Security
Lots of teachers rely on their home computers to prepare lesson plans and information for their
students, and use email or a USB drive to transfer that information to their devices at school. But
what if one of those devices is lost, stolen or damaged? The lack of a dedicated, device -independent
backup could cost hours of work and cause massive stress and frustration.
Cloud wards notes that you don’t have to worry about losing data to a faulty device in a cloud-
based system because everything is backed up offsite. Also, concerns about accessing sensitive
information are reduced since a username and password are required to get access to the cloud
backup service. You can also set additional passwords on individual folders or place restrictions on
what people can do with the contents for added security.
5. Flexibility
Teachers often find themselves spending more time on a lesson than they intended to. Sometimes
an unexpected event or delay can require "bumping" large portions of their lesson plans around on
the schedule.
Good systems make it easy to extend lessons, move plans around, and push the lessons that follow
down automatically with a few clicks. Flexibility can also refer to various calendar viewing and date
selection options, such as monthly, weekly, daily and list views.
(5)
Define the term inquiry approach; enlist the methods that come under the umbrella of this approach.
Inquiry is a dynamic process of being open to wonder and puzzlement and coming to know and
understand the world. As such, it is a stance that pervades all aspects of life and is essential to the way
in which knowledge is created. Inquiry is based on the belief that understanding is constructed in the
process of people working and conversing together as they pose and solve the problems; make
discoveries and rigorously testing the discoveries that arise in the course of shared activity.
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Inquiry is a study into a worthy question, issue, problem or idea. It is the authentic, real work that that
someone in the community might tackle. It is the type of work that those working in the disciplines
actually undertake to create or build knowledge. Therefore, inquiry involves serious engagement and
investigation and the active creation and testing of new knowledge.
There are several dimensions of inquiry:
• Authenticity
✓ The inquiry study emanates from a question, problem or exploration that has meaning to the
students.
✓ An adult at work or in the community might actually tackle the question, problem, issue or
exploration posed by the task/s.
✓ The inquiry study originates with an issue, problem, question, exploration or topic that provides
opportunities to create or produce something that contributes to the world’s knowledge.
✓ The task/s require/s a variety of roles or perspectives.
• Academic Rigor
✓ The inquiry study leads students to build knowledge that leads to deep understanding.
✓ Students are provided with multiple, flexible ways to approach the problem, issue or question
under study that use methods of inquiry central to the disciplines that underpin the problem,
issue or question.
✓ The inquiry study encourages students to develop habits of mind that encourage them to ask
questions of
▪ Evidence (how do we know what we know?)
▪ Viewpoint (who is speaking?)
▪ Pattern and connection (what causes what?)
▪ Supposition (how might things have been different?)
▪ why it matters (who cares)
• Assessment
✓ On-going assessment is woven into the design of the inquiry study providing timely descriptive
feedback and utilizes a range of methods, including peer and self evaluation. Assessment guides
student learning and teacher’s instructional planning.
✓ The study provides opportunities for students to reflect on their learning using clear criteria that
they helped to set. The students use these reflections to set learning goals, establish next steps
and develop effective learning strategies.
✓ Teachers, peers, adults from outside the classroom and the student are involved in the
assessment of the work.
• Beyond The School
✓ The study requires students to address a semi-structured question, issue or problem, relevant to
curriculum outcomes, but grounded in the life and work beyond the school.
✓ The study requires students to develop organizational and self management skills in order to
complete the study.
✓ The study leads students to acquire and use competencies expected in high performance work
organizations (eg. team work, problem solving, communications, decision making and project
management).
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• Use of Digital Technologies

✓ Technology is used in a purposeful manner that demonstrates an appreciation of new ways of
thinking and doing. The technology is essential in accomplishing the task.
✓ The study requires students to determine which technologies are most appropriate to the task.
✓ The study requires students to conduct research, share information, make decisions, solve
problems, create meaning and communicate with various audiences inside and outside the
classroom.
✓ The study makes excellent use digital resources.
✓ Students and parents have on-going, online access to the study as it develops.
✓ The study requires sophisticated use of multimedia/hypermedia software, video, conferencing,
simulation, databases, programming, etc.
• Active Exploration
✓ The study requires students to spend significant amounts of time doing field work, design work,
labs, interviews, studio work, construction, etc.
✓ The study requires students to engage in real, authentic investigations using a variety of media,
methods and sources.
✓ The study requires students to communicate what they are learning with a variety of audiences
through presentation, exhibition, website, wiki, blog, etc.
• Connecting With Expertise
✓ The study requires students to observe and interact with adults with relevant expertise and
experience in a variety of situations.
✓ The study requires students to work closely with and get to know at least one adult other than
their teacher.
✓ The tasks are designed in collaboration with expertise, either directly or indirectly. The inquiry
requires adults to collaborate with one another and with students on the design and assessment
of the inquiry work.
• Elaborated Communication
✓ Students have extended opportunities to support, challenge, and respond to each other’s ideas
as they negotiate a collective understanding of relevant concepts. Students have opportunities
to negotiate the flow of conversation within small and large group discussions.
✓ Students have opportunities to choose forms of expression to express their understanding.
✓ The inquiry provides opportunities for students to communicate what they are learning with a
variety of audiences.
Q.2
Define and explain the concept of effective teaching. Highlight the principles of effective
teaching.
Effective teaching is more than just the successful transference of knowledge and skill or
application around a particular topic. Effective teaching ensures that this surface approach to
learning is replaced by deeper, student driven approaches to learning that analyses, develop,
create and demonstrate understanding. Students need to initiate learning and maintain
engagement during learning in their development as independent lifelong learners.
Principles of effective teaching:
Principle 1:
Care about helping your kids to do the best that they can
Effective teachers are passionate about helping their students to learn. They form warm and caring
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relationships with their students. However, they also set high expectations, and they demand that their
students meet them. This leads to a situation where the teacher and the students are working together
towards a common goal – helping every child to learn as much as they can.
Principle 2:
Understand but don’t excuse your students
Effective teachers seek to understand their students, but so do most teachers. The difference is that
effective teachers still expect each of their students to behave and to achieve well. Effective teachers
use their understanding to adjust their approach to teaching, but they did not use it to excuse
misbehavior, poor effort or a lack of real academic progress.
Principle 3:
Be clear about what you want your students to learn
Effective teachers are clear about what they want their students to learn and they share this with
their students. Everyone understands what success entails. Effective teachers also know where students
are currently at in this area. They then work towards developing the understanding and skills their
students need to demonstrate that they have mastered the material.
Principle 4:
Disseminate surface knowledge and promote deep learning
Effective teachers want their students to be able to think critically and to develop a deep
understanding of the material being taught in class. However, they recognize developing this deep
understanding requires sharing a foundational set of knowledge and skills. Armed with this foundation,
teachers can help students to develop a deep understanding of the topic at hand.
Principle 5:
Gradually release responsibility for learning
Effective teachers do not ask their students to perform tasks that they have not shown their students
how to do. Rather, they start by modeling what students need to do. They then ask their students to
have a go themselves, while being available to help as needed. Only when students are ready, do they
ask their students to perform the tasks on their own. Finally, they offer ongoing cumulative practice,
spaced out over time, to help students retain what they have learned.
Principle 6:
Give your students feedback
Effective teachers give students dollops of feedback. This feedback tells students how they are going
and gives them information about how they could improve. Without feedback, students are likely to
continue holding misconceptions and making errors. Feedback allows students to adjust their
understanding and efforts before it is too late.
Principle 7:
Involve students in learning from each other
Effective teachers’ supplement teacher-led, individual learning, with activities that involve students in
learning from each other. When done well, strategies such as cooperative learning, competition and
peer tutoring can be quite powerful. Yet, these activities must be carefully structured and used in
conjunction with more traditional teaching.
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Principle 8:
Manage your students’ behavior
Effective teachers know that students’ behavior can help or hinder how much students learn in the
classroom. They implement strategies that nurture positive behavior and minimize misbehavior. They
are consciously aware of what is going in the classroom, and they nip problems in the bud before quickly
returning the focus to the lesson at hand. Finally, they follow up on more serious misbehavior and help
students to change any entrenched bad habits.
Principle 9:
Evaluate the impact you are having on your students
Effective teachers regularly assess student progress, and they then use this insight to evaluate the
impact they are having on their students. If what they are doing is working, they continue to use or even
make more use of a particular approach. If what they are doing is not having the desired impact (even
for just one student), they reflect on and refine what they are doing until they are getting the results
they want.
Principle 10:
Continue learning ways that you can be of even more help to more students
Effective teachers love learning and are always seeking to improve their own practices. They seek out
evidence-based insights, and they are happy to challenge their existing beliefs about teaching. However,
they are also critical of mindless innovation, innovation for the sake of it, and innovation that adopts
practices that are not supported by research.
You can use these principles of effective teaching to reflect on your own practice, to discuss effective
teaching with colleagues or evaluate particular programs/approaches you are considering.
Q.3
What is Ganges’ framework for instructional development?
Gagne created a nine-step process that detailed each element required for effective learning. The
model is useful for all types of learning, but this article focuses on applying it to training your team in a
work environment.
Benefits of Gagne's Model
Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning model gives trainers and educators a checklist to use before they
engage in teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids the
learning process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged and
to retain the information or skills that they're being taught.
If you use this approach before any type of training session or presentation, you'll remember how to
structure your session so that your people get the best possible learning experience.
Using the Tool
We'll now look at each of the nine levels, and provide example of how you can apply each step in
your own situation.
Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception)
Start the learning experience by gaining the attention of your audience. This change in stimulus
alerts the group that learning will soon take place.
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Level 2: Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy)

Next, you must ensure that your team knows what they need to learn, and that they understand why
they're about to learn this new information.
Level 3: Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval)
When your people learn something new, match the new information with related information or
topics they've learned in the past.
Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception)
Present the new information to the group in an effective manner.
Level 5: Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding)
To help your team learn and retain the information, provide alternative approaches that illustrate the
information that you're trying to convey.
Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding)
At this stage, you need to ensure that your people can demonstrate their knowledge of what you've
taught them. The way that they show this depends on what they're learning.
Level 7: Providing Feedback (Reinforcement)

After your team demonstrates their knowledge, provide feedback and reinforce any points as
necessary.
Level 8: Assessing Performance (Retrieval)
Your team should be able to complete a test, or other measurement tool, to show that they've
learned the material or skill effectively. Team members should complete this test independently,
without any help or coaching from you.
Level 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization)
In this last stage, your team members show that they've retained information by transferring their new
knowledge or skill to situations that are different from the ones you've trained them on.
Comparing With Other Training Models
Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning provide a useful approach that helps managers and structure the
learning process. Each different stage complements the others, and by working through all nine levels,
you can help to ensure that your team fully understands and retains information.
Although Gagne's model is different from other popular training models, you can still combine it with
other methods. A good example is 4MAT , a training method that helps you to structure your approach
so that people with different learning styles will learn just as effectively as everyone else. (Our article on
4MAT also explains common learning styles – Kolb's, and Honey and Mumford's are particularly
respected.)
The ARCS model is also a good learning method to use with Gagne's model. ARCS focuses on motivation
and making sure that learners understand the benefits of the new skill or information. Since this is step
2 in Gagne's model, the ARCS model can help you to understand better how to increase your team's
motivation and engagement with the training.
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Q.4 Why is outlining of goals/objectives necessary before planning a lesson? How are objectives
stated in behavioral terms?
Goals and objectives are important to strategic planning because they turn the mission and vision into
specific measurable targets. Goals and objectives are concrete and help translate the mission and vision
into reality.
♦ Goals are the ends toward which a program or problem solution is directed. Goals are outcome
statements to guide implementation of the strategy (i.e., the tactics of what is planned to be done).
While goals tend to be general or broad and ambitious, they also must be clear and realistic in order to
clarify the team's direction and gain support of other stakeholders.
♦ Objectives are more detailed than goals and explain how goals will be accomplished. Objectives detail
the activities that must be completed to achieve the goal.
An example of a goal is-to successfully reintegrate released offenders back into society by severing ties
with gangs. The objectives might be: (1) develop anti-gang campaign and (2) 50 percent of offenders will
sever ties with gangs in the first year. The goal is a broad statement of a changeable condition, one
many community members could identify with. The objectives then provide specific direction and
approaches. The objectives are measurable and realistic.
When setting goals it is important to create ones that range from the comfortable to the challenging. A
challenging goal is often referred to as a “stretch goal” and is designed to inspire a reach beyond where
we normally would expect to achieve. The significance of setting a stretch goal is that it provides focus
and generates energy.
How are objectives stated in behavioral terms?

A behavioral objective is a learning outcome stated in measurable terms, which gives direction to the
learner’s experience and becomes the basis for student evaluation.
Objectives may vary in several respects. They may be general or specific, concrete or abstract, cognitive,
affective, or psychomotor. Cognitive objectives emphasize intellectual outcomes, such as knowledge,
understanding, and thinking skills. Affective objectives emphasize feeling and emotion, such as interests,
values, attitudes, appreciation, and methods of adjustment. Psychomotor objectives emphasize motor
skills, such as physical assessment skills and administration of chemotherapy.
Points in writing behavioral objectives:

1. Begin each behavioral objective with a verb. The critical aspect of any behavioral objective is the
verb selected to indicate expected behavior from learning activities.
2. State each objective in terms of learner performance. A behavioral objective is one that is
considered to be observable and measurable. Behavior is generally construed to be an action of an
individual that can be seen, felt, or heard by another person.
3. State each objective so that it includes only one general learning outcome.
Examples of objectives
At the graduate level of nursing education, it is expected that learning objectives will
be general, abstract, and cognitive or affective. Examples of appropriate objectives for graduate
students are as follows:
• Cognitive: Create an assessment tool based on a nursing theory for patients experiencing pain.
• Cognitive: Evaluate the usefulness of nursing research in clinical practice.
• Affective: Accept professional responsibility for change in problem clinical situations.
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Q.5 Define and describe the term motivation. What are different types of motivation? Discuss in
detail.
The term motivation is derived from the Latin verb mover (to move). The idea of movement is
reflected in such commonsense ideas about motivation as something that gets us going, keeps us
working, and helps us complete tasks. Yet there are many definitions of motivation and much
disagreement over its precise nature. These differences in the nature and operation of motivation are
apparent in the various theories we cover in this text. For now, we will say that motivation has been
conceptualized in varied ways including inner forces, enduring traits, behavioral responses to stimuli,
and sets of beliefs and affects.
The different types of motivation
1: INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
When the source of the motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself.
2: EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
When that which motivates a person is someone or something outside himself/herself.
3: TYPE OF MOTIVATION WHICH IS MORE BENEFICIAL
Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious
external incentive present. Intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation.
4: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
External motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment. Extrinsic motivation is necessary
to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated students.
Hopefully the students develop the genuine love for learning and become intrinsically motivated in
the process. It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced
internal motivation.
We may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get
intrinsically motivated themselves.
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8602 Assignment Autumn 2017
Q. No1 : Explain the nature and scope of measurement, assessment and evolution. Highlight the
important characteristics of classroom assessment.
Measurement, assessment, and evaluation mean very different things, and yet most of my students
were unable to adequately explain the differences. So, in keeping with the ADPRIMA approach to
explaining things in as straightforward and meaningful a way as possible, here are what I think are useful
descriptions of these three fundamental terms. These are personal opinions, but they have worked for
me for many years. They have operational utility, and therefore may also be useful for your purposes.
Measurement: refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object are
determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining the IQ of a
person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring such things as attitudes or
preferences also applies. However, when we measure, we generally use some standard instrument to
determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something actually is. Standard
instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure gauges, etc. We
measure to obtain information about what is. Such information may or may not be useful, depending on
the accuracy of the instruments we use, and our skill at using them. There are few such instruments in
the social sciences that approach the validity and reliability of say a 12" ruler. We measure how big a
classroom is in terms of square feet, we measure the temperature of the room by using a thermometer,
and we use Ohm meters to determine the voltage, amperage, and resistance in a circuit. In all of these
examples, we are not assessing anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some
established rule or standard. Assessment is therefore quite different from measurement, and has uses
that suggest very different purposes. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the
ADPRIMA for the behavioral verb measure is: To apply a standard scale or measuring device to an
object, series of objects, events, or conditions, according to practices accepted by those who are skilled
in the use of the device or scale.
Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or goal.
Assessment is a broad term that includes testing. A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are
assessments made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be administered. In other
words, all tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests. We test at the end of a lesson or unit.
We assess progress at the end of a school year through testing, and we assess verbal and quantitative
skills through such instruments as the SAT and GRE. Whether implicit or explicit, assessment is most
usefully connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment
yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test or assess to determine whether
or not an objective or goal has been obtained. Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward.
Either the skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment
of understanding is much more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We
can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that we
make about what a person does in relation to what it signifies about what he knows. In the section on
this site on behavioral verbs, to assess means To stipulate the conditions by which the behavior
specified in an objective may be ascertained. Such stipulations are usually in the form of written
descriptions.
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea of
evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging in some process that is
designed to provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation. Generally,
any evaluation process requires information about the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella
term that takes into account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we
evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information regarding the worthiness,
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appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for which a reliable measurement or
assessment has been made. For example, I often ask my students if they wanted to determine the
temperature of the classroom they would need to get a thermometer and take several readings at
different spots, and perhaps average the readings. That is simple measuring. The average temperature
tells us nothing about whether or not it is appropriate for learning. In order to do that, students would
have to be polled in some reliable and valid way. That polling process is what evaluation is all about. A
classroom average temperature of 75 degrees is simply information. It is the context of the temperature
for a particular purpose that provides the criteria for evaluation. A temperature of 75 degrees may not
be very good for some students, while for others, it is ideal for learning. We evaluate every day.
Teachers, in particular, are constantly evaluating students, and such evaluations are usually done in the
context of comparisons between what was intended (learning, progress, behavior) and what was
obtained. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA site for the
behavioral verb evaluate is: To classify objects, situations, people, conditions, etc., according to defined
criteria of quality. Indication of quality must be given in the defined criteria of each class category.
Evaluation differs from general classification only in this respect. To sum up, we measure distance, we
assess learning, and we evaluate results in terms of some set of criteria. These three terms are certainly
connected, but it is useful to think of them as separate but connected ideas and processes. Here is a
great link that offers different ideas about these three terms, with well-written explanations.
Unfortunately, most information on the Internet concerning this topic amounts to little more than
advertisements for services.
Important characteristics of classroom assessment .
Assessment for learning is a key element of teaching if you want your students to improve. As we said
before Assessment for learning is aimed at helping you with your planning after you have identified your
students’ strengths, weaknesses, their needs, their motivation and their learning styles.
1: Sharing learning objectives with students
At the beginning of every lesson you should share the teaching-learning objectives with your students so
that they know what they are supposed to be able to achieve by the end of the lesson. I like to have
general objectives displayed during the whole lesson at the top left corner of my board so that I can
refer to them any time during the lesson. However I also have a set of differentiated objectives on what
I called a SMART setting slide that is a Self-Target-Setting slide where students choose their targets
according to their levels and abilities. These objectives targets will then be reviewed at the end of the
lesson during the plenary. You will use these objectives for questioning and feedback. For example:
“What were the objectives today? Have you reached your target? Which activity has helped you most?
2: Developing students’ awareness about their aims and the standards
Not only is it important to define the objectives of the lesson with your students, it is also crucial to
explain to them how they will meet these objectives. Students need to be aware of the type of criteria
that will allow them to achieve their targets. If you are expecting your students to write a long piece of
extended writing you need to model and demonstrate what you are expecting by showing them an
example of this writing. Once they have produced their piece of work you may want to use these as
examples and why not as displays to show others the expectations.
3: Involve your students in their learning
They need to know that they are responsible for their learning and progress. Consequently they need to
be given opportunities to talk about their targets, the activities in the lesson and they should be able to
express themselves about any point they have found difficult. For this reason you should always allow
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five minutes at least at the end of your lesson to review the objectives and ask them which activity was
helpful for them and which activity they found difficult. We often rush at the end of our lessons but
these five minutes thinking time where students reflect on their work is important so that they can
decide of the next step for their learning.
4: Constructive feedback
Every type of feedback is valuable to motivate our learners to improve. Whether written or oral
feedback, these comments will help students acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses and will help
them to identify which steps they need to take to improve. These feedbacks however need to tell what
was done well by the students but it should also explain to them how it could have been even better.
Feedback have to point out on the positive side of learning to develop students’ self confidence and self-
esteem as consent negative feedback can be damaging for learning and they can even have a bigger
impact on the long-term on students’ personality.
5: Reflection for improvement
At the end of unit or term when we give our students some assessment tasks, students need to be clear
on what skills are going to be assessed and they need to know the criteria against which they are going
to get assessed. After the exam, reflection again is vital to decide on the future steps both for students
and teachers. Both need to understand what went well in the teaching-learning process and what could
be improved and how.
Q No.2 : Explain the bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational objectives and why objectives are important
for test development give examples ?
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning learning is a psychological process. Thus, the assessment of learning, of
necessity, requires the assessment of various psychological processes. In developing assessment tools
(tests) it is important that we first have an understanding of these psychological processes and how to
go about measuring them. Although there are many psychological models for the process of learning,
for this workbook we have chosen Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy as a useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy
there are three fundamental learning domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective.
Affective: learning of beliefs, attitudes, and values.
Psychomotor learning of physical movements such as ballet steps, how to pitch a curve ball, how to drill
out a cavity in a molar, etc.
Cognitive learning of information and the processes of dealing with that information. There are six
levels of Cognitive Learning as specified by Bloom:
1. Basic Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation
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Generally it can be said that the first category, Knowledge, is information-oriented as it stresses the
ability to recall existing knowledge. The other five categories can be termed “Process oriented” because
they entail more sophisticated learner behaviors and competencies that require increasing degrees of
understanding. The following are brief definitions of these six levels with a suggestion as to how to
assess this level of learning.
Basic Knowledge: To recall and memorize - Assess by direct questions. The object is to test the students'
ability to recall facts, to identify and repeat the information provided.
Comprehension: To translate from one form to another - Assess by having students' 1) restate material
in their own words, 2) reorder or extrapolate ideas, predict or estimate. Assessments must provide
evidence that the students have some understanding or comprehension of what they are saying.
Application: To apply or use information in a new situation - Assess by presenting students with a
unique situation (i.e. one not identical to that used during instruction) and have them apply their
knowledge to solve the problem or execute the proper procedure.
Analysis: To examine a concept and break it down into its parts - Assess by presenting students with a
unique situation of the same type but not identical to that used during instruction, and have them
analyze the situation and describe the appropriate procedure or solution to the problem.
Synthesis: To put information together in a unique or novel way to solve a problem - Assess by
presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the same type used during instruction, and have
them solve a problem by selecting and using appropriate information.
Evaluation: To make quantitative or qualitative judgments using standards of appraisal - Assess by

presenting the students with a situation which includes both a problem and a solution to the problem
and have them justify or critique the solution.
The Importance of Learning Objectives
Learning objectives are a critical component of instruction. They have two important functions:
1. Provide course developers guidance on selecting suitable:
1. instructional materials;
2. teaching methods, including learning activities and use of technology;
3. Assessment methods.
2. Help students focus on what they are expected to learn, and understand how they will be
assessed.
This is why we always emphasize that learning objectives should be specific and measurable.
The example below demonstrates good alignment of learning objectives, learning activities, and
assessments. It shows us how a clearly stated learning objective can help an instructor create
appropriate learning activities to help students acquire the desired skills and select good
assessment tools to evaluate students' achievement.
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Learning objectives are guides to:
1. Selection of content
2. Development of an instructional strategy.
3. Development and selection of instructional materials.
4. Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then evaluating student learning
outcomes.
How do you write a Learning Objective?
In writing a Learning Objective:
1. Focus on student Performance not teacher performance.
2. Focus on product - not process.
3. Focus on terminal behavior - not subject matter.
4. Include only one general learning outcome in each objective.
A learning objective is a statement describing a competency or performance capability to be acquired by
the learner. There are three characteristics essential to insuring clear statements of objectives.
Behavior - First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in performance terms. The
choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used terms as know, understand, grasp, and
appreciate do not meet this requirement. If the verb used in stating an objective identifies an
observable student behavior, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the type or
level of learning must be identified. See Section II for a description of the types of learning and their
levels.
Criterion - Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must perform to be judged
adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of
correct responses or the like.
Conditions - Third, an objective should describe the conditions under which the learner will be
expected to perform in the evaluation situation. What tools, references, or other aids will be provided or
denied should be made clear. Sometimes, one or even two of these elements will be easily implied by a
simple statement. Other times, however, it may be necessary to clearly specify in detail each element of
the objective. The following is an example of a completed learning objective:
Checklist for Writing a Specific Instructional Objective
1. Begin each statement of a specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite,
observable behavior. (See the Table of Process Oriented Learner Behaviors below.)
2. Make sure that each statement meets all three of the criteria for a good learning objective:
observable behavior, the conditions under which the student will be expected to perform, and
the criteria to be used for evaluation of the student's performance.
3. Be sure to include complex objectives (appreciation, problem-solving, etc.) when they are
appropriate.
Guides or aids to writing learning objectives:
Educators and psychologists concerned with learning theory have given considerable thought to the
various types of learning that take place in schools. Probably the most comprehensive and widely known
analysis of objectives is the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom and others. Bloom’s
Taxonomy provides a consistent means of developing the single most powerful tool in instruction and
the assessment of student learning outcomes - the learning or performance objective. The Taxonomy
distinguishes between three major categories of objectives termed the COGNITIVE DOMAIN, the
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN, and the AFFECTIVE DOMAIN.
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It is generally the Cognitive Learning Domain that is of primary concern in higher education. If we
assume that faculty is more concerned with process and problem solving activities, then the categories
of the Taxonomy are most valuable in suggesting various kinds of behavior to use as objectives. The
following list of process-oriented behaviors, which are related to the six categories of the Taxonomy,
should serve as a useful guide to faculty preparing objectives. For a more complete table of words for
describing learner behaviors see “Instrumentation of Bloom’s and Krathwohl’s Taxonomies for the
Writing of Educational Objectives.
Q No.3 Compare and contrast the characteristics of criterion and Norm referenced Tests. Also
highlight its utilization in teaching learning process.
Criterion Referenced Test

A criterion-referenced assessment is one in which students’ are scored based on how well they know
a standard or set of standards. In this type of assessment a student is only compared to themselves, it
doesn’t matter how other students perform. There are many advantages of criterion referenced tests,
particularly for special education.
First, students are only tested on their knowledge of specific goals or standards. For example, if you had
taught a lesson on adding fractions, you will give the student a test on adding fractions. If he or she
scores 85% that means that that particular student has learned 85% of that goal. If a student does not
score particularly well, then the teacher can adjust their instruction accordingly.
Another benefit is that if students do not seem to master a particular standard, the teacher will be able
to go back and teach that standard again until the student performs better. Let’s say that we taught a
lesson on Fahrenheit and Celsius. A student understands Fahrenheit, as shown on an assessment, but
their knowledge of Celsius isn’t so good. The teacher then can go back and teach Celsius again. In special
education it is nice because we have the freedom to spend more time on specific content and not worry
so much about meeting the state standards.
For special educators we have to focus our teaching based on the students’ IEP’s. Being able to focus our
instruction based on the students’ needs is another benefit of criterion-referenced assessment. The
students need to make progress toward their annual goals and objectives and the use of this type of
assessment allows for that because again their scores are compared only to how they perform.
Another good reason to using criterion-referenced assessments in special education is that it only tests
students on what they can do. Tests like the SAT’s, which are norm-referenced, score students in
relation to how they score against other people. For students with special needs, norm-referenced
assessments do not tell teachers much about their abilities because the material is higher than their
level.
Criterion-referenced assessments are needs based, meaning the tests are created with what the
students’ needs are. If a student really needs to improve their knowledge of proper nouns, then a test
will be created on proper nouns.
Teachers can also create their own tests, which are criterion-referenced as well. Also, tests that come
with textbooks are also criterion-referenced because they only test on specific areas of knowledge.
When discussing the advantages of criterion referenced tests, it is also important to mention that since
students are only judged against themselves, they have a better chance of scoring high, which will help
improve their self-esteem as well. Studies show that students with special needs tend to have lower
self-esteem. Any way that we can help students feel better about themselves is a great opportunity.
One thing to remember is that each student is an individual and is different. By using criterion-
referenced assessments in your classroom, you can meet the individual needs of the students and
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differentiate your assessments with the sole purpose of helping the students achieve to their fullest
potential.
Norm Referenced Test

Norm-referenced tests are a form of standardized testing that compares "normal" skill levels to
those of individual students of the same age. By comparing students to one another, it is possible to
determine whether, how, and to what a degree a particular student is ahead of or behind the norm.
These tests help to diagnose learning disorders and also help special education teachers and other
professionals develop appropriate program planning for students with disabilities.
Norm-referenced tests are developed by creating the test items and then administering the test to a
group of students that will be used as the basis of comparison. Statistical methods are used to
determine how raw scores will be interpreted and what performance levels are assigned to each score.
Examples of Norm Tests

IQ tests are one well-known form of norm testing. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC) and the Stanford Benet-Intelligence Scale, formerly known as the Benet-Simon Test, are
examples of individualized intelligence tests. The WISC test includes language-, symbol-, and
performance-based questions while the Stanford-Benet test helps to diagnose students with cognitive
disabilities.
Individualized achievement tests help school personnel measure student's academic abilities. Examples
of such tests are the Peabody Individual Achievement Test, the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement
and the Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills.
Collectively, these tests assess skills such as the ability to match pictures and letters and more
complicated reading and math skills.
Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced

There are several advantages to teaching based on criterion-referenced. First and foremost, students
learn based on their needs. Teachers can give the students a needs assessment to see what they need to
learn and then establish goals and objectives based on what their needs are.
Another advantage is that students are only compared to themselves. Their grades are solely
dependent based on how they perform against their goals and objectives. Instead of comparing
students to other students their same age, they are just compared to their prior performance. Many
students with disabilities are not at grade level, so why would it be fair to ask them to perform at the
same level as their typical aged peers.
Studying and practicing their own goals and objectives is another advantage to criterion-referenced
instruction. Students do not have to study every single little detail, they only study for goals and
objectives that they have not yet mastered.
A fourth advantage is that criterion-reference instruction is IEP based. IEP’s are developed based on the
needs of the students with which goals and objectives are formed. These goals and objectives are what
the teachers then use to create lesson plans for the students. As goals are mastered, they are changed
with the needs of the student.
Another advantage is that students are expected to achieve realistic goals. The whole concept of
criterion-based instruction centers around what the students need. Only achievable goals will be set for
the student. When students reach their goals, they feel a sense of accomplishment, which will
encourage them to keep trying their best and will eventually, lead to better scores.
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Tests based on the student’s needs are known as criterion-referenced assessment. These tests are the
formed based on the goals and objectives for the students. The students will not have to take the same
tests as everyone else in their class. It is almost as if they are taking a test just for them. If they do not do
well, then the teaching would begin again. If students do well on their test, then it is time to work on
new goals and objectives.
As you can see from all the advantages that are listed, students only progress once they have
mastered a concept. They are not just pushed through to get through the content. If they master a
concept quickly, they move on, if not, they spend more time on that concept. Although this can be tricky
for the teacher in planning a variety of lesson and changing lesson plans based on the student’s needs,
the students will get more out of their education since it based solely on what they need.
The whole concept of criterion-referenced instruction means that teaching the students comes away
from grade-level content to content based on what the students need.
Q No.4 Elaborate the different techniques for the measurement of attitude of the learners by
providing examples. Why attitude measurement is important for the teachers in teaching learning
process?
Classroom behavior is one of the trickiest issues teachers face today. Disruptive behavior results in lost
curriculum time and creates a classroom environment that is not always conducive to learning. One key
to nipping behavioral problems in the bud is to promote positive behavior before problems arise. This
takes some planning, but the following article will provide you with practical tips to help you lay a
foundation for positive classroom behavior.
It probably won't surprise you that classroom control/discipline is rated among the top four challenges
teachers face in public schools today.
In fact, almost half the teachers polled said that discipline was a serious problem in their schools. Not
surprisingly, when the public was polled on the same issues, they ranked classroom control/discipline as
the number one challenge.
Unfortunately, teachers face not only the challenge of managing their students' behavior while teaching
the curriculum. They also face many conflicting theories about how to manage it: logical consequences,
behavior management and assertive discipline, to name just a few.
Of course, there is no one "correct" way to encourage positive classroom behavior. But if you begin with
a good foundation, it is possible. Here are a few time-tested suggestions that can help you build that
foundation.
Think About Your Approach

Take some time to think about the strategies you plan to use to encourage positive classroom
behavior. Clarifying your strategies will make it easier for you to lead the class confidently and
effectively.
Visualize Possible Challenges

Imagine possible classroom challenges and review your strategies for dealing with them. Having
clear-cut strategies will help keep you grounded when these challenges do arise.
Make Your Expectations Clear from the Beginning
Make sure that students know what you expect of them. The classroom rules you present should be
positive, specific and concise. You may wish to post them in the classroom or distribute them for
students to sign. You should also spell out what will happen if students do not meet expectations.
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Model Positive Behavior

Occasionally, you may have to remind yourself to follow your own rules. For example, if you ask
students not to drink beverages in class, refrain from keeping a cup of coffee on your desk, even if you
do not drink it during class.
Encourage, Encourage, Encourage

When you praise students who are excelling, don't forget to encourage those who are trying, but
struggling. These students often lack confidence and need more positive reinforcement.
Show Respect
Showing respect for your students includes listening to their needs and preserving their dignity. It also
means living up to their expectations of you, such as greeting them at the beginning of class or returning
corrected homework in a timely fashion.
Be Consistent
Be sure to address student behavior in a consistent manner. Be wary of shifting strategies when
misbehavior occurs. To students, this may show a lack of decisiveness. Find a strategy you like and stick
with it.
Keep Students Busy and Challenged
Busy students are far less likely to exhibit disruptive behavior. Be sure that students are working at
appropriate levels; boredom and frustration often lead to students' acting out.
Listen to Students' Suggestions
When building your foundation, you may be able to draw from students' and other teachers' past
classroom experiences. Ask students to make suggestions about what should be expected of them and
how misbehavior should be addressed. Students are often more responsive to rules they helped create.
Creating an environment in which students know and follow the rules is challenging, but not impossible.
With a little patience and perseverance, you can lay a foundation for respect and positive behavior in
your classroom that lasts all year.
Positive discipline is a more effective way to manage misbehaving students in the classroom, rather
than using punishment or rewards. It allows students to learn and adapt their behaviors to meet
expectations in the classroom, while simultaneously teaching them how to make better choices in their
path to adulthood.
Classroom Discipline
If a student misbehaves in the classroom, a teacher must have a few techniques that they can use to
reduce or eliminate the unwanted behavior. From misbehaving in the classroom to not doing the
assigned work, there are many ways to deal with unwanted behavior including punishment, discipline,
or even using rewards. However, the most effective method for dealing with students that are
misbehaving in the classroom is using positive discipline. According to the American Academy of
Pediatrics, there are many types of positive discipline, and whatever technique is used to prevent or
reduce misbehavior will only be effective if:
• Both the student and teacher understand what the problem behavior is and what the expected
consequence is for the misbehavior
• The appropriate consequence is consistently applied every time the misbehavior occurs
• The manner you deliver the technique matters (calm versus aggressive)
• It gives the students a reason for a specific consequence to help them learn
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In most cases, using punishment or rewards is not needed, as the majority of problems or misbehaviors
can be dealt with using positive discipline.
Difference between Punishment and Positive Discipline
The meaning of punishment is simple - it's an action or penalty that is imposed on a student for
misbehaving or breaking a rule. However, the impact on students can be very detrimental, from
inducing physical or emotional pain to not being effective in reducing future misbehaviors. Punishment
is used to control the behavior of students, in two different ways:
• Negative discipline involves verbal disapproval and reprimands
• Corporal punishment involves severe emotional or physical pain
Alternatively, positive discipline is the practice of training or teaching a student to obey the code of
behavior or rules in both the short and long term. Instead of controlling the behavior of students,
teachers can use positive discipline to develop a child's behaviors through self-control and making
positive choices.
According to Teachers Unite, which is a movement of public school teachers fighting for social justice,
punitive punishment toward students — suspensions, aggressive policing and reactive strategies — go
against human rights and fail to address the real problem. However, preventative and constructive
approaches that use positive discipline create a positive school atmosphere and also teaches students
conflict resolution and behavior skills. In the end, positive discipline can help shape a child, by using
encouragement rather than meaningless and even painful consequences, like punishment.
Positive Discipline Techniques
There are tons of techniques that teachers can use to reinforce good behavior with positive discipline,
including:
1. Set the classroom rules at the start of the year
2. Have consistent expectations
3. Set goals at the beginning of class
4. Appropriate behavior should be reinforced
5. Remain neutral during conflicts
6. Search for the root cause of the misbehavior
7. Student dignity matters
8. Create individual plans for students
9. Use Praise
10. Model appropriate behaviors
11. Provide students with different choices
12. Remove objects in the environment that cause distractions
13. Listen to students
Using these positive discipline techniques will help teachers maintain a positive atmosphere and
support an inclusive learning environment. In fact, when addressing a specific child, it is important for
teachers to work closely with the caregivers and the student to develop a positive discipline plan that
works. One of the most critical parts of positive discipline is to help students learn the new behaviors
that meet expectations in the classroom, home and elsewhere.
Using Rewards and Privileges
Another alternative to punishment and positive discipline is the use of rewards and privileges for
good behavior in the classroom. A reward system can be put in place to encourage good behavior in
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students that are misbehaving, from helping out other students to raising their hand instead of blurting
out the answer. On the other hand, a system that uses privileges, such as being able to go to class
without an adult, focuses on good behavior over a period of time and accumulating points toward a
certain privilege. However, using rewards and privileges in the long term can lead to negative outcomes,
like rewarding students just for participating. To avoid a reliance on a rewards system, positive discipline
uses positive and negative consequences to help students learn.
Benefits of Positive Discipline
Using positive discipline techniques can help teachers overcome the many challenges in the classroom
and help students learn and make better choices in the future. In fact, using positive discipline in the
classroom not only increases academic success in the classroom but provides many other benefits,
including:
• Students show respect for the teacher
• Students are on task and engaged
• Less disciplinary measures are needed
• Fewer suspension and expulsions
• Students see rules as fair
• Attendance improves
These are just a few of the benefits that can be seen from using positive discipline techniques in the
classroom. On top of this, the benefits also extend beyond the classroom, into the home life, sports and
social environment of the student, from being more respectful to everyone to understanding the social
norms in different situations.
Q No.5 Compare and contrast the easy and objective type tests in the light of its construction, use
and marking.
Introduction to Essay Test:

The essay tests are still commonly used tools of evaluation, despite the increasingly wider applicability
of the short answer and objective type questions.
There are certain outcomes of learning (e.g., organizing, summarizing, integrating ideas and expressing
in one’s own way) which cannot be satisfactorily measured through objective type tests. The importance
of essay tests lies in the measurement of such instructional outcomes.
An essay test may give full freedom to the students to write any number of pages. The required
response may vary in length. An essay type question requires the pupil to plan his own answer and to
explain it in his own words. The pupil exercises considerable freedom to select, organize and present his
ideas. Essay type tests provide a better indication of pupil’s real achievement in learning. The answers
provide a clue to nature and quality of the pupil’s thought process.
That is, we can assess how the pupil presents his ideas (whether his manner of presentation is coherent,
logical and systematic) and how he concludes. In other words, the answer of the pupil reveals the
structure, dynamics and functioning of pupil’s mental life.
The essay questions are generally thought to be the traditional type of questions which demand lengthy
answers. They are not amenable to objective scoring as they give scope for halo-effect, inter-examiner
variability and intra-examiner variability in scoring.
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Introduction to Objective tests

Objective tests measure both your ability to remember facts and figures and your understanding of
course materials. These tests are often designed to make you think independently, so don't count on
recognizing the right answer. Instead, prepare yourself for high level critical reasoning and making fine
discriminations to determine the best answer. The most common objective test questions are multiple-
choice, true false, and matching items. Doing well on these questions requires that you not only master
the information but also interpret the test maker’s intentions.
Objective tests require a user to choose or provide a response to a question whose correct answer is
predetermined. Such a question might require a student to :
• select a solution from a set of choices (MCQ, true-false, matching)

• identify an object or position (graphical hotspot) or
• supply brief numeric or text responses (text input)
Because the correct answers to objective test questions are pre-determined, they are well suited to the
many forms of CAA that involve automated marking. The electronic marking of the responses is
completely non-subjective as no judgment has to be made on the correctness or otherwise of an answer
at the time of marking. However, it is worth noting that in terms of in-built bias, an objective test is only
as objective as the test's designer makes it. The tutorial below offers an introduction to a selection of
question types in popular use with advice on construction and best practice. As the question type most
commonly associated with CAA is multiple choice, particular emphasis has been given to this and should
be viewed first. The principles detailed within that section should however, be of use when considering
other types.
A Comparison of a Multiple Choice and an Essay Test

Below is a guideline prepared by iwriteessays.com on the difference between an essay exam and a
multiple-choice test. Below is a comparison of Essays vs. Multiple-Choice Exams.
1. Preparation
Preparing for a multiple-choice test is an easy task that requires the writer to identify important
information when he/she see it.
An essay exam requires that the writer gather enough knowledge on the subject matter; such the writer
can be able to answer to answer any prompt questions with a detailed explanation of ideas.
2. Speed
It is very easy for you to complete a multiple-choice essay in a short time be it you know the answers or
not.
However, you should not ignore the intensity of your essay exam. The writer should make sure that he
organizes his thoughts in order. In addition, you should be aware of your handwriting if you want your
teacher to read and understand your essay. It is useless for the writer to write an essay that is not
readable.
Smudging
If your multiple-choice exam is in the form of a fill-in-the-bubble sheet, it is not advisable to use pencils
because they increase the chances of smudging. Smudging is disadvantageous because it complicates
the functioning of the electronic-grading-robot.
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A lucky instance includes that when your teacher will allow you to use a pen in the essay exam. Pens
ensure you produce a clean paper that is appealing to the eye. However it the teacher does not permit
the use of a pen, be careful not mess your essay paper through smudging.
Creativity
An essay exam gives you the chance of presenting your ideas creatively using language, constructive
sentences that express the meaning of your thesis.
With a multiple-choice test, you have the limitation of expressing your ideas creatively by sacrificing
your scores in order to decorate patterns on your sheet.
Hard questions
For a multiple-choice test, you can guess answers if you not have an idea of what the right answer might
be.
On the other hand, for an essay exam, you can construct a sensible and convincing answer even if you
do not have an idea of the main topic.
Giving Up
It is practically hard to give up in a multiple-choice test, since you can decide to assign randomly a choice
to every question and chances are minimal that you will get below average marks.
Giving up in essay exams a hard alternative for any student . The student will be in a tough dilemma as
to writing either repetitive phrases or handing in a blank paper
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Q No.1 Analyze various definitions of curriculum and discuss the main principals of curriculum
development in the light of definitions.
Definition of curriculum:
The word curriculum has been originated from Latin meaning course. It has been derived from
curro’ or‘ curree’ which means to run or move quickly. Simply curriculum can be defined as:
The set of courses, coursework, and their content, offered at a school or university.
As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course
of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is
prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be
understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.
Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is
carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school”.
Regan’s definition of curriculum is, ” The curriculum is all the experiences of a child under direction
of the school.
Curriculum refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the purpose of
achieving identified educational outcomes.
Other definitions of curriculum by famous authors are:
Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of
developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects
what adults should be. (Bobbit (1918)
Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as “the planned and guided learning experiences and intended
outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence” .
Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired,
planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to
reform society.
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned,
objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.
Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific
time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned
activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge, skills and values
are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?
Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that
pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes “all of the experiences that
individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related
specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice”.
There are some other Experts define the curriculum with the different ways :
1: According to Nichols, Shidaker, Johnson, & Singer (2006) that Curriculum is an area of education
that is characterized by a lack of agreement about its definition and nature.
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2: According to Wortham (2006) that Curriculum is a planned set of course that is presented to
teachers to arrange teaching and learning in certain level of ages.
3: According to Nation & Macalister (2010) define Curriculum as a guidance in designing courses that
consists of outer cyrcle namely Principles, Environment, and needs that involve practical and theoretical
considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the actual process of course production. Inner
cyrcle that consists of goals and its center, contents and sequences, format and presentation,
monitoring and assessment.
4: According to Cattington (2010), curriculum (or curriculum standards) to refer to the standards,
benchmarks, and outcomes that delineate the content to be taught and learned in science classrooms.
5: According to Slattery (2006) Curriculum should be developed time by times to the postmodern
curriculum that is radically eclectic, determined in the context of relatedness, recursive in its complexity,
autobiographically intuitive, aesthetically inter subjective, embodied, phenomenological, experiential,
simultaneously quantum and cosmic, hopeful in its constructive dimension, radical in its deconstructive
movement, liberating in its post structural intents, empowering in its spirituality, ironic in its
kaleidoscopic sensibilities, and ultimately, a hermeneutic search for greater understanding that
motivates and satisfies us on the journey.
6: According to Lake and Winter bottom (2010) in Kattington (2010), Curriculum is a set of rule that
benefits students by providing them with practice in both content and social curriculum through the use
of active learning, exploration of interests, civic responsibility, character building, and recognizing and
helping the community.
7: According to Dat (no year) in Tomlinson (2008 Ed) impled that curriculum requires too much to be
accomplished within a unit and that their students want a more manageable and realistic learning goal.
Main principles of curriculum development

The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as under:
1. Principle of Child Centeredness.
As modern education is child-centred the curriculum should also be child-centred. It should be based on
the child's needs, interests, abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be central
figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact, curriculum is meant to bring about the
development of the child in the desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life.
Highlights
Principles of Curriculum Construction are:
1. Principle of Child Centeredness ;
2. Principle of Community Centeredness ;
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness ;
4. Principle of Variety ;
5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration;
6. Principle of Conservation;
7. Principle of Creativity;
8. Principle of Forward. Looking;
9. Principle of Flexibility;
10. Principle of Balance;
11. Principle of Utility.
2. Principle of Community Centeredness.
Though the child's development and growth is the main consideration of curriculum construction, yet
his social behavior is also to be suitably developed, both the individual development and the social
development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and for the society.
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Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the society in
which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected
in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are
changing with the rapid developments taking place in all fields. While working for the development, this
factor cannot be ignored.
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness.
The curriculum should centre round the multifarious activities of pupils. It should provide well selected
activities according to the general interests and developmental stages of children. It should provide
constructive, creative and project activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.!
The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be provided. It is
through a net work of activities that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently
desirable behavioral changes can be brought about in children.
4. Principle of Variety.
The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the needs of varied categories of pupils,
so that they are able to take up subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and
interests.
The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas, urban areas,
and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these
considerations should be reflected in the curriculum.
5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration.
Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences through various subjects and
activities but these must be well integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same
ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be
put in after-tight compartments but these should be inter-related and well integrated so as to develop
the whole child.
6. Principles of Conservation.
One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential
for human progress. Culture consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and
knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture,
keeping n view their educational value and the developmental stage of pupils.
7. Principle of Creativity.
The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture should not be simply transmitted
but also enriched. There should be provision in the curriculum to develop he creative powers of the
child so that he becomes a contributory member society. Reymont says, "In curriculum that is suited to
the needs of today and of the future, there must be definitely creative subjects."
8. Principle of Forward Looking.
Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So the curriculum should not cater to the
present needs of the child alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The curriculum
should also include knowledge, skills, experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities
and power to make effective adjustments in the later life.
9. Principle of Flexibility.
In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields. Consequently the needs of society are
hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be static. It must
be dynamic and change with the changing times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of
education and psychology.
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10. Principle of Balance.

The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and activities, between direct and indirect
experiences, between academic and vocational education, between compulsory and optional subjects,
between formal and informal education, between individual and social aims of education etc.
11. Principle of Utility.
Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not only include subjects which owe their
place in it to tradition. The curriculum must have practical utility for students. So there should be some
provision for technical and vocational education in the curriculum.
The various principles of curriculum construction should be kept in mind. Various regional and national
conditions should also be considered. It fact, all considerations which will help in achieving the aims of
education should be given due consideration.
Q No.2 Analyze the causes which led the colonial British Government to frame a curriculum in the sub
continent. Discuss their consequences on education system of Pakistan.
Education policy of the British:

In pre-British days Hindus and Muslims were educated through Pathsala and Madrassa respectively.
Britishers showed no interest in advancement of learning in the first stage of their rule in India. Some of
the Britishers in personal endeavor and for political gain showed some interest in spreading education.
Warren Hastings, Governor-General of Bengal showed keen interest in spreading oriental education in
which effort Jonathan Duncan, Nathan Hal head, Sir William Jones, joined hands. Sir William Jones, the
Justice Calcutta High Court, established Asiatic Society at Calcutta (1784 A.D.). Here they started
research on oriental education and culture. At the time of Lord Wellesley Fort William College was
established (1800 A.D.). Here the British Civilians were taught Indian languages, laws, customs, religion,
geography etc. By endeavor of Wilkins Jones, Colebrook, William Carey this oriental education got a
foothold.
Endeavour of the Christian Missionaries:
British colonial ruler did not show any interest in education. The Christian Missionaries were the first to
come forward. The Baptist Missionary William Carey came to India in the year 1793 A.D. He along with
his friends established Baptist Mission in Serampore (1800 A.D.). By their enthusiasm many primary
schools came up in nearly places.
They established a printing press and stilled printing booklets in Bengali. Carry translated the Ramayana
in English (1800 A.D.) By his inspiration the Bible was translated in different Indian languages and
Halhead’s Bengali Grammar’s new edition was published. By their zeal an English school was established
in Serampore in 1818 A.D. That is now known as Serampore College.
Personal Endeavour:
At that time by the attempt of few liberal Indians and foreigners non-government schools were
founded to spread English education. Out of them most memorable were Raja Rammohan Roy, Raja
Radhakanta Deb, Tejchandra Rai Bahadur of Burdwan, David Hare, the watchmaker of Scotland. Raja
Rammohan Roy was the father of modern India. By his own endeavor he established Anglo Hindu School
in 1815 A.D. By personal endeavor two English schools were founded in Chinsurah (1800 A.D.) and
Bhawanipur (1848 A.D). Few energetic Indians and high-minded English civilians came forward to
establish Hindu College in Calcutta in the year 1817 A.D. This is now the famous Presidency College.
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Endeavour of the government:

In the Charter Act of 1813, Rupees one lakhs per year was sanctioned for advancement of education in
India. Now there was a debate about the line of expenditure of this amount. Some said that it should go
for oriental education; the others said that the sum was to be spent for English education. Raja
Rammohan Roy was in favour of spending the money in western education. But that was not done. The
General Committee of Public Instruction (1823 A.D.) decided to spend the money on oriental studies. In
1823 A.D. the decision was taken to establish a Sanskrit College at Calcutta. Rammohan opposed this
decision.
During the rule of Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835 A.D.) there was change in government’s education
policy. He appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay, a renowned educationist, the chairman of the
Committee of Public Instruction. At that time the committee was divided in the issue of Oriental or
European education. Princep, Colebrook, Wilson were the supporters of Oriental education. They were
known as Orientalist. But people like T.B. Macaulay were the supporters of European education. He had
with him Alexander Duff, Sanders, Colvin etc. at his side. They became known as Anglicists. Macaulay
presented a proposal of advancement of English education in 1835 A.D. This was known as Macaulay
minutes.
He expressed his strong opinion in favour of English education, as he thought that oriental culture was
defective, unholy and corrupted.
He thought that it would be better to give proper teaching to a small number of upper and middle-class
students as a law of infiltration it would reach to more number of people. This law was known as
infiltration theory.
He opined that a shelf of Europeans library was equal to the whole literature of India and Arab.
Practically, this opinion was the result of his complete ignorance and blind nationalism.
He wanted to create a good number of black Europeans who would support the British government. The
government approved the Macaulay proposal and after that by the government the education English
language and science started spreading very quickly. It was in the same year (1835 A.D.) Calcutta
Medical College and Elphinstone College at Bombay were established. During the time of Lord Auckland
(1836-1842 A.D.) government sanctioned more money for propagating Anglicized education.
In 1842, the Public Instruction Committee was rejected and Council of Education was formed. Few
Indian members were taken in this Council. Charles Wood’s recommendation in the question of
spreading of higher education was very important. He was the Chairman of the Board of Control. His
proposal about education was known as Wood’s dispatch. He gave instruction to regularize the
education system from primary stage to University level. He also instructed to educate pupils in both
English and Vernacular. By his recommendation Education Department was established. In 1857 A.D.
Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities were established.
British effects on Pakistan education
The system of education followed in colonial India was introduced by the British primarily for
producing clerks and subordinates who were necessary for carrying on the administration of the country
in a colonial set up12. This system of education was designed by Lord Macaulay. Essence of this system
is better explained in the words of Lord Macaulay himself, "we want Indians in color but Englishmen in
taste and aptitude.” At least, that was the objective in the initial stages after replacement of Persian by
English as the court language in 1835.
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In order to objectively evaluate the education system of Pakistan, it is imperative to understand the
pros and cons of the existing system and view the progress/ changes which were made in the last six
decades. Despite the colossal problems which Pakistan faced on the eve of independence, the
educational aspect was given the foremost priority and an all Pakistan Educational Conference was
convened in November 1947, to consider the re-organization of the educational system. Later, in 1952, a
six year National Plan of Educational Development for Pakistan was prepared.
From 1958-1970, student unrest and politicization of educational institutions were the major
problems which Pakistan faced. Special commissions were set up to improve the standard of education.
However, system of education did not emphasize moral, religious and ideological aspects. One of the
major causes of dismal performance in the education sector was that meager resources were allocated
for the development of education.
The period from 1970-1978 saw nationalization of all educational institutions. Adult literacy drive was
initiated as well13. An effort was made to bring uniformity in the curriculum and method of teaching in
Madrassas, government schools and private educational institutions. The establishment of Universities
Grant Commission and National Book Foundation were the major achievements of this period. However,
education system suffered due to political instability and economic crisis which Pakistan faced.
From 1979-1989, the Afghan war and subsequent drive of Islamization affected the system of
education as well. During this era, major changes in syllabi were made. Maddrasa education was
encouraged and learning of Arabic was made compulsory upto class VIII. Efforts were made to orientate
the system of education towards ideological moorings and subjects of Pakistan Studies and Islamiat
were made compulsory upto intermediate level. However, parallel system of education such as curricula
of English medicum schools continued. On the whole, preferred goals of education were not fully
realized.
From 1990-9/11, economic stagnation and political instability were major banes in the development
of education in Pakistan. Education further deteriorated with the increasing disparity among social
classes. The number of educational institutions could not commensurate the population exodus and lack
of will to introduce reforms at the government level compounded the problems. Self-finance scheme
was introduced which further commercialized the education.
From 9/11 to present, major reforms were introduced in the system of education. Efforts were made
to de-nationalize the institutions and the private sector was encouraged to establish schools, colleges
and even universities and professional colleges. Syllabi have been revised and certain radical changes
made in subjects of history, Islamiat, geography, English and Urdu. Some of the changes are highly
controversial and have off set the ideological course of our system of education.
Our system of education instead of emphasizing on inculcation of values, discipline, social/ civic
responsibility and socio-economic productivity stimulates partisan and class difference and churns out
educated illiterates. The educatin system, as a whole, faces a set of complex specific problems.
First it is an imposed system which has not been evolved through a gradual process. Second, the
educational system in Pakistan ignores grooming aspect of students as productive and useful members
of a modern society. Third, this system neither segregated students as per psycho – social and socio-
economic requirements of our nation nor it identifies the talent of students for specialization. Fourth,
our curriculum still remains confused. We are undecided whether we should encourage scientific and
technical education or promote studies of humanities. We are also unclear whether to emphasise on
ideology and values or promulgate liberality. Language remains another problem and we have no clear
idea whether to continue with English media or not. Fifth, linkages between primary, secondary and
higher education are not existent. Number of subjects has not been rationalized at various levels over
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burdening the memories of students. Sixth, our system of education does not promote/ encourage
original thinking. Seventh, System of examination, though has been changed, stifle initiative and
experimentation. Students and teachers focus on achieving higher pass percentage rather than
emphasis on learning and bringing out hidden qualities and talent14. Eighth, our educational system
lacks in quality as well as quantity. Involvement of private sector has generated commercialization in
education and has added to class difference. Ninth lack of trained teachers adds to the inadequacies of
our educational system15. Tenth, there is a painful lack of educational environment in our country.
Teachers as well as students are content as much of superficial knowledge from textbooks as possible
that they can pour it out on the examination paper. Moreover, social knowledge is necessary for
intelligent and efficient social service and education should infuse this knowledge and endeavor to make
the students efficient members of the society. Sociology and other social sciences are not very popular
subjects in education of all the classes. Eleventh, vocational and technical training are other areas which
are ignored in our educational system. It has no strategy what so ever, to utilize the vast human capital
by imparting education which make pupils self sustaining. Twelfth, shortage of instructional facilities like
proper school buildings, laboratories, libraries and equipment is major impediment in promoting
conducive environment for learning. Thirteenth, misplaced priorities at policy planning level is another
grey area affecting progress in the field of education16. Fourteenth, system being followed at primary
level does not cater for inculcating objective thinking and power of reasoning in the young pupil.
Moreover, rampant poverty results into large number of dropouts at this level. Fifteenth, our secondary
education is purposeless and cumbersome. It neither prepares students to take on higher education nor
gives him opportune economic self sufficiency17. Finally, wide gap in the classes of society is applicable
to our education system. We have sophisticated English medium private schools for rich and influential,
the ordinary government schools for middle and lower middle class and Maddrassas for poor as well as
religious minded people.
Q No.3 compare and contract different foundations of curriculum development. How does culture and
society influence? Discuss.
Philosophical foundation
Curriculum decisions involve a wide range of considerations that anchor on several issues in
education. These issues include the purpose of learning, sources of the subject matter, the nature of
teaching/learning process, characteristics of the leaner, among others (Ekanem, & Ekefre, 2014).
These decisions are based or anchored on certain fundamental beliefs that spring from one’s
philosophy of education. This is what made it possible for philosophy to be viewed or taken as one of
the foundations of curriculum. The various philosophical thoughts that influence curriculum are
Idealism, Realism, Existentialism, Pragmatism, Essentialism, perennialism and Deconstructionism.
Alistair (2000) argues that there is no curriculum that does not draw inspiration from these philosophical
schools of thoughts. Philosophy helps us to handle our own personal system of beliefs and values, that
is, the way and manner that we perceive the world around us and how we actually define what is
important to us. Since philosophical issues have always influenced society and our institutions of
learning, the study and understanding of philosophy of education in relation to curriculum development
becomes vital and imperative. Basically, philosophy of education does influence, and to a greater extent
determines our educational decisions and alternatives. This is because; those that are responsible for
curricular decisions need be clear about what the belief or their belief system is. This is based on the fact
that unclear or confused beliefs will definitely lead to unclear and confusing curricular (Ekanem, 2013).
One vital step in developing a personal philosophy of education is to understand the several
alternatives that others have developed over the years. The function of philosophy can be seen or taken
as the tap root or the starting point in curriculum development. Apart from philosophy being the source
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of curriculum, it plays other functions in curriculum development. This can be seen in the view of Dewey
(1916), when he contends that “philosophy may… be defined as the general theory of education”. He
further stated that “the business of philosophy is to provide the framework for the aims and method of
schools. From the Deweyian perspective, philosophy provides a form of generalized meaning and
understanding of our lives (as cited in Ekanem, &Ekefre, 2014). In a similar argument Tyler (1949)asserts
that “The educational and social philosophy to which the school is committed can serve as the first
screen for developing the social program… philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and
a good society… educational philosophies in democratic society are likely to emphasize strongly
democratic values in schools.” Despite the fact that philosophy is not the beginning or starting point of
Tyler’s curriculum, there exists a strong interaction on an equal basis with other criteria, but he seems to
have given prominence to philosophy in the development of educational purposes. Thus, according to
such views, philosophy throws a light and shows a way on what destiny our education should inspire to
achieve.
Historical foundation
History is the creation resulting from human activities through participating in different events. In
order to be certain with what will happen in the future, one has to trace back of what transpired in the
past. Hence, historical foundation of curriculum addresses different phases of human development.
Students recognize that events in culture and personal issues take place continually. The number of
events and issues we face is so overwhelming at times that we often don’t know how to make sense out
of what is taking place. The study of history can help students gain perspective on events and issues they
face. The ability to break down and analyze events is an important step in critical thinking. From
historical foundation of curriculum therefore, a study on politics, economics, geography, agriculture,
religion and socio cultural practices are expounded to be certain with the past and predetermine the
future for the well- being of the society. Curriculum developers always ensure the historical perspective
is well reflected when designing curriculum in order to capture not only the local flavor but also global
historical views.
Psychological foundation
Learning theories have much to offer on the psychological aspect as a crucial discipline of curriculum
formation. It is the work of psychology to determine what age a child is ready to learn and under what
conditions. The study by Syomwene, Kitainge, and Mwaka, (2013) concluded psychology as the study of
human development physically and intellectually right from conception to adulthood. Educational
Psychology as a discipline is concerned with the question of how people learn (Ornstein and Hunkins,
1998). Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human life so as to be able to
understand and predict behavior (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992). Educational Psychology as a discipline
advances principles of teaching and learning that influence teacher-student behavior within the context
of the curriculum. This is because psychology is the unifying element in the learning process. For
example John Dewey, a renowned educationist acknowledges that psychology is the understanding of
how the individual learner interacts with objects and persons in the environment. The quality of this
interaction determines the amount and type of learning.
Sociological foundation
Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its
curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society
in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting
society. People today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions influence
what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people
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are talking and sharing views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems
and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools.
Culture and society influence on curriculum development
The relationship between education and society is dynamic and interactive. Education not only
reflects a society but is an influence in shaping its development. It helps to equip children to share in the
benefits of the society in which they live and to contribute effectively to that society’s sustenance and
evolution. The curriculum reflects the educational, cultural, social and economic aspirations and
concerns of the society. It also takes cognizance of the changing nature of knowledge and society and
caters for the needs of individual children in adjusting to such change. The social influences and
importance of these influences are factors in the curriculum development process ( Akhtar, 2004). The
curriculum development process can be improved by following ways with consideration the factors
influencing on the process: Need based analysis of curriculum, what are societal needs of students ?
What is the requirement of institutions? Which types of skills are incorporated in the student? How can
be bridge the gaps between the theory and real life situation? Taking feedback of stakeholders is one of
curriculum development strategy, Use of technology for fulfillment of demands of stakeholders;
Revision of curriculum is done for each five years, etc. The seminars, panel discussions, orientation
programs and workshops must be arranged for involvement of teacher as curriculum developer
Curriculum developers must follow some of the principles of curriculum development such as
conservative principle, forward looking principle, creation principle, activity principle, child centered
principle, flexibility principle, leisure principle, character building principle, and dignity of labour
principle. Also the principles of maturity, preparation for real life, linking with life, individual difference,
loyalties, core or common subjects, all round development of body, mind and spirit, democracy, Islamic,
socialism etc.
Q No.4 Discuss the criteria of content selection. Write the necessity of evaluation for the
improvement of curriculum.
The term curriculum is viewed in two different ways: the micro and the macro. The micro curriculum
refers to subjects, while the macro curriculum refers to curricular programs. For example, the subject
biology is a micro curriculum while BS in Civil Engineering is a macro curriculum.
What do the micro and the macro curriculum contain? The following criteria discuss the content of
these two levels of the curriculum.
Seven Criteria for the Selection of Subject-matter or Content of the Curriculum
The 7 criteria below can be utilized in the selection of subject matter for micro curriculum, and for
the content, subjects needed for the curricular program or course, of the macro curriculum.
1. Self-sufficiency
To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical manner is the main guiding
principle for subject matter or content selection (Scheffler, 1970) as cited by Bilbao et al., (2008).
Economy of learning refers to less teaching effort and less use of educational resources; but students
gain more results. They are able to cope up with the learning outcomes effectively.
This means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This allows
them to learn independently.
With this principle in mind, I suggest that for a high school curriculum or preparatory year, there should
be a one day independent learning activity each week. However, this should be carefully planned by the
teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs from the activity.
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2. Significance
The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of
learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning namely
the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and considers the cultural aspects of the learners.
Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the subject matter
must be culture-sensitive.
In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
3. Validity
Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that the
topics are not obsolete.
For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college students. It should be about
the computer or Information Technology (IT).
Thus, there is a need to check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it
if necessary. Do not wait for another 5 years in order to change it.
Modern curriculum experts are after current trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum;
otherwise, your school or country will be left behind.
4. Interest
This criterion is true to learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is
meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject-
centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously and teach only what is in
the book. This may somehow explain why many fail in the subject.
5. Utility
Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject matter
or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they don’t study.
Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job? Will it give meaning to
my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it be part of the test? Will I have a
passing mark if I learn it?
Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them.
6. Learn ability
The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their
experiences. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how subjects
are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students.
7. Feasibility
It means that the subject matter can be fully implemented. It should consider the real situation of the
school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable time and
the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish.
For example, you have only one week to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month for the
students to complete it. This is not feasible.
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Do not offer a computer subject if there is no even electricity in the area or there are no computers at
all.
Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For example, do
not offer English for Business Communication if there is no teacher to handle it.
Also, there is a need to consider the nature of the learners. The organization and design of the subject
matter or content must be appropriate to the nature of students.
So, it would be better if students in a subject-centered curriculum (with pacing schedule that must be
religiously implemented every week) be grouped homogenously; otherwise, many will flunk in that
subject.
In conclusion, teachers in elementary and high school are not directly involved in the selection of
subject-matter because there are already lesson plans made by the Department of Education. All they
have to do is to follow it. However, they can also customize the lessons if their department heads or
principals will allow them.
As regards macro curriculum, the Commission on Higher Education sets guidelines and policies on what
subjects should be offered as minimum requirements for the course. Then, the Curriculum Development
Committee will take charge of the selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum with
the approval of the Academic Council.
The Curriculum Development Committee headed by the Director of Curriculum Development sees to it
that the selection of the subject-matter and the subjects for a curricular program be examined and
scrutinized using the 7 criteria mentioned above.
But, this is not the end of the process yet! Selection of the subject matter or content of the micro and
macro curriculum is only one of the considerations in designing the curriculum.
Necessity of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum.
Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating decision making at
various stages of curriculum development. This information may pertain to the program as a complete
entity or only to some of its components. Evaluation also implies the selection of criteria, collection and
analysis of data. It includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a programme and
procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends standardized tests covering all means of
ascertaining the results of construction.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are
complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning is made on the
basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate state evaluation has its own entity.
The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the value of the curriculum itself is the
curriculum appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it is being used? Are the
instructional methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives sought? Is the content the
best that could be selected? Are the materials recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and
the best available for the purpose envisaged?
Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
1. To determine the outcomes of a program.
2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a program.
3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.
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4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement.

5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.
Types of Curriculum Evaluation
According to Screven, following are the 3 main types
Formative Evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its purpose is to
contribute to the improvement of the educational program. The merits of a program are evaluated
during the process of its development. The evaluation results provide information to the program
developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the program.
Summative Evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final effects of a curriculum are evaluated on the
basis of its stated objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed and put into
operations.
Diagnostic Evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two purposes either for placement of
students properly at the outset of an instructional level (such as secondary school), or to discover the
underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study.
Q No.5 What are the various approaches to content organization which one is the suited for content
organization in Pakistan and why?
Approaches to curriculum
1. Subject-centered approach
2. Learner-centered approach
3. Teacher-centered approach
4. Problem- centered approach
Subject centered
The Subject-Centered Curriculum is the traditional model that was laid out by Ralph Tyler in 1949 in his
seminal book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Also called the Knowledge-Centered
Curriculum, it is the most widely-used method of instruction. The knowledge-centered curriculum is an
academic curriculum where students are expected to acquire knowledge of their world as a foundation
for their adult life. This type of curriculum lays greater emphasis on the subjects themselves rather than
on the children. Students are expected to gain mastery of subject matters from academic disciplines that
have been predetermined by a panel of experts. These are prescribed for the students without much
regard to their actual interest or point of view. The curriculum is organized around content units and the
sequence of what is taught follows the logic of the subject matter. Knowledge and skills are taught
sequentially over time and students have to remember these for the purpose of examination or an
interview for a white-collar job. The teacher in a subject-based curriculum is seen as a scholar who will
be using a variety of teaching strategies to share their knowledge. A report by the Partnership for 21st
Century Skills emphasizes on the necessity of teacher-led instruction to help students gain knowledge
and be able to build upon it in an organized manner. As regards the environment in which the subject-
based curriculum takes place, it is the traditional school classroom where discipline is maintained and
students are often expected to remain seated at their desks. There is a clear academic focus and stress is
laid only on intellectual development. This type of curriculum ignores altogether the personal and social
development of the child Assessment within a subject-centred curriculum takes the form of formal
examinations and standards-based assessment. With these, teachers and students are able to evaluate
the progress made. In addition, program administrators can use the results of traditional tests to justify
their programs' achievements. In a 2004 study on core knowledge curriculum and school performance,
Wedman & Waigandt found a strong correlation between students enrolled in the Core Knowledge
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program and high test scores in all subjects regardless of ethnic or economic profiles. The longer the
students were enrolled in the program the more they outperformed their peers enrolled in non- Core
Knowledge schools.
What Is A Learner Centered Approach?
In a nutshell, a learner centered approach is one where the complete eLearning experience is focused
on the learners. For example, the courses need to be very user-friendly, so that learners can navigate
the course without any difficulty. They should be able to easily access the content of their choice, and
skip the sections they are not interested in. Likewise, learners should find the courses relevant to their
challenges and learning needs. The courses should include real life examples that learners can relate to.
7 Advantages of A Learner Centered Approach In eLearning
1: Improves participation.
The first step towards the success of any eLearning program is participation. A learner centered
approach addresses all the essential needs of learners, ensuring learners get a personalized and
convenient eLearning experience. For example, if a certain learner group prefers games and exercises,
the courses should be made more interactive. Similarly, if learners are more likely to access the course
content on tablets or mobiles, the courses should be designed to support this need. Due to the minute
attention paid to learner’s needs, learner centered courses ensure greater participation in eLearning.
2: Improves retention of knowledge.
Given that a learner centered approach places high emphasis on relevance and engagement, it greatly
influences learners’ interest levels. The learner centered approach shifts the focus from traditional
eLearning, which emphasized only on graphs and PowerPoint slides, to eLearning with more engaging
and simulating content. For example, if you are developing a course for engineers, the course should
have real life scenarios that are relevant to their day-to-day problems. Also, the course will have certain
elements, which will make them use the knowledge they may have acquired previously. This way,
learners will retain the knowledge better as opposed to a plain eLearning course with a lot of theoretical
knowledge.
3: Boosts performance at work.
A typical learner centered eLearning course will have a lot of scenarios, case studies, role plays, etc. For
example, if an organization is training its employees on quality guidelines or industry best practices, a
learner centered course with a lot of engaging and interactive content will help learners grasp the
content more effectively. This way, learners are more likely to apply their learning at work, leading to
improved on-the-job performance.
4: Develops problem-solving skills.
A learner centered eLearning course has a lot of real life examples, including games, quizzes, and
challenges. For example, the course may have challenges and games involving real life problems, which
will force learners to think of solutions. This kind of training develops problem-solving skills, which is
useful when learners encounter similar problems at work.
5: Fosters collaborative learning.
Learner centered courses provide the opportunity to foster collaborative learning. You should design
eLearning courses in such a way that learners have to involve their peers/superiors in completing the
course. Alternatively, the courses should have certain group exercises, which makes learners come
together to solve problems, and thereby share learning. This approach not only encourages
collaboration but also fosters teamwork.
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6: Makes learning more fun.

Use of games and stories in eLearning makes learning more fun. A learner centered approach provides a
lot of choices to learners. For example, if a particular course involves research, learners should be given
choices of topics for research. Likewise, learner centered eLearning courses use lots of different
mediums, such as videos, podcasts, practical assignments, etc. With these elements, learning is no
longer perceived as boring and monotonous.
7: Facilitates personalized learning.
All learners do not have the same learning needs. Some may just like to understand the basics of a
concept, while some may like to understand a course in detail. Also, some learners may already have
some knowledge about a topic, whereas some of them will be entirely new to the concept. A traditional
eLearning course will treat all learners the same way, and may not respond to the needs of different
types of learners. Things are different with learner centered eLearning courses. In such courses,
developers may include supplementary material with messages like “Click here to know more” or
“Here’s a refresher course”. The additional material makes learning more effective.
To conclude, as opposed to other approaches, such as a content centered eLearning or a teacher
centered eLearning, a learner centered approach provides many more benefits.
Teacher-centered approach
A teaching method where the teacher is in actively involved in teaching while the learners are in a
passive, receptive mode listening as the teacher teaches.
In teacher-centered education, students put all of their focus on the teacher. The teacher talks, while
the students exclusively listen.
It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this
approach, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured
through objectively scored tests and assessments.
Direct Instruction
• Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under the Teacher- Centered Approach, in
that teachers and professors are the sole supplier of knowledge and information.
• Direct instruction is effective in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas.
Characteristics
1. Teacher talk exceeds student talk during instruction.
2. Instruction occurs frequently with the whole class; small-group or individual instruction occurs
less often.
3. Use of class time is largely determined by the teacher.
4. The teachers rely heavily upon the textbook to guide curricular and instructional decision
making.
5. The classroom furniture is usually arranged into rows of desks or chairs facing a chalkboard with
a teacher’s desk nearby.
Benefits of Teacher-Centered Learning
1. Expert Knowledge
2. Planning and Execution
3. Discipline
4. Evaluation and Assessment
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Problem-centered or society-centered
A third type of curriculum design is society-centered. As the name suggests, the curriculum content is
heavily loaded with societal concerns, problems, and issues. One such design is aimed at making the
students adapt to the changes in society and to solve societal problems within their level of capabilities.
Another contemporary view of the society-centered design is based on the reconstructivist philosophy
of education. This curriculum design is aimed at making the school, the teachers, and the students the
agents of social change. Hence, curriculum content is heavy with present and future problems of the
society and with contemporary building processes to enable learners to plan and realize societal
improvement at the local and global
levels. Among the traditional curriculum designs, the traditional design, particularly thebroad field, is the
most popular not only in the Philippines but in most parts of the world. The popularity of the said
curriculum design will continue although curriculum content is bound to undergo changes. A practical
guide for curriculum developers in the context of community concerns should be formulated to help
them become socially responsible, proactive individuals (Reyes, 2000).
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Q No.1 what are sources of knowledge? Define scientific method and describe its different steps.
Human beings are always inquisitive to understand causes and consequences of happening or not
happening of something or event or phenomenon and to predict their occurrence and extent in failure.
The answer to interrogative queries like what, when, how, who, whom, and how much are some of the
understanding that generated knowledge among human beings. Some of the understanding comes in a
natural way while other comes through the complex procedure of investigation. There are four methods
of knowing or understandings.
1. Tenacity
2. Authority
3. Scientific method.
4. Institution, Prior method/ Rational Approach.
1. Tenacity
In this method, people know something to be true simply because a lot of people believe it to be true.
The more it is so, the more valid the truth becomes.
2. Authority
In this method, if a well-respected person or an authoritative source says that something is so, then it
must be so.
3. Institution, Prior method/ Rational Approach.
This method is based on the notion that people will reach the truth because their nature inclination will
be to do so. It is based on the notion that intuitive proposition should agree with reason and not
necessarily with experiences. It might thus be termed as Rational Approach.
Believing a fact in the background of socio-economical and cultural aspect is the main
4. Scientific method.
This is the most important and latest method understanding or knowing. In this method, truths are not
ascertained by beliefs but by something upon which thinking have no effects. The method deals with
real things whose characterized are entirely independently of our opinions about them. The ultimate
conclusion of every man shall be same.
This is the most important and latest method understanding or knowing. In this method, truths are not
ascertained by beliefs but by something upon which thinking have no effects. The method deals with
real things whose characterized are entirely independently of our opinions about them. The ultimate
conclusion of every man shall be same. Self-correction and objectivity are two main characteristics of
this method that distinguished it from other methods. Personal beliefs, perceptions, biases, values,
attitudes, and emotional have no place in this methods.
Main characteristics of the Scientific method.

1. Verifiability.
2. Generality:
3. Predictability.
4. Objectivity.
5. System.
1. Verifiability.
The conclusion drawn through a scientific method is subjected to verification at any time. The
proposition is that the phenomenon under investigation must be capable of being observed and
measured. For instance, a man’s order of preference of various jobs although incapable of being
observed can still be verified by means of an interview.
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2. Generality:
Laws derived through scientific method are universal in their application. They are not limited to
individual objects or individual groups of objects. The relationship discovered through these individual
groups should be applicable to the whole group called a universe. But, because of heterogeneous nature
of the social phenomenon, complete, universality is rarely achieved in social sciences and the fact
observed or laws formulated in social sciences are valid only under given a condition.
The results through scientific method can be predicted with sufficient accuracy. For example, one can
say with certainty that if water is heated to 100oC, it will vaporize and if it is cooled to 0oC, it will turn to
ice. Predictability is fixed on two factors fixing of relationships between the causes and the effect and
the stability of causative factors.
Predictability depends on one hand upon the nature of the phenomenon and the other hand upon the
knowledge of various causative factors. However, people do not acknowledge productivity in the social
phenomenon as a part of scientific method.
3. Objectivity.
The results obtained through a scientific method should be free from investigator’s own views. The main
criterion of objectivity is that all people should arrive at the same conclusion about something of the
phenomenon. For example, When we say that coal is black, it is the objective statement because coal
will appear black to all people but when we say coal is useful mineral, the statement may not be
objective for everyone may not agree with the statement.
Objectivity is essential for verification. It permits repetition of observations under practically identical
observation by many observers.
The expected answer to research series are the objectives of the study.If the problem has been stated in
negative sentences, then their counter statements I,e positive sentences are the objectives of the study.
For example, if the problem is stated as: is A deteriorating? Then the research objectivity may be stated
as Whether A will be improved.
The convergent point of the objective statement is the goal of the study. In scientific studies, the
objectivity is stated as-
1. Broad objective.
2. Specific objective
1. Broad objective.
The broad objective is the broad perspective of the study.
2. Specific objective
Specific objectives are stated to specific the specific observation to be made in the study. They are
stated in number preferably in sequential order.
4: System
In every scientific study, there is an accepted mode of investigation. The results arrived by means of a
haphazard method, even true, cannot be called scientific because it accuracy is purely accidental.
Scientific studies.
Scientific studies have passed the different stage of evolution and the methods of scientific analysis have
been made more and more refined with the growth of scientific studies.
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Aspects of the Scientific method.

Every Scientific method of investigation is composed of two aspects.
1. Technical Aspects.
2. Logical Aspects.
1. Technical Aspects.
This aspect deals with the collection of information (data and manipulates of a phenomenon to allow an
objectivity observation.
2. Logical aspects.
This method comes at the time of generalization of drawing of inference on the basis of collection
information.
Technical methods are different in different sciences and there are hardly a few persons who have
mastered the technical methods of more than one science or a group or connected science.
In general, a method of investigation applied to a particular branch of knowledge consists of following
two basic aspects.
The general part or the basis rules of investigation which is common to all types of scientific
investigations.
The applied to part or technical part that permits to the particular science alone.
In the second part of the investigation, that needed specialized knowledge. The accepted mode of
investigation is called system or formally and rigorous of the investigation.
Q No.2 Discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance of
research in education.
NEED OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

1. Education today is child centered. All round development of the personality of the child is one of the
important goals of education. Educational research is needed to solve various problems related to
measurement, evaluation and development of personality of the child.
2. The meaning we give to education today is more vast and complex. It is a cluster of difficult trades, an
aggregate of processes based on specific techniques and action with individuals and groups, that is
organized, planned, controlled and evaluated. In order to solve the complexity of relationships and
processes a considerable research in education is needed.
3. Education is both science and art. As science it is based on theories, laws and principles and as art it is
an activity and an application which requires skills and training. In order to make an effective application
of the laws and principles and to provide training in skills and techniques educational research is
needed. Educational research is of much significance to improve the art of teaching to make the
students learn effectively.
4. The advancement that the material world has made has given rise to problems of terrorism, threats
and clashes to the modern world. Education is a process of socialization which can meet the challenge of
increasing contradiction and belligerency. A continuous research is needed to solve this complex social
problem.
7. Educational research affects personality of the researcher. It teaches him ‘how to solve problems to
realize truth.’ he is not liable to accept the findings of others unless he tests them.
8. It is needed to make education administration efficient and effective. It helps in decision making.
9. Educational research is needed for a teacher to improve his teaching, his methodology, his skills, his
planning and to make him up to date in information and knowledge.
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Importance of research in education.

As earlier said, research is important in all fields, in the similar manner, the importance of research in
education is very vital. This is because of various reasons like:
1. It is a systematic analysis:
In education, research is essential as it gives the systematic analysis of the topic. Also the objectives are
clearly defined through the research process. One needs to study in a systematic and controlled manner,
and this is exactly what the research work provides an individual.
2. Leads to great observations:

In the field of education, the research helps in coming to one conclusion. That conclusion can be
achieved by observing the facts and figures in depth. So, such in depth knowledge is provided by
following various research methods only. So, this way, research also assists in leading to greater
observations.
3. Results in predications, theories and many principles:

The researchers come up with the valid predictions, theories and great results through the observations,
hypothesis and the research queries. So, this way also it helps researchers to come up with the great
conclusions.
4. Improving practices:
The educational research is important for the students to improve practices and at the same time, it
helps in improving those individuals who really wish to bring improvement in those practices. So, this
way educational research helps in overall improvement of the individual. Be it a student or any teacher
who is researching on some topic, it is of great help to them. It acts as a lighthouse and empowers the
individual.
5. Develops new understanding related to the learning, teaching etc:

The educators are benefited through various research as it helps them in having a better understanding
of the subject. Along with this, it develops greater understanding related to the teaching, learning and
other educational administration. The new knowledge further helps in improving educational practices
of the teachers and the professors.
6. Helps in initiating the action:

The research you do should result in performing some action or practice. So, the research should aim to
produce the highest result which complements the study. Also, you should make sure your study
ensures the applicable findings so as to match the result. Research helps in performing well and also
sheds away all the problems. This way, you are able to understand the role of research which further
helps in decision making process.
7. Helps in decision making:

The good research requires proper time and effort. It prepares the person in taking essential decisions
which further necessitates the same from all the participants involved in the process. For better results,
it is important for the participants to consider the required consequences and all the risks involved in
the whole process.
8. Brings consistency in the work:
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When the work is done with full in depth analysis, it tends to be right and accurate. The process of
research help brings consistency in the work, which lessens the flaws and mistakes in the final outcome
of the process. The consistency is needed in all sorts of work or you might have to end up getting wrong
and inaccurate result. The research takes lots of time and effort, so it is the duty of the researcher to be
specific and sure with the facts so that the end result is clean and without any silly mistakes.
9. Motivates others:
The educational research builds patience because it is a lengthy process. In order to get fruitful results,
you need to build patience and only then you will be able to motivate others. Also, if your research is full
of right facts and figures, it will ultimately motivate others. Not just this, an accurate research assists in
enhancing the reader’s knowledge which might not be possible for any other person.
So, above are some of the benefits which research provides in the field of education. Every kind of
research, every kind of method has been always useful and gives a positive result. In case, you find
something fishy during the research work, it is advisable to consult someone superior to you, or some
expert. Research is useful in all the fields and is used by all the departments, whether public or private.
The research work is done by all age groups, whether the students or the teachers and even the
humankind in order to understand the society, its rules and other policies.
Q No.3 Explain different types of researches on the basis of method and explain them with suitable
examples.
Research can be divided on the basis of different approaches & Methods. On the basis of method
research has the following types.
Historical Research
Historical research is that type in which the facts are collected from past events. In this type of
research historical approaches are used for preparing data in order to solve a problematic situation.
Descriptive Research
In descriptive research a researcher observe a problem and write an article about its causes and effects.
It is the personal ideas of a researcher. He writes a story which gives knowledge about the root causes of
problems. It’s also show causal and effect relationship.
Ex-post-Facto Research
In this type of research a researcher study the varying influence of two identical factors. It studies the
influence of cause-effect & effect-cause upon each other. Two variables are used in this research. One is
called independent while other is called dependent variable. If we want to see the impact of Arabic &
English education in the future, a careful study of past events is required because it depends on past
knowledge. In simple words in this research the investigator bring over the past study, identifies the
present and make planning for future.
Experimental Research
Experimental research is based on experiments. It this type of research the two variables, i.e.
independent & dependent are taken and their critical examination is carried out. These are observed,
tested and verified in case of validity. Experimental research may be conduct in laboratory or field.
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Field Study
Field study is the practical work in a given area. A research gees to the field and observes the
problematic situation and then makes a design of its collected data. This type of data would be more
accurate due to the self-observation of the researcher and its participation in community.
Pure research
a. Also called as the fundamental or the theoretical research.
b. Is basic and original.
c. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory.
d. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists.
e. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking formally of implementing it in practice based on the
honesty, love and integrity of the researcher for discovering the truth.
Applied research
a. Based on the concept of the pure research.
b. Is problem oriented.
c. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems.
d. Provides evidence of usefulness to society.
e. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory.
f. Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research.
g. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions.
h. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization.
Exploratory research
a. Involves exploring a general aspect.
b. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known.
c. Follows a very formal approach of research.
d. Helps in exploring new ideas.
e. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely.
f. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study.
Descriptive research
a. simplest form of research.
b. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research.
c. It involves a mutual effort.
d. Helps in identifying various features of a problem.
e. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable and the problems in which valid
standards can be developed for standards.
f. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations.
g. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research.
h. It consumes a lot of time.
i. It is not directed by hypothesis.
Diagnostic study
a. Quite similar to the descriptive research.
b. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems.
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c. Related to causal relations.

d. It is directed by hypothesis.
e. Can be done only where knowledge is advanced.
Evaluation study
a. Form of applied research.
b. Studies the development project.
c. Gives access to social or economical programmes.
d. Studies the quality and also the quantity of an activity.
Action research
a. Type of evaluation study.
b. Is a concurrent evaluation study.
Q No. 4 Define historical research. Elaborate concept of criticism with examples.
Historical research
Research is the formal, systematic application of scientific method to the study of problems’ (Gay, Mills
& Airasian; 2009).
Types of research
1. Historical research
2. Qualitative research
3. Descriptive research
4. Co-relational research
5. Causal-comparative research
6. Experimental research
Historical Research
Wiersma(1986) defines historical research in this way, it is a process of critical inquiry into past events,
in order to produce an accurate description and interpretation of those events.
The Steps of historical research

1. Identification of the research problem(including formulation of hypothesis/questions
2. Systematic collection & evaluation of data
3. Synthesis of information(including confirmation/disconfirmation of hypothesis)
4. Interpreting and drawing conclusions
Definition of a problem
Historical research problems are identified in the same way as problems of other types of research. It is
much better to study in-depth a well-defined problem with one or more specific well stated questions or
hypotheses, then to investigate either too broadly stated problems or a problem for which insufficient
data are available(Gay,1997).
Systematic collection & evaluation of data

The sources of historical information are commonly classified as primary or secondary. ‘Primary sources
are firsthand access of the events or experience under study; secondary sources are accounts at least
one level removed from the event or experience’(Wiersma, 1996).
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Collection and evaluation of source material

According to Wiersma(1986) a basic rule of historical research is to use primary sources whenever it is
possible to locate them. Historical evidence is derived from historical data by the process of criticism,
which is of two types; external and internal.
External Criticism
External Criticism in historical research evaluates the validity of the document-this is, where, when and
by whom it was produced’ (Wiersma, 1986, p.223).
Internal criticism
Internal Criticism evaluates the meaning, accuracy and trustworthiness of the content of the document’
(Wiersoma, 1886, p.224).
Synthesis of information
Wiersma (1986), states that central ideas or concepts must be pulled together and continuity between
them is developed. As substantial period of time-say, several years-is covered by the research study, the
ideas can often be organized chronologically.
Interpretation and formulating conclusions

The final step of historical research methodology is characterized by decision making about the
research problem. At the final step conclusions are formulated, and any hypothesis introduced earlier is
either supported or rejected.
Advantages of Historical research:

1. Many current educational practices, theories and issues can be better understood in the light of
past experiences.
2. Researchers can apply scientific objectivity in attempting to determine exactly what did happen
in the past.
3. If well-done, this research involves systematic, objective data collection and analysis.
Disadvantages of Historical research:

1. In conducting historical research, the researcher canneither manipulate nor control any of the
variables.
2. There is no way, historical researcher can affect events of the past.
3. Historical research can’t collect data by administering instruments.
4. Historical research is limited to whatever data are available.
5. Historical research excessively relies on secondary source of data.
Some examples of problems in historical research

✓ Essays written by elementary school children during the Civil War
✓ Attendee record from two different school districts over a 40-years period
✓ High school graduation diplomas from the 1920s
Conclusion
1. Historical research is necessary to define the situations of the past and its meaning in the light of
the present problem.
2. It can provide a perspective for decision making about educational problems, and it assists in
understanding why things are as they are.
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3. Educational reform and even social reform are functions often served by historical research.
4. Issues are often better understood and probably better dealt with-if the historical perspective is
known.
Q. No.5 Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with the
example of survey studies, and interrelationship studies.
What is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is conclusive in nature, as opposed to exploratory. This means that descriptive
research gathers quantifiable information that can be used for statistical inference on your target
audience through data analysis. As a consequence this type of research takes the form of closed-ended
questions, which limits its ability to provide unique insights. However, used properly it can help an
organization better define and measure the significance of something about a group of respondents and
the population they represent.
When it comes to online surveying, descriptive is by far the most commonly used form of research. Most
often, organizations will use it as a method to reveal and measure the strength of a target group’s
opinion, attitude, or behavior with regards to a given subject. But another common use of descriptive
research would be the surveying of demographical traits in a certain group (age, income, marital status,
gender, etc.). This information could then be studied at face value, measuring trends over time, or for
more advanced data analysis like drawing correlations, segmentation, benchmarking and other
statistical techniques.
There are three main types of descriptive methods:

Observational methods, case-study methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each
of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research
findings, whether reported in the mainstream media, or when reading a research study on your own.
Observational Method
With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior
is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic
observation and laboratory observation.
The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in
their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation,
proponents say.
Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations.
Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the
results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with
naturalistic observation.
Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of
course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of
scientific knowledge.
Case Study Method

Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies
often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be
used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.
There are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and atypical individuals.
Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken
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while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’

descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external
validity.
Survey Method
In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or
questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In
order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed
properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.
Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended,
partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refers to Jackson,
2009). Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type:
Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to
analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended
questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can
give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically.
(Jackson, 2009, p. 89)
In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct
method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods.
It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or
the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes —
Does A cause B, or does B cause A?
Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their
research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing
could be further from the truth.
Survey research
Survey research is sometimes regarded as an easy research approach. However, as with any other
research approach and method, it is easy to conduct a survey of poor quality rather than one of high
quality and real value. This paper provides a checklist of good practice in the conduct and reporting of
survey research. Its purpose is to assist the novice researcher to produce survey work to a high
standard, meaning a standard at which the results will be regarded as credible. The paper first provides
an overview of the approach and then guides the reader step-by-step through the processes of data
collection, data analysis, and reporting. It is not intended to provide a manual of how to conduct a
survey, but rather to identify common pitfalls and oversights to be avoided by researchers if their work
is to be valid and credible.
What is survey research?

Survey research is common in studies of health and health services, although its roots lie in the social
surveys conducted in Victorian Britain by social reformers to collect information on poverty and working
class life (e.g. Charles Booth and Joseph Rowntree ), and indeed survey research remains most used in
applied social research. The term ‘survey’ is used in a variety of ways, but generally refers to the
selection of a relatively large sample of people from a pre-determined population (the ‘population of
interest’; this is the wider group of people in whom the researcher is interested in a particular study),
followed by the collection of a relatively small amount of data from those individuals. The researcher
therefore uses information from a sample of individuals to make some inference about the wider
population.
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Data are collected in a standardized form. This is usually, but not necessarily, done by means of a
questionnaire or interview. Surveys are designed to provide a ‘snapshot of how things are at a specific
time. There is no attempt to control conditions or manipulate variables; surveys do not allocate
participants into groups or vary the treatment they receive. Surveys are well suited to descriptive
studies, but can also be used to explore aspects of a situation, or to seek explanation and provide data
for testing hypotheses. It is important to recognize that ‘the survey approach is a research strategy, not
a research method. As with any research approach, a choice of methods is available and the one most
appropriate to the individual project should be used. This paper will discuss the most popular methods
employed in survey research, with an emphasis upon difficulties commonly encountered when using
these methods.
Descriptive research
Descriptive research is a most basic type of enquiry that aims to observe (gather information on) certain
phenomena, typically at a single point in time: the ‘cross-sectional’ survey. The aim is to examine a
situation by describing important factors associated with that situation, such as demographic, socio-
economic, and health characteristics, events, behaviors, attitudes, experiences, and knowledge.
Descriptive studies are used to estimate specific parameters in a population (e.g. the prevalence of
infant breast feeding) and to describe associations (e.g. the association between infant breast feeding
and maternal age).
Analytical studies
Analytical studies go beyond simple description; their intention is to illuminate a specific problem
through focused data analysis, typically by looking at the effect of one set of variables upon another set.
These are longitudinal studies, in which data are collected at more than one point in time with the aim
of illuminating the direction of observed associations. Data may be collected from the same sample on
each occasion (cohort or panel studies) or from a different sample at each point in time (trend studies).
Evaluation research
This form of research collects data to ascertain the effects of a planned change.
Advantages and disadvantages of survey research
Advantages:
1. The research produces data based on real-world observations (empirical data).
2. The breadth of coverage of many people or events means that it is more likely than some other
approaches to obtain data based on a representative sample, and can therefore be
generalizablel to a population.
3. Surveys can produce a large amount of data in a short time for a fairly low cost. Researchers can
therefore set a finite time-span for a project, which can assist in planning and delivering end
results.
Disadvantages:
1. The significance of the data can become neglected if the researcher focuses too much on the
range of coverage to the exclusion of an adequate account of the implications of those data for
relevant issues, problems, or theories.
2. The data that are produced are likely to lack details or depth on the topic being investigated.
3. Securing a high response rate to a survey can be hard to control, particularly when it is carried
out by post, but is also difficult when the survey is carried out face-to-face or over the
telephone.
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Essential steps in survey research

Research question
Good research has the characteristic that its purpose is to address a single clear and explicit research
question; conversely, the end product of a study that aims to answer a number of diverse questions is
often weak. Weakest of all, however, are those studies that have no research question at all and whose
design simply is to collect a wide range of data and then to ‘trawl’ the data looking for ‘interesting’ or
‘significant’ associations. This is a trap novice researchers in particular fall into. Therefore, in developing
a research question, the following aspects should be considered:
1. Be knowledgeable about the area you wish to research.
2. Widen the base of your experience, explore related areas, and talk to other researchers and
practitioners in the field you are surveying.
3. Consider using techniques for enhancing creativity, for example brainstorming ideas.
4. Avoid the pitfalls of: allowing a decision regarding methods to decide the questions to be asked;
posing research questions that cannot be answered; asking questions that have already been
answered satisfactorily.
Research methods
The survey approach can employ a range of methods to answer the research question. Common survey
methods include postal questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, and telephone interviews.
Postal questionnaires
This method involves sending questionnaires to a large sample of people covering a wide geographical
area. Postal questionnaires are usually received ‘cold’, without any previous contact between researcher
and respondent. The response rate for this type of method is usually low, ∼20%, depending on the
content and length of the questionnaire. As response rates are low, a large sample is required when
using postal questionnaires, for two main reasons: first, to ensure that the demographic profile of
survey respondents reflects that of the survey population; and secondly, to provide a sufficiently large
data set for analysis.
Face-to-face interviews
Face-to-face interviews involve the researcher approaching respondents personally, either in the street
or by calling at people’s homes. The researcher then asks the respondent a series of questions and notes
their responses. The response rate is often higher than that of postal questionnaires as the researcher
has the opportunity to sell the research to a potential respondent. Face-to-face interviewing is a more
costly and time-consuming method than the postal survey, however the researcher can select the
sample of respondents in order to balance the demographic profile of the sample.
Telephone interviews
Telephone surveys, like face-to-face interviews, allow a two-way interaction between researcher and
respondent. Telephone surveys are quicker and cheaper than face-to-face interviewing. Whilst resulting
in a higher response rate than postal surveys, telephone surveys often attract a higher level of refusals
than face-to-face interviews as people feel less inhibited about refusing to take part when approached
over the telephone.
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Q.1 Describe the scope of administration in the educational context. How the principles of
administration can be applied in educational institutions to improve the system of education in
Pakistan.
Education administrators are employed in universities and colleges, schools, preschools, and daycare
centers. They manage routine activities and provide instructional leadership at these institutions. They
may also be employed at businesses, museums, correctional facilities, and community service
organizations to direct their educational programs.
What does an Education Administrator do?

School administrators work in every level of education. They may direct programming, hire and
supervise staff, manage budgets, and make decisions that affect the academic community. They are also
in charge of developing a direction and mission for the facility at which they work.
The actual specific job functions for an education administrator will vary depending on the institution
of employment. For schools, this job is usually the role of a principal or assistant principal. For private
schools and businesses, the job may be as a director of programs or head master. Libraries and
museums often employ administrators as instruction coordinators. For colleges and universities,
education administrators are employed at all levels of the management structure — as admissions
officers, department heads, and as deans and provosts.
Making policies and procedures and setting educational aims and standards is the responsibility of an
education administrator. They act as a supervisor for managers and support other faculty, such
as librarians, coaches, teachers, and aids. In small organizations, such as a daycare, there may be only
one administrator in charge of all these duties. At larger institutions, such as universities or large school
systems, several administrators share the workload, each having a specific responsibility.
Education administrator's responsibilities include:

1. handling relations with parents, students, employers, and the community
2. managing budgets and ensuring financial systems are followed
3. overseeing record-keeping
4. managing student services such as guidance programs
5. training, supervising, and motivating faculty including teachers and auxiliary staff
6. working on committees including academic boards, governing bodies and task groups
7. assisting with recruitment, public or alumni relations and marketing activities
8. providing administrative support to an academic team of lecturers, tutors or teachers
9. drafting and interpreting regulations and dealing with queries and complaints procedures
10. maintaining high levels of quality assurance, including course evaluation and course approval
procedures
11. contributing to policy and planning
12. purchasing goods and equipment, as required, and processing invoices
13. liaising with partner institutions, other institutions, external agencies, government departments
and prospective students
14. organizing and facilitating a variety of educational or social activities
What is the workplace of an Education Administrator like?

Education administrators are employed by public and private schools, school districts, colleges, and
universities to plan and oversee educational policies. Administrators are also hired by private
preschools, museums, and libraries to manage curricula and educational programs.
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Day-to-day activities of education administrators generally include meetings with teachers, parents, and
school staff. Work is completed in an office environment, with paperwork often being necessary. While
the job has a typical work day and work week, after-hours meetings and attendance at school events is
often necessary.
Ways to improve the structure of Pakistan’s education system

Universal primary education in Pakistan is contingent on several factors, such as the existence of cost-
effective schools, better curricula, and awareness among parents, especially in rural areas, of the
importance of education. However, the single most important factor in getting children to complete
primary school is improving the structure of Pakistan’s school system.
Currently, there exist many obstacles on the road to a smoothly functioning system. These include
political interference, corruption, over-centralization, a lack of school autonomy, underdeveloped
managerial capacity and poor information systems.
However, there are five institutional reforms that can help improve Pakistan’s educational structure so
that it can achieve the goal of universal primary education.
The first reform is the decentralization of decision-making, which improves education administration.
Presently, Pakistan educational system is highly centralized even though it is widely understood that
basic education is better provided in a system that is administered at the district and village level.
A highly centralized system does not respond as effectively to local needs. The bureaucracy interferes
with the flow of resources and information. It also means higher level administrators have less time to
devote to important issues like program design, implementation, and monitoring.
This decentralization means governments must develop partnerships with communities, NGOs, and the
private sector to delegate responsibility effectively in order to achieve universal primary education.
A second step necessary for improving the system is greater autonomy for the schools. Currently, school
principals have a limited decision-making capacity. In addition, schools do not have control over issues
like curriculum, teacher appointment, discipline, and evaluation. There are virtually no opportunities for
local staff development programs or resource mobilization.
By giving schools more independence, principals would have the authority to appoint personnel and
determine crucial issues that affect the day-to-day affairs of schools. Principals, not upper-level
bureaucrats, are in a better position to make these decisions since they deal with the daily realities of
school life.
A third important reform is providing better support to, supervision of, and coordination of the school
system at the district and provincial level. By making the district the key level for planning and
management, state-level and central education bodies can focus more on policy-making, resource
management and regulation.
One way to do this is by promoting good principals and teachers at the school level to enhance the
institutional capacity of district level organizations. The lack of sufficient manpower is the most serious
problem at the district and sub-district level.
A fourth necessary reform is to encourage decision-making be based on educational, not political,
considerations. At present, politicians hand out teaching jobs as patronage appointments. Federal and
provincial funds provided for education sometimes remain unused, especially in rural areas, since feudal
landowners are opposed to educating “their” people.
The final necessary reform is to expand the information and research base of education in Pakistan.
Effective management and administration of the education system depends on the quality of the
information system. Without reliable information, decision-makers cannot improve education policy and
programs at the national, district and school levels.
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One way of collecting reliable information about the state of education is to conduct standardized
testing that measures student performance against national curriculum goals. These can be used to
compare learning achievement across schools, districts and regions over time.
There is also a need for better research. Pakistan currently has one institution that conducts research on
educational issues, the Academy of Educational Planning and Management, which conducts research on
basic education. However, its abilities are hampered by inadequate funds, no institutionalized basis for
collecting, processing and analyzing data, no technical support staff and little influence in policy making.
Q.2 what are the major differences between administration and management in the context of a
school? Compare the concept of Islamic administration and the general concept of administration.
Meaning of Educational Administration

Educational Administration is a discipline within the study of education that examines the administrative
theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and educators in particular. The
field ideally distinguishes itself from administration and management through its adherence to guiding
principles of educational philosophy.
The concept of educational administration may not be totally different from what we are familiar
with in the concept of administration. Education at different levels has its objectives; the most
important of the objectives that cut across all the levels of education is teaching and learning. It is the
function of the school to produce educated and enlightened human beings who would be able to
contribute positively to the development of the society. This formed the opinion of Olaniyi (2000) who
describes school as a social institution which does not exist in a vacuum. He said further that a school is
a micro-community, existing within a macro community to mould the habits, interest, attitudes and
feelings of children and transmit from one generation to another. The school also comprises certain
personnel i.e. teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the students. These human resources in the
school work with some materials, such as instructional materials, equipment, and financial resources in
order to achieve the objectives of the school.
Administration is very germane to the realization of the school’s objectives – indeed; the success
of the school system depends largely on the administration of the school it handled.
The teachers, students, non-teaching staff and resources must be efficiently arranged, monitored and
controlled, so that they would work harmoniously according to (educational plan). Even the National
Policy on Education emphasizes the success of the entire educational system on proper planning,
efficient administration and adequate funding. School administration is the process by which principles,
methods and practices of administration are applied in educational institutions to establish, maintain
and develop such institutions in line with the goals of the institutions. Akinwumi & Jayeoba (2004)
define school administration as the scientific organization of human and material resources and
programs available for education and using them systematically and meticulously to achieve educational
goals.
Basically, educational administration implies the arrangement of the human and material
resources and program available for education and carefully using them systematically for the
achievement of educational objectives.
Functions of School Administrators

Obemeata (1984) referred to a school head as an administrator who is responsible for running a school
and also responsible for policy decisions, and determining the direction and objectives of the school. The
function of a school head, according to Obemeata, is more than mere controlling the staff of the school,
its finances and curriculum; it also includes the management of resources towards the achievement of
educational goal. Fadipe (1990) however, highlighted the major functions of the school head as:
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interpretation of policy, execution of instructional programs and the selection, induction and retention
of personnel, and in Cranston (2002), the duties of the school administrators include: the demonstration
of a variety of management and leadership abilities and, making complex decisions in collaboration with
other staff in the school.
The function of the school administrators could be summarized as follows:
1. production and management of resources (human and materials) needed to support
organizations and its program
2. supervision of instructional activities in the school system
3. obtaining and training personnel
4. providing leadership for curriculum
5. maintaining peaceful co-existence between the school, the community and the external
agencies
6. influencing staff behavior
7. discerning and influencing the development of goals and policies
8. evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency or otherwise of the school
9. initiating work activities
10. grouping the tasks into activities
11. defining the task to be done
12. taking remedial action if the objectives are not being met
13. Supplying incentives to stimulate productivity.
Some differences between administration and management

1. The difference between administration and management is rather very thin. However while
management is the process of working with and through groups or individuals to accomplish
organizational goals, administration is concerned with directing and controlling life in a social
system.
2. The second difference is that administration deals with establishing a policy that guides
decision-making laws and regulations. Management deals with implementation of laws and
regulations.
Educational administration and educational management

From the above definition, it is quite clear that educational administration and educational management
are applied fields of study. Educational management is an applied field of management. One can
therefore deduce that educational management refers to the application of theory and practice of
management to the field of education or educational institutions. The same concept applies to
education administration.
According to Okumbe (1999), educational administration is a process of acquiring and allocating
resources for the achievement of predetermined educational goals. Educational administration is the
operation and management of learning institutions such as public schools, child care centers, colleges
and universities. From small preschools to prestigious universities, educational administrators manage
organizational structure, administrative processes and educational programming. Because it involves
children, educational administration contains a wide range of ethical standards and customary practices.
Islamic Administration of Education

Education is the foundation upon which Islamic society is built, and it is the division that makes the
Muslims differ in their lives from the rest of the paths of disbelief.
The previous Ba'athist and Shi'a governments tried to deviate the Muslim generation from their path
through their educational programs that concord with their governments and political whims.
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The programs focused on glorifying the ruling authorities and discarding differences between sects,
stripping Sunnis of their identity.
And among the most important of their goals were:
1. Focusing on glorifying and eternalising the leaders and taking refuge in God and inserting them
into hidden shirk [idolatry] through immortalising ephemeral, temporary personalities.
2. Spreading the aims of their parties and their ideas whilst distancing the nurtured from Islamic
thought, because the ruling party considers itself the pulse of society and the symbol of its
endurance, while Islamic principles are for the mosque only and between man and his Lord with
severe proceedings against all those who tried to do away with party thinking or modify it.
3. Discarding the difference with the disbelieving sects, and considering co-existence with them as
the true societal bond that the Ummah [Islamic nation] must operate in accordance with in
order to preserve its goals, while in reality protection is implemented for the rights of all the
communities of disbelief while oppressing the Sunnis and their principles.
4. Spreading the culture of moral dissolution by promoting it through expressions of civilization
and exchanges of cultures with the West.
And thus it was that the Ummah entered into labyrinths of confusion that made it forget its glory, its
strength and its past, while the prior Islamic Caliphates were portrayed as being a foreign occupation
that arose on the basis of ignorance and the decline of the Ummah and nationalism.
And among the aims of the Islamic program in the Islamic State:
1. Implanting Islamic values in society as well as sound, Shari'i societal manners and customs.
2. Correcting the erroneous narrations that the prior programs had implanted about the prior
Caliphs and Imams.
3. Developing Islamic society on the basis of manners and on a Shari'i and thought basis.
4. Raising a knowledgeable Islamic generation capable of bearing the Ummah and its future
without needing the expertise of the West.
So it is also that the Islamic school is one of the houses of worship, whose aims are confined to acquiring
knowledge also, but also it is an educational nurturing ground that raises the individual with
comprehensive development of mind and body.
And in it there should be training facilities for mind, body and vocation, as successful programs cannot
rely on what is written between the lines, without practical training on all given subjects.
Also it is the case that the interest in the Arabic language and its use in daily life for the individual is an
important matter in the Islamic State as is distancing from vulgar expressions that were put forward in
society in a well-considered plan to guarantee the forgetting of the Islamic identity for society.
The general concept of administration

Meaning:
Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and
material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a program
of an educational institution.
The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella
encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling
and evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration.
The concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organization which has
certain purposes or goals to fulfill.
In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organization plans carefully
various programmes and activities. Here the educational organization may be a school, college or
university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co-
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operation from other teachers, parents and students. She/he motivates them and co- ordinates the
efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their
performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme.
He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the
school or college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or
achieving the purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration.
Basic Functions of Educational Administration:

The prime concern of administration of any programme is proper accomplishment of the pre-fixed
purposes and goals. This becomes possible through adequate utilization of both human and material
resources with the purpose of bringing qualitative improvement of the programme. For this there is the
necessity of different aspects of management which are accepted as the functions of administration. In
order to simplify it we can be said here that proper management of a programme needs various aspects
that are regarded as the functions of administration.
These are:
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Directing
4. Coordinating
5. Supervising
6. Controlling and
7. Evaluating
In the field of educational administration, the educational authority as the administrative authority
exercises its functions in relation to the above mentioned aspects. But it is essential to mention that the
functions of educational administration can be studied under two major perspectives. One is in general
perspective and the other is in contextual perspective. Let us discuss these functions one by one.
Q.3 Discuss the application of fundamental principles of management in the context of Pakistani
elementary school level. Identify the problems of management in public sector schools of Pakistan.
Principles of School Management
1. The policies of the school have been developed according to educational principles, government
policies and the goals of elementary school education.
2. Reinforce administrative organization, maintain job responsibilities and boost work efficiency.
3. Follow a democratic approach, make personnel, funds, opinions, rewards and punishment public in
an attempt to lead the school toward united and harmonious direction.
4. Strengthen personnel management, increase employees’ motivation. Look, listen and understand
more. Promote a focus on mobile management.
5. Emphasize delicate campus planning, improve working environment, and inspire employees’
professional spirit.
6. Encourage in-service teacher education to improve teaching methods and counseling skills in order
to more effectively implement educational functions.
7. To respect and serve rather than manage
8. Focus on teachers’ sense of honor and responsibility
9. Focus on research, experimentation, innovation and the teaching profession. Invigorate teachers’
spirit and stimulate educational renovation.
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10. Enhance teaching equipment and make good use of social resources in order to create modern well-
developed citizens.
11. Incorporate the five main themes of education, and teach students in accordance with their
aptitudes to maximize their talents.
12. Focus on the planning and delivery of special education services.
13. Strengthen life education, moral education, and traffic safety education in order to develop a
harmonious atmosphere.
14. Develop good relationships with communities, make use of social resources, and continue school
development in order to make the school a center of community development.
Principles of Management
What is principle? It is a generation that is widely accepted as true system. Principles always are to be
considered helpful for several reasons.
First: They help to make more accurate decision, applying in any situation and eliminating guesswork.
Second: it saves time. Principles provide guidelines for actions.
Third: principles enable the people to pass information from one generation to another.
There are few Principles which are to be adapted in management.
1. Planning Principles
1. Principle of the Primary Objectives
2. Principle of adequate alternative
3. Principle of contingencies
2. Organizing Principles
1. Unity of Command principle
2. Adequacy of authority principle
3. Scalar (chain-of-command) principle
3. Staffing Principles
1. Principle of developing a successor
2. Principle of manager evaluation
3. Principle of management development
4. Directing Principles
1. Principle of harmony of objective
2. Principle of manager’s example
3. Principle of motivation
5. Controlling Principles
1. Principle of standards
2. Principle of measurement of performance against standards
3. Principle of corrective action
Issues Related to Privately Managed Institution

It is undeniable that the role of private sector is pivotal in all spheres of life without any exception. It
has improved quality and quantity of education too. This sector has actually sharing the state burden as
well as social burden. Currently the growth of private sectors in education is tremendous; a regulatory
control can streamline and improve the academic and structural improvement. Society at large has
welcomed its role and functioning. The severe criticism by the society is on fee structure which is going
up with price hike. It is true but the problem lies with the facilities as what they provide is never beyond
their fee limit. Secondly the access to education by poor students is a very serious issue, it is needed to
have legal framework for matching the facilities with fee ratio and poor student admission. With all
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these things these schools manages their resources and they do not take grant from the state. The state
itself or the provinces do not developed or designed any type of thing to regulate fee structure and it is
imperative to find ways and means that could attract private investors at one side and at other there
should be a mechanism to provide relief to the poorer families. Danish schools system is an appreciable
effort by the provincial government for inducting poor but talented student in a world class institution.
These private schools have more attraction as they claim to have English as a medium of instruction but
actually they run it with mixture of first and foreign language. In the policy 1979 Urdu was adopted as
medium of instruction in schools which later on changed and English has been made a medium of
instruction. This switching over must be stopped and state should decide once and for all about it. Some
of the schools are still following Cambridge education system and their students appear in O, and A level
examination which also creates a class distinction in the society. The concept of universalisation of
education cannot be realized until and unless private sectors schools are allowed to set up and expand
their networks in other areas. Another allegation is that these schools are mostly set up in urban area
while they are needed in rural areas but we can see that this trend has changed and now there many
schools which are opening their campuses in urban areas too. The allegation about serving elite class
purpose is again baseless as many schools are set up in less developed areas and current studies of
World Bank show that there is huge difference in students’ academic quality among private and public
schools as the private sector performance is three times higher than the public sector. The selection is
another objection but I believe that courses are selected on the basis of quality only. The text books
published by the board are in poor quality in material and contents whereas foreign author and
publisher books are far better than them. A regulatory body just as NACTE should be established to
monitor the teaching learning process with course contents and curriculum development comparing it
with advanced countries for improvement and enhancement.
Q.4 Discuss the concept of education planning. Critically compare the utility of different
approaches to educational planning.
Concept of education planning.

Planning
1. Adesina (1990) defines planning as ‘a way of projecting our intentions, that is, a method of
deciding what we want to accomplish’.
2. Ejiogu (1990) holds that ‘to plan, means to project, forecast, design or make or chart our
course’.
From these views, it can be summarized that ‘planning refers to the act of deciding in advance what is to
be done, how and when to do it, where and who is to do it in order to achieve the goals or objectives of
the system’.
• A plan is a detailed scheme, program or method worked out before hand for the purpose of achieving
a set objective. There are three basic elements in a plan, it deals with the future involves action and
identifies who is to implement the future action.
• Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to be.
Educational Planning
• Educational planning can be defined as ‘the process of setting out in advance, strategies, policies,
procedures, programmes and standards through which an educational objective (or set of objectives)
can be achieved’.
• Educational planning is a detailed and systematic process: it just does not happen by chance.
• It is goal-oriented: it is directed at achieving a set educational objectives.
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THE EDUCATIONALPLANNING PROCESS

1. Plan survey and deliberations
2. Definition of goals and objectives
3. Programs design and specification
4. Program provision;
5. Implementation and control;
6. Plan Evaluation and plan regeneration (Peretomode, 1991).
Characteristics of Educational Planning

• Primacy of Planning
Planning is the first step in management. It takes precedence over all the other managerial functions.
Everybody plans even though not everybody plans well. As a teacher, you plan your lessons before you
go to teach them.
• Planning is pervasive:
By this, we mean that planning cuts across all levels of management and all the other managerial
functions. Whether at the primary, secondary or university level of education, planning is done. For
example the managerial functions of organizing, staffing, etc involve some planning.
• Planning is Mission - Oriented:
Planning involves the mapping out or charting of activities in such a way that it helps to satisfy human
wants. Thus, planning is goal-directed i.e. planning is directed at achieving a specified goal or a set of
goals.
• Planning is Future-Oriented.
Planning as said earlier on, is a process of deciding in advance what should be done in future, how it is to
be done, who will do it, when and where to do it. This process takes into consideration past trends and
present experiences in order to project into the future.
USESOF EDUCATIONALPLANNING
• Identification of Objectives and strategies:
By this we mean that educational planning helps in identifying and defining the objectives and the
strategies, programmes, procedures, policies and standards which education needs to be more effective
and efficient.
• Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources:
By scarce resources, we mean the limited resources which are available to satisfy our wants (needs).
• Educational Planning aids decision making:
Educational Planning helps decision makers at all levels to reach a better and well informed decision
THE NEED OF EDUCATIONALPLANNING

• Resources are limited:
Thus the need to determine in advance a program of action for the attainment of the goal within a given
time.
• To achieve maximum effectiveness, efficiency:
Adequate plans help to direct and co-ordinate the actions of employees in order to achieve maximum
effectiveness, efficiency and productivity.
• Help in administrative decisions:
Planning is necessary for administrative decisions in education, for it aims at putting into action what
educators deems to achieve.
• Clear choices:
Planning enables a nation to make its choices clear in terms of the aim and objectives.
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• Optimum Utilization of Resources:

Educational plans are designed to avoid imbalances and enormous wastes and replenish the steadily
aggravated shortage of teachers.
Different approaches to educational planning.

1. SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH
The first approach, which may be called the social method is in general use, but is scarcely a method at
all, and is a starting point from which improvements must be devised. This method takes educational
needs in terms of the current demand for education at the different levels and projects them on the
basis of population increase, age distribution, long-term national or social goals (inarticulate or defined)
and on the basis of what is known about state and consumer preferences for education. Among such
goals and preferences are universal literacy, universal compulsory primary education, and cultural
objectives. The stress is upon education as social infra-structure for development purposes, and as an
end in itself. The financial implications of these targets are then considered. The usual result is that the
funds required for the educational expansion are found to be larger than those available either to
launch or to sustain it, on the basis of projections of national income and revenue. A compromise is
struck, and what is deemed to be a feasible plan emerges, cut down to the funds expected to be
available. This is the traditional approach, and may work satisfactorily in high-income countries,
although even in these, concern over flagging rates of growth and ever-increasing competition in export
markets is leading to increased emphasis on the contribution of education to technological progress and
productive efficiency.
2. MANPOWER REQUIREMENT APPROACH
The second approach, which we may call the manpower approach, is based on the fact that, as we saw
earlier, the main link of education with economic development is through the knowledge and skills it
produces in the labor force. To the extent that the educational system produces qualified people in the
right numbers and places, the major part of the economic and social contribution of educational
planning is achieved, provided that in so doing the educational system has not consumed so great a
proportion of resources as to set back the development plan itself. Various methods exist of estimating
future manpower requirements and the demand they will make on the education system. But various
difficulties hamper this approach as Professor Harbison recognizes. First, manpower forecasts can
seldom be made with reliability beyond short-term periods of five to eight years. The time perspective
required by educational planning as a whole is fifteen to twenty years, though it is possible to influence
over shorter periods the supply in the ‘pipe-line’. Secondly, the educational component of different
occupations changes with technological progress and the rise of educational standards.
3. EDUCATION-OUTPUT RATIO METHOD
The third method is based on the capital-output ratio approach and might be called the education-
output ratio method. It relates the stock of educated people and the flow of children and students
completing education at the different levels directly to the national output of goods and services
without passing through the intervening stage of making manpower forecasts. A series of linear
equations are set up relating the stock of persons who have completed a given level of education, and
the number of students at each level, to the aggregate volume of production. These equations will show
how the structure of the educational system should change with different growth rates of the economy.
This method is developed by Professor Tinbergen. Every method has its difficulties and limitations. The
problem here is that assumptions have to be made about teacher-student ratios and about the
adequacy of the relations of the education ‘mix’ to the product ‘mix’ at the base from which the
projection is made. If these assumptions are incorrectly made they will invalidate the conclusions.
Further, the differences of rates of growth in the different economic sectors, and increases of
productivity, need to be included. The range of assumptions as to the technical coefficients is very wide.
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None the less this method, used with good informed judgment, is a useful exercise to be set alongside
the other approaches.
4. AGGREGATE METHOD
The fourth is the aggregate method. This method tries to relate educational needs to the whole demand
of society for education rather than to the level of output or to manpower, and is based on norms and
patterns which emerge from an empirical study of the educational situation in countries at different
stages of development. Among them are
(a) The proportion of GNP devoted to education globally and (if possible) by sector;
(b) The proportion of public expenditure devoted to education and its different sectors;
(c) The proportion of over-all investment devoted to education;
(d) The proportion of the population enrolled at the different educational levels;
(e) The above information corrected by estimates of wastage;
(f) The proportions of the school-age and student population enrolled at different levels.
5. COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH
Fifth, there is what we may call the human resources assessment approach which is a comprehensive
one. It was developed by Professor Harbison. It starts from the position that education is one of the
main sources of human resource formation, other sources being measures in the fields of manpower,
employment, training and health. The strategy of human resource development consists of integrating
these factors with general economic and social development planning. It takes into consideration such
factors as the scale of development feasible considering the availability of specialized manpower, the
scale of development needed to absorb the backlog of unemployed and the new entrants to the labor
force, the extent of in-service training in industry, the pattern of investment priorities envisaged in the
plan and the broad economic, social and educational goals of development planning.
Q.5 Explain the nature and characteristics of supervision in detail. Compare the basic objectives of
supervision with administration.
Meaning of Supervision:
In the modern educational system expansion of education relies on increasing number of educational
institutions, teachers and students as well as providing all sort of facilities which are essential for proper
progress of education. It will never be sufficient if we will not yield or achieve our returns or results to
an adequate extent in qualitative perspective. From this description it is quite evident that quality
assurance of education at any level is the prime concern of the modem educational practices. For this
there is the need of quantitative expansion as well as qualitative improvement of education at all levels.
This will be determined by the very concept, supervision.
Now-a-days the concept of supervision has been changed. It is not concerned merely with improvement
of teachers as it was conceived in the previous days, when the supervisory activities were directive and
prescriptive. But now according to some experts, supervision requires a super plus vision a superior
perspective attended by special preparation and position. To them the primary function of supervisors
of all types is leadership, encouragement and recognition of leadership in any other person either in the
professional staff or among the community participants.
Scope of Educational Supervision:

1. Educational process: The scope of modern supervision extends to the entire educative process or the
whole teaching-learning situation. The various elements of this situation in order of their importance
may be categorized as the learners, the teachers, the curriculum and the socio-physical environment.
2. Provision and Management of Teaching-Learning: Educational administration provides and manages
these various elements of the teaching-learning situation and the business of educational supervision is
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to assess continuously their adequacy and to bring about necessary improvement of course, within
reasonable and realistic limits.
3. Educational activities: the scope of educational supervision extends to all the areas of educational activity
with the larger purpose of improving the product of education through the upgrading to the quality of
instruction and other school practices.
Principles of Educational Supervision:

1. Functionally related to Administration: Even though supervision is assigned quite specific tasks within the
area of administration it is considered an integral part of it. Supervision must be primarily a non-managerial
service within the total responsibilities of administration. It is clear that two are closely and functionally
related. Good administration and good supervision both have the some function.
2. Based on Philosophy: This means that the policies, plans, purposes, values and meaning of supervision
should be determined by the philosophy or the way of life of the society whose education is to be
undertaken.
3. Scientific: All activities, plans, procedures and techniques should be based on the scientific attitude and
method. Supervision should emphasis experimentation, observation and inference, objectivity and reliability.
It should utilize the finding of research, standardized tests and statistical analysis.
4. Creative: supervision should promote free expression among all persons participating in the group
discussion for problem-solving. Creativity means offering new suggestions, devising new procedures
inventing and producing new things; and all these are necessary for development and progress.
5. Progressive: this means that supervision should aim at the promotion of pupils’ and teachers’ growth and
through them the improvement of society. Supervision should coordinate, and integrate all available
resources, materials and efforts. It should develop those conditions of satisfaction and security which release
the spirit of creativity and joy of achievement.
Characteristics of Educational Supervision:

1. It is creative and dynamic expert technical service.
2. It provides leadership with extra knowledge and superior skills.
3. It promotes cooperative educational effort in a friendly atmosphere.
4. It gives coordination, direction and guidance to teachers’ activities.
5. It improves instruction and teaching-learning process.
6. It helps achievement of appropriate educational aims and objectives.
Compare the basic objectives of supervision with administration

Both, educational supervision and administration are part of the educational system and they complement
each other. Although it is commonly understood that administration encompasses supervision, they have
different purposes. In order to evaluate the differences between them, it is necessary to clear up what they
are. But first, it is important to understand that schools at any level are organizations.
Organizations are functional structures established to achieve goals. To be able to achieve them, they must
rely on several people who are part of it. Administrators and supervisors are some of them. Through their
activities, duties and tasks they achieve the goals and quality work determines quality results. It is also well
known that organizations have an undeniable impact in human life.
The main differences between educational administration and supervision are related to their scope and
goals. Administrators organize and control the resources, represent and guide the instructional communities.
Supervisors visit, diagnose, evaluate and survey instructional methods, teachers and learners, as well as
overall climate.
Although educational supervision and administration differ in many ways and may vary for different
educational systems, there are some common features and goal they both share. Both of them try to deliver
and improve the education in general with the best conditions.
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8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 1
Q.1 a) Explain the concept of social interaction.
Social interaction is the basis of the whole social order. Social group is the product of social interaction. There
is interaction among animals and birds also. It is the real foundation of all social processes, structure, social
groups and functions. In sociology interaction is the gate of its knowledge.
First you should aware that What is an interaction in sociology?

It is a social process between two or more than two persons. It is always reciprocal in nature. It can be called
a stimulus-response condition among the individuals. It is like a bandied ball against a wall. When two
persons talk with each other or respond to each other on telephone or internet, develop correspondence
through letter, there is an interaction. A mother suckling milk to her child, there is interaction between
mother and her child. A doctor attends a patient, a customer buys a thing from a shopkeeper and a
passenger gets ticket from the booking clerk. It means interaction is social relationship among the individuals.
It. is a sort of action and reaction position among the people.
Definition of Social Interaction

Dawson and Gettyes define Social Interaction as "it is a process by which men interpenetrate the minds of
each other".
According to Merrill, "Social-interaction is the general process whereby two or more persons are in a
meaningful contact, as a result of which their behavior is modified however slightly."
According to Corkiness. "Social interaction is such a process which influences the overt behavior or state of
mind of the individuals."
Social interaction is an event which changes the behavior and attitude of the interacting persons. It is a social
relationship among at least two persons. It changes the societal conditions of life of the people. Interaction is
the soul of social life and relationship. It produces group which is the foundation stone of society.
Elements of Social Interaction
The following are the elements of social interaction:
1. Two or more than two persons
2. Reciprocal relationship among them
3. Influence on the event, behavior, brain of the persons.
These three conditions interrelate the people among themselves and convert them into social groups.
Types of Social Interaction
According to Young and Mack there are two types of social interaction between people and societies.
Direct or Physical Interaction:

it involves physical action among the individuals. Beating, biting, thrashing, pulling, pushing, killing,
scratching, boxing, wrestling, kissing etc. are the examples of direct interaction. Two teams playing match
and a war between the forces of two countries are also examples of this interaction. This Types influences
other by physical action in different ways.
Symbolic Interaction:
There are different types of relationships between people. It involves the use of language and symbols. It
means communication through a common language is symbolic process. This is the most common method of
human societies. Human beings convey their ideas through language and it is completed by reciprocal
response. The methods of communication devised by man are sharp and effective than these of animals. All
cultures develop, expand and change only through language symbolic interaction. Without language no
culture can live. There is no culture in animals due to the fact that there is no common language among
them. Through language man stores its previous experiences and transmits them to the following generation
with a change.
What are the Forms of Social Interaction in a Society

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It is found in various forms among human societies

Between individual and individual:
It is the interaction between at least two persons. The doctor and the patient, the mother and the child, the
customer and the shopkeeper are the various examples in this case.
Between individual and group:
It operates between one person and more. A teacher teaching his class a speaker addressing the audience, an
Imam leading prayers are its common examples.
Between group and group:
This is found between two groups of people like two teams playing match, two forces fighting against each
other, two delegates discussing an issue.
Between individuals and culture:
This form is found when the people listen to radio, see television, read newspaper enjoy pictures and observe
exhibitions. Radio, T.V. cinema, newspapers, books, exhibitions, theatre, drama, circus, fairs and other socio-
cultural activities are included in the Culture of a society. People have social interaction and social
relationship with these media of mass communication and get social change in their life. The people change
these media as they require on the other hand. In this way reciprocal process between the people and the
culture goes on.
2. b) How can a teacher help in promoting social interaction among students?

The following tips are offered in an effort to provide teachers with suggestions on how they might contribute
to the improvement of the social interactions among students with behavioral disorders and their peers:
1. Focus on teaching and modeling social and emotional learning strategies that encourage reflection
and self-awareness. Encourage students to consider how individual actions and words have
consequences. Through various modeling opportunities, assist in developing students’ ability to take
different perspectives and viewpoints. Teach students to think through situations and/or challenges
by rehearsing various outcomes.
2. Teach problem-solving and conflict resolution skills. Many students with behavioral disorders have
deficits in executive functioning skills and require step-by-step instruction in problem-solving
activities. Teachers should take the role of a coach and assist students in a problem-solving process.
Teach students to identify the problem and brainstorm various solutions, and identify the solution he
will use.
3. Create opportunities to practice effective social skills both individually and in groups. Model effective
social skills in the classroom through praise, positive reinforcement, and correction and redirection
of inappropriate behaviors. Provide role-play scenarios that build social skills.
4. Adjust instructional strategies to address social skills deficits. Teachers should provide structure and
organization within the classroom. The arrangement of the physical environment should be effective.
Clearly stated instructional objectives and behavioral expectations should be provided throughout
lessons and social interactions. Providing simulated real-life challenges that students might
encounter at school, home, and in the community is essential to placing social skills in practical
contexts.
5. Tailor social skill interventions to individual student needs. Utilize various data collection strategies
to collect behavioral information (e, g., screeners, observations of student in various settings, parent
information, diagnostic information, student interviews, etc.) and use the results when deciding
which interventions to use. Investigate strategies designed to meet particular social skills deficits and
ensure the intervention is implemented with fidelity (e.g., the frequency, duration, and intensity of
the intervention delivery meets set criteria).
6. Practice Communication Skills. Model and provide opportunities to practice effective communication
skills. Teach students how to listen to others and waiting to talk, taking turns in a conversation,
suggesting an idea, providing praise to others, saying thank-you, and apologizing. Communication
skills can be taught through role play, games, and practice.
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7. Utilize collaborative learning environments. Incorporate collaborative learning activities within the
curriculum to encourage social interaction. Utilizing collaborative groups will allow students to
practice and observe appropriate social interactions with peer.
8. Get parents involved! Obtain parental input regarding the student’s social interactions. Converse and
collaborate with parents to develop a plan that can be used at home and in school.
9. Be Creative!! Utilize various forms of media when teaching social skills. Allow students to read books
about various conflict situations and verbally discuss solutions. Employ €œI Love Lucy€• or other
media clips and instruct students to view and critique the social interactions among the characters.
Verbally discuss the characters’ interactions and discuss better behavior choices.
Q.2 a) Discuss the important of cultural diversity in a society.

b) Highlight the role of cultural diversity in Pakistani society.
Human beings are extremely diverse in very many ways.

People differ in opinions, race, nationality, gender, age, sexuality, ethnicity, class, religion, lifestyle and so
much more, yet at the very basic we are all human species. Ideally, all people feel pain and joy despite the
differences. Today, the changes in time and technology have made it extremely impossible for any group of
people to live without interacting with others outside their group. Often people of different cultural and
geographical backgrounds meet in international conferences, education exchange programs, sports, etc.
Sadly, the history of mankind discriminating against each other based on cultural differences has been with
us for ages. So many people have died or have been denied their rights because of individual greed.
Properties and economies have also been destroyed due to lack of understanding. Unfortunately, some of
these occurrences are visible even today, perpetuated by people who little understand the importance of the
uniqueness of our diversity. Little do they know that:
1. Diversity creates richness in opinion.

Some problems cannot be solved by a homogenous group of people. The complexity of challenges facing the
world today requires the input people from different cultural backgrounds if we are to succeed. A diverse
group will offer fresh ideas to solve problems. Diverse groups have often been found to be creative and thus
producing better solutions to problems.
2. Diversity makes us compassionate about others

When we interact and try to understand others, we will not judge them. This instead makes us
compassionate about others. We are then able to love and help one another. Compassion allows us to
empathize with others and realize that all human beings are the same. Hatred amongst people of cultural
differences only makes us resentful and full of hunger, and often denying us the opportunity to live life to the
fullest.
3. Diversity is a growing trend

Today there is no country in the world that has only natives living there. Each and every day, millions of
people are moving from a part of the world to another. Most people are in such of better opportunities,
education and lifestyle. In the process people of different cultural backgrounds often find themselves going
to the same schools, working in the same office and so much more. As citizens of this world, we are therefore
left with no choice other than to embrace our diversity. Children have to be taught to live and respect people
who are different from them in some way so that the world would be a peaceful place to live.
4. Diversity opens up new market opportunities

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Through diversity, entrepreneurs have been able to reach new markets. Today we have multinationals
setting up offices in different parts of the world of which it would not be possible without embracing
diversity. This further creates employment opportunities for people in those parts of the world.
Highlight the role of cultural diversity in Pakistani society.
Literature:
Pakistani literature originates from when Pakistan gained its nationhood as a sovereign state in 1947. The
common and shared tradition of Urdu literature and English literature of South Asia was inherited by the new
state. Over a period of time, a body of literature unique to Pakistan has emerged in nearly all major Pakistani
languages, including Urdu, English, Punjabi, Pushto, Seraiki, Balochi, and Sindhi.
Poetry:
Poetry is a highly respected art and profession in Pakistan. The pre-eminent form of poetry in Pakistan almost
always originates in Persian, due in part to the long standing affiliation the region had with the Persian
Empire. The enthusiasm for poetry exists at a regional level as well, with nearly all of Pakistan's provincial
languages continuing the legacy. Since the independence of the country in 1947 and establishment of Urdu
as the national language, poetry is written in that language as well. The Urdu language has a rich tradition of
poetry and includes the famous poets Dr Allama Iqbal national poet, Mirza Ghalib, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ahmad
Faraz, Jazib Qureshi and Ahmad Nadeem Qasimi. Apart from Urdu poetry, Pakistani poetry also has blends of
other regional languages. Balochi, Sindhi, Punjabi, Seraiki, and Pashto poetry have all incorporated and
influenced Pakistani poetry. Poetry in the form of marsia Salam and naath is also very popular among many
Pakistanis.
Performing arts:
Music:
Pakistani music is represented by a wide variety of forms. It ranges from traditional styles such as Qawwali
and Ghazal to more modern forms that fuse traditional Pakistani music with Western music. Nusrat Fateh Ali
Khan was internationally renowned for creating a form of music which synchronized Qawwali with western
music. Popular forms of music also prevail, the most notable being film music and Urdu and Punjabi pop
music. There are also the diverse traditions of folk music, as well as modern styles, with rock bands such as
Call being recognized internationally. Music Stars of Pakistan are Noor Jaha, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan.
Recreation and sports:

The official national sport of Pakistan is field hockey with squash and cricket also very popular. The national
cricket team has won the Cricket World Cup once (in 1992), were runners-up once (in 1999), and co-hosted
the games twice (in 1987 and 1996). Additionally, they have also won the ICC World Twenty20 once (in
2009), and were runners-up (in 2007). The team has also won the Australasia Cup in 1986, 1990, and 1994.
Ramadan:
The holiest month of the Islamic Calendar, which is a month of fasting from sunrise to sunset and self
discipline, it is widely observed in Pakistan. Muslim Pakistanis (about 97% of the population) fast, attend
mosques with increased frequency, and recite Quran. Special foods are cooked in greater quantities, parties
are held, and special accommodation is made by workplaces and educational institutes.
Eid celebrations:
The two Eids, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha, commemorate the passing of the month of fasting, Ramadan, and
the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son Ishmael for God. On these days, there are national holidays and
many festivals and events take place to celebrate Eid. As Pakistan is a Muslim state, there are three days off
for all businesses and government offices.
On the night before Eid, people search for the new moon to mark the end of Ramadan and arrival of Eid ul-
Fitr. The day starts with morning prayers, then returning home for a large breakfast with family members.
The day is spent visiting relatives and friends and sharing gifts and sweets with everyone. During the evening
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people hit the town for some partying, going to restaurants or relaxing in city parks.
On Eid ul-Fitr, money is given for charity and as gifts to young children.
On Eid ul-Adha, people may also distribute meat to relatives and neighbors and donate food for charity.
Q.3 a) Describe the information of groups and principles of group dynamics.

b) Evaluate the effect s of school on the formation of students’ behavior.
What is Group Dynamics?

Anyone who has been involved in a task force, an athletic team, a committee or even a book club is familiar
with aspects of Group Dynamics. You probably belong to several formal or informal groups and see the
principles of this scientific focus at work, though you may not recognize the individual components of group
behavior. Scientists have studied groups for a long time, however, and have identified several interesting and
defining characteristics of the way groups form and interact.
Defining Group Dynamics

A definition found on Wikipedia says this: It is a “system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring
within a social group or between social groups.” In other words, it is the study of the behavior of individuals
in groups, how they become members and how they react to others in the group. The study is based in both
psychology and sociology.
What is involved in the Study?

Nineteenth century psychologist Wilhelm Wundt was one of the fathers of the study of groups. He believed
that groups possessed “phenomena” that did not exist in an individual. Some of the traits he identified are
common language, customs and religion.
At the core of the study is the concept that groups cannot be understood by merely studying individual
members. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Other components that develop within a group are “public knowledge” and a group mind. Groups seem to
form when there is a common bond like a goal or a shared identity. Artists, for instance, form guilds and
bridge players form clubs.
The first condition that must exist in a group is the assembly of two or more people. Groups form because of
social cohesion, the attraction between members or because of social identity, for instance as football fans,
members of a labor union or church committees. Once formed, groups identify a leader. In formal groups like
a trial jury this is a defined role. In informal groups one person usually emerges as the stronger personality.
Group members form alliances within the group and the group itself adopts accepted behavior norms. If
there is a positive dynamic, they will accomplish their goals, even if those are simply to play cards.
Sometimes a group mindset emerges that is different from what individual members may think. In the old
west, lynch mobs formed as temporary groups with leaders and accepted normal behavior that deviated
from that outside the group.
Why Study Group Behavior?
Understanding groups can help governments predict how communicable diseases will spread and foresee
and prepare for societal trends. The website MindTools.com identifies practical uses for the study in business
too. Corporations often have teams of managers or others that are assigned to work on significant issues.
Understanding the dynamics of such a group helps businesses identify strong leaders, avoid “negators” who
criticize everyone and “blockers” who dominate discussion and create distractions. Groups that have positive
dynamics function better and are more creative.
Another concept relevant to the study of groups is intradynamics, or how groups relate to one another. This
is especially important in a business application, for instance in the way management and employee groups
interact.
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There are other applications for the study of groups as well. Advertising industries and housing developers
benefit from the understanding of how social groups act, as do governments trying to predict emigration
from a war zone.
The study of Group Dynamics is relevant in every society and wherever groups of people gather.
Evaluate the effect s of school on the formation of students’ behavior.

While you've been the primary teacher in your child's life for the first few years, it's time to broaden his
horizons and let others help him develop into the smart, confident and respectful adult you know he'll
become one day. While the school's first responsibility to its students may be academic, the job doesn't end
there. When you send your youngster off to school, think about all the ways the staff and students influence
your child. According to Irene Shere, Director of the Early Childhood Consultation Center, "The way that
teachers interact with children and the way that teachers encourage interactions between children affect
each child's development in important ways."
Academic Potential
Ideally, the school's role is to bring each student to her individual, maximum academic potential. While its
effectiveness may vary from school to school, it's not enough to teach the ABCs and 123s and call it a day. A
significant amount of schoolwork throughout the grades is dedicated to helping children become expert
problem solvers and solution-seekers, skills that will come in handy in just about every personal and
professional aspect of a child's adult life. Therefore, in addition to an academic skill, problem solving is an
essential life skill. It's "the ability to analyze a situation, propose a solution and, should that solution not
work, be able to re-strategize to try again," according to Shere. The problem-solving mentality encourages
kids to keep trying, even after flunking the latest math test. They will push and persist because that mentality
also dictates that there is a solution; it just hasn't been found yet. and that sounds like a challenge.
Social Skills
He's got straight A's across the board. But without some healthy social skills, your youngster won't make it
through his first job interview, and he'll probably be going stag when prom night rolls around. The school
plays an important role in helping children learn to interact positively with their peers and teachers. They
learn about healthy relationship skills and develop them further through interactions, both in the classroom
and on the playground. According to Shere, "The emotional and social maturity of a child provides the
important underpinnings for child development in all other areas.When educators ignore children's
emotional and social development, this can often lead to adults who are very academically gifted but who
struggle in their daily lives due to lack of self-esteem and/or social skills." Children spend a large portion of
their day at school, and it's vital that a school's curriculum is designed to help its students form solid social
relationships or to "connect with other children and adults in a caring and empathetic manner."
Character Building and Self Concept

Now that he's getting straight A's and he snagged that first job, it's time to focus on his character and his
values. Character building is not an alternative to academic achievement, but rather an essential adjunct of it.
Just as the school provides lessons on reading, writing and arithmetic, from the very beginning it also focuses
on helping kids learn about compassion, respect, empathy and integrity. At first it begins with basic lessons
like "raise your hand to speak" and "keep your hands to yourself." Later, it develops into argumentative
debates about moral and social issues. By the time your child graduates high school, he should have a fairly
firm grasp on his own beliefs, values and how he views himself. If he feels he's an inept communicator, it's
unlikely he'll pursue a career in law or public speaking. It is this understanding of who he is and what he
values that will help determine his academic, professional and personal pursuits.
Q.4 a) Explain the functions of different agencies in socialization.

b) Determine the role and responsibilities of teacher in socialization.
Malik Kashif Masood
In general, it may be said that the total society is the agency for socialization and that each person with
whom one comes into contact and interact is in some way an agent of socialization. Socialization is found in
all interactions but the most influential interaction occurs in particular groups which are referred to as
agencies of socialization.
The oblivious beginning of the process for the new-born child is-his immediate family group, but this is soon
extended to many other groups. Other than the family, the most important are the schools, the peer groups
(friends circle) and the mass media.
The family:
The child’s first world is that of his family. It is a world in itself, in which the child learns to live, to move and
to have his being. Within it, not only the biological tasks of birth, protection and feeding take place, but also
develop those first and intimate associations with persons of different ages and sexes which form the basis of
the child’s personality development.
The family is the primary agency of socialization. It is here that the child develops an initial sense of self and
habit-training—eating, sleeping etc. To a very large extent, the indoctrination of the child, whether in
primitive or modem complex society, occurs within the circle of the primary family group. The child’s first
human relationships are with the immediate members of his family—mother or nurse, siblings, father and
other close relatives.
Here, he experiences love, cooperation, authority, direction and protection. Language (a particular dialect) is
also learnt from family in childhood. People’s perceptions of behavior appropriate of their sex are the result
of socialization and major part of this is learnt in the family.
As the primary agents of childhood socialization, parents play a critical role in guiding children into their
gender roles deemed appropriate in a society. They continue to teach gender role behavior either consciously
or unconsciously, throughout childhood. Families also teach children values they will hold throughout life.
They frequently adopt their parents’ attitudes not only about work but also about the importance of
education, patriotism and religion.
School:
After family the educational institutions take over the charge of socialization. In some societies (simple non-
literate societies), socialization takes place almost entirely within the family but in highly complex societies
children are also socialized by the educational system. Schools not only teach reading, writing and other basic
skills, they also teach students to develop themselves, to discipline themselves, to cooperate with others, to
obey rules and to test their achievements through competition.
Schools teach sets of expectations about the work, profession or occupations they will follow when they
mature. Schools have the formal responsibility of imparting knowledge in those disciplines which are most
central to adult functioning in our society. It has been said that learning at home is on a personal, emotional
level, whereas learning at school is basically intellectual.
Peer group:
Besides the world of family and school fellows, the peer group (the people of their own age and similar social
status) and playmates highly influence the process of socialization. In the peer group, the young child learns
to confirm to the accepted ways of a group and to appreciate the fact that social life is based on rules. Peer
group becomes significant others in the terminology of G.H. Mead for the young child. Peer group
socialization has been increasing day by day these days.
Young people today spend considerable time with one another outside home and family. Young people living
in cities or suburbs and who have access to automobiles spend a great deal of time together away from their
families. Studies show that they create their own unique sub-cultures—the college campus culture, the drug
culture, motorcycle cults, athletic group culture etc. Peer groups serve a valuable function by assisting the
transition to adult responsibilities.
Teenagers imitate their friends in part because the peer group maintains a meaningful system of rewards and
punishments. The group may encourage a young person to follow pursuits that society considers admirable.
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On the other hand, the group may encourage someone to violate the culture’s norms and values by driving
recklessly, shoplifting, stealing automobiles, engaging in acts of vandalism and the like. Some studies of
deviant behavior show that the peer group influence to cultivate behavior patterns is more than the family.
Mass media:
From early forms of print technology to electronic communication (radio, TV, etc.), the media is playing a
central role in shaping the personality of the individuals. Since the last century, technological innovations
such as radio, motion pictures, recorded music and television have become important agents of socialization.
Television, in particular, is a critical force in the socialization of children almost all over the new world.
According to a study conducted in America, the average young person (between the ages of 6 and 18) spends
more time watching the ‘tube’ (15,000 to 16,000 hours) than studying in school. Apart from sleeping,
watching television is the most time-consuming activity of young people.
Relative to other agents of socialization discussed above, such as family, peer group and school, TV has
certain distinctive characteristics. It permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex
forms of learning. Watching TV is a passive experience. Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1970) has
expressed concern about the ‘insidious influence’ of TV in encouraging children to forsake human interaction
for passive viewing.
Workplace:
A fundamental aspect of human socialization involves learning to behave appropriately within an occupation.
Occupational socialization cannot be separated from the socialization experience that occurs during
childhood and adolescence. We are mostly exposed to occupational roles through observing the work of our
parents, of people whom we meet while they are performing their duties, and of people portrayed in the
media.
The state:
Social scientists have increasingly recognized the importance of the state as an agent of socialization because
of its growing impact on the life cycle. The protective functions, which were previously performed by family
members, have steadily been taken over by outside agencies such as hospitals, health clinics and insurance
companies. Thus, the state has become a provider of child care, which gives it a new and direct role in the
socialization of infants and young children.
Not only this, as a citizen, the life of a person is greatly influenced by national interests. For example, labor
unions and political parties serve as intermediaries between the individual and the state. By regulating the
life cycle to some degree, the state shapes the station process by influencing our views of appropriate
behavior at particular ages.
Determine the role and responsibilities of teacher in socialization

Though there are various agents which have great influence upon the social development of child. But still
teacher and school also have effective role to be played in order to develop the balanced personality of a
child.
Social Development of Child and Teacher
The followings are some suggestions which a teacher must keep in mind in relation to the process of social
development of child in educational context.
Teachers and parents should encourage their students and children to mix up with other cultural students
and children in order to learn the social ethics and values of their culture. That will have a better ground for
children to have social awareness, adjustment and will develop positive attitude towards other cultures and
communities.
When dealing with students teachers should be unbiased towards any particular culture and language. That
will influence the students I positive manner or future social development.
Social interaction should be encouraged in the context of school that could be done through organizing
debates, games, and other co-curricular activities.
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In order to develop social development students should be exposed to outdoor social events. Like cultural
and social exhibitions, study tours to some famous cities in order to know the cultural pattern and life style of
the different people
Historical stories should be taught to the students in order to develop some basic social qualities like
sacrifice, loyalty, courage etc.
There should be close cooperation between teachers and parents about the social activities of a child. In this
regard parents- teacher meetings can play effective role.
From time t time important and famous personalities should be incited to school assembly in order to
motivate the students for social service and role.
Teachers should educate the students and inform the students about various social festivals and celebrations
in order to highlight the importance of social events.
Teachers should also be informed about the social events, evils, crimes which are creating social disturbance.
And how to eradicate the social evils.
It is also the responsibility of the teachers to inform the students about all the social developments, with
critical evaluation in order to evaluate the negative and positive impacts of these developments.
It is vital to keep the children busy and excited in what they are involved in. It is just as important for a
teacher to be extremely organized. Children rely on the consistency of schedules. Children will be happier
and feel safe and secure in their school surroundings when their daily schedule is better organized. Being
organized creates a comfortable and social environment. It is the teacher’s responsibility to nourish a child’s
cognitive and physical needs. Children need to run and play as well as learn the ability to sit and work. They
need to know and understand boundaries and respect for others. Children also need time during their
schedule where they have freedom to do whatever they choose to do without being told by a teacher. This is
time allowed where children get to explore and play either by themselves, side by side with other children, or
play by interacting with each other. Teachers must allow children to have this non-direction play time. All of
these tools aid as in building structures for a healthy social life
Q.5 a) Discuss the role of religious groups in influencing social behavior.

b) Explain the importance of economic, political and educational institutions in the society?
In general, religions set out to be idealistic, to achieve common good and encourage their members to be
better people. On the surface, they provide a vehicle for individuals to account for things which otherwise
would be unexplainable and offer a safety valve for the relief of guilt. They also provide a framework that
serves as a code of behaviour. They do this via the mechanisms of commandments and sin. The latter can be
defined as behaviour proscribed by a religion. Many religions notionally encourage believers to consider
those who are less well off than themselves. All these attributes operate at the level of the individual, which
many may argue is the correct level for religious activity. So much for the good news. Now for the bad news,
which unfortunately outweighs the good news be a considerable amount.
As has been discussed above, religions have the societal effect of dividing people into "us" and "them". This
unfortunately has the same characteristics as any other form of discrimination, such as racialism . It becomes
easy to consider "us" as the righteous and "them" as unrighteous. When things go wrong, when there is
friction between communities, the unbelievers become an easy target for blame. It is easy to become self-
righteous and look down upon those we consider to be inferior. These feelings are not of course, stated aims
of religious leaders, but they do gain strength in an environment where there is fear and a lack of
understanding. Wherever there is a dispute between factions of society, whether it be of a racial,
nationalistic or class-based nature, religion is often brought into the equation to recruit support from within a
religious base, whether or not that support is justified. Indeed, religion becomes the embodiment of evil,
quite contrary to its original intent.
At both the societal and individual level, religion also has another considerable consequence. Because it
depends on a belief in the divine, it encourages a belief in divine intervention. It is somehow thought that
prayer to the divinity will change the course of events. In that respect it is a substitute for action and
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decision. Sometimes prayer can be used to gain personal fortitude to resist fear, which can be beneficial on
occasions. However, the use of prayer can also take the form of wishing ill to others, effectively acting as a
curse. It is thought that the divinity will vent anger on those who are judged to be oppressors or
sinners. This is a short step from believing that the cause justifies evil in the name of the divinity. It also
reinforces the attitude that there is no need to understand or be awed by things that are beyond our
comprehension. So, instead of seeing beauty in creation without a deity, only impossible chaos can be
seen. Such an attitude reinforces the belief in a deity. Thus religion has become a self-reinforcing mental
prison.
Religion can also be used as a tool of suppression. It is easy to maintain order and nullify dissent by citing
religious grounds. It is often used to pour scorn on those who do not believe, so that when individuals
question the right to govern, the right to interpret religion or the existence of the deity, indignant
repugnance is generated in those who are in a position to impose censorship. Often this can be achieved by
simple peer group pressure. Religious "ethics" are cited in support of many spurious theories and
taboos. The basis of many of these is that the life force is somehow holy, that life is the sole preserve of the
deity. Such is the arbitrary nature of the arguments that, even within a single sect of a single religion, there
will be theological disagreements about what is ethical and what is unethical. Because secular laws are
believed to be made with religious principles underpinning them, it is easy for the judiciary to fall into the
trap of condemning individuals to cruelty and inhumanity in the belief that it is ethical to do so.
The importance of economic institutions in the society

Economics is the study of how societies, governments, businesses, households, and individuals allocate their
scarce resources. Our discipline has two important features. First, we develop conceptual models of behavior
to predict responses to changes in policy and market conditions. Second, we use rigorous statistical analysis
to investigate these changes.
Economists are well known for advising the president and congress on economic issues, formulating policies
at the Federal Reserve Bank, and analyzing economic conditions for investment banks, brokerage houses, real
estate companies, and other private sector businesses. They also contribute to the development of many
other public policies including health care, welfare, and school reform and efforts to reduce inequality,
pollution and crime.
The study of economics can also provide valuable knowledge for making decisions in everyday life. It offers a
tool with which to approach questions about the desirability of a particular financial investment opportunity,
whether or not to attend college or graduate school, the benefits and costs of alternative careers, and the
likely impacts of public policies including universal health care and a higher minimum wage.
1. Students interested in one or two economics courses
Those planning to work in the health care sector may want to learn health economics, and we have a course
that focuses on that field. Similarly, we have courses on law and economics, economics of education, and
economic history for students in other departments or schools who would like to explore the economics
perspective as a complement to their main field of study. These courses require only one semester of
introductory microeconomics as a prerequisite and are well-suited for non-majors who seek to supplement
their major with related courses of study or simply have interest in these areas.
2. Students interested in minoring in economics
Other students might want to minor in economics. Economics offers a good complement to finance majors
and others in the CBA, as well as LAS students majoring in political science, sociology, mathematics, and other
areas. Premeds and College of Engineering students also often find the minor both interesting and valuable.
3. Prospective majors
Of course economics majors can also take the courses described above as part of their plan of study. Majors
gain a much deeper understanding of economic theory and have the opportunity to apply economics
principles to a number of areas including finance, urban economics, labor economics, and international trade.
We have a mix of mathematically intensive courses for those who enjoy the challenges of formal modeling
and more applied courses that do not require calculus and focus on public policies and business.
Malik Kashif Masood
The importance of political institutions in the society

Political Institutions, in Brief
Political institutions and systems have a direct impact on the business environment and activities of a
country. For example, a political system that is straightforward and evolving when it comes to political
participation of the people and laser-focused on the well-being of its citizens contributes to positive
economic growth in its region.
Every society must have a type of political system so it may allocate resources and ongoing procedures
appropriately. Along the same concept, a political institution sets the rules in which an orderly society obeys
and ultimately decides and administers the laws for those that do not obey appropriately.
Extended Definition
The political system consists of both politics and government and involves the law, economy, culture and
additional social concepts.
The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can be reduced to a few simple core
concepts. Many additional types of political systems are similar in idea or root, but most tend to surround
concepts of:
Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically
through elected representatives.
Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which
has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.
Monarchy: A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a king or a queen. The authority, also
known as a crown, is typically inherited.
Communism: A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy. Often, an
authoritarian party holds power and state controls are imposed.
Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main rules and decisions with absolute
power, disregarding input from others.
The Function of a Political System
1. To maintain integration of society by determining norms.
2. To adapt and change elements of social, economic, religious systems necessary for achieving
collective (political) goals.
3. To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats.
In modern day society in the United States, for example, the main function of the two core political parties
are seen as a way to represent interest groups, represent constituents and to create policies while minimizing
choices.
Overall, the idea is to make legislative processes easier for people to understand and engage with.
The importance of educational institutions in the society
An educational institution is a place where people of different ages gain an education, including preschools,
childcare, primary-elementary schools, secondary-high schools, and universities. They provide a large variety
of learning environments and learning spaces.
Education plays a great role in the life of everyone all through the life. Getting proper education is very
necessary to get success and happy life just like food is necessary for healthy body. It is very important to live
luxurious and better life. It develops personality of the people, provides physical and mental standard and
transforms people’s living status. It promotes the feeling of physical, mental and social well being by
providing better life. Good education is constructive in nature which constructs our future forever. It helps a
person to improve his/her status of mind, body and spirit. It provides us lots of confidence by giving us bulk
of knowledge in many field. It is a single and vital way to the success as well as personal growth.
The more knowledge we get, we grow and develop more in the life. Being well educated never only means to
earn certificates and good salary from the recognized and reputed organisation companies or institutions
however it also means to be a good and social person in the life. It helps us to determine whether something
Malik Kashif Masood
is good or bad for us and other persons related to us. The first purpose of getting good education is being
good citizen and then being successful in personal and professional life. We are incomplete without a good
education because education makes us right thinker and correct decision maker. In such a competitive world,
education has become a necessity for human beings after food, clothe and shelter. It is able to provide
solutions to all problems; it promotes good habits and awareness about corruption, terrorism, and other
social issues among us.
Education is the most important tool offers inner and outer strength to a person. Education is the
fundamental rights of everyone and capable of bringing any desired change and upliftment in the human
mind and society.
Course: Teacher Education in Pakistan (8602)
Semester: Autumn, 2017
Level: B. Ed
Assignment No.2
Q 1: State different methods to enhance the reliability of the measurement tool also explain each
type by providing examples.
Answer:
Reliability is a measure of the consistency of a metric or a method. Every metric or method we use,
including things like methods for uncovering usability problems in an interface and expert judgment, must
be assessed for reliability. In fact, before you can establish validity, you need to establish reliability. Here
are the four most common ways of measuring reliability for any empirical method or metric:
 inter-rater reliability
 test-retest reliability
 parallel forms reliability
 internal consistency reliability
Because reliability comes from a history in educational measurement (think standardized tests), many of
the terms we use to assess reliability come from the testing lexicon. But don’t let bad memories of testing
allow you to dismiss their relevance to measuring the customer experience. These four methods are the
most common ways of measuring reliability for any empirical method or metric.
Inter-Rater Reliability
The extent to which raters or observers respond the same way to a given phenomenon is one measure of
reliability. Where there’s judgment there’s disagreement. Even highly trained experts disagree among
themselves when observing the same phenomenon. Kappa and the correlation coefficient are two
common measures of inter-rater reliability. Some examples include:
 Evaluators identifying interface problems
 Experts rating the severity of a problem
For example, we found that the average inter-rater reliability[pdf] of usability experts rating the severity of
usability problems was r = .52. You can also measure intra-rater reliability, whereby you correlate multiple
scores from one observer. In that same study, we found that the average intra-rater reliability when
judging problem severity was r = .58 (which is generally low reliability).
Test-Retest Reliability
Do customers provide the same set of responses when nothing about their experience or their attitudes
has changed? You don’t want your measurement system to fluctuate when all other things are static. Have
a set of participants answer a set of questions (or perform a set of tasks). Later (by at least a few days,
typically), have them answer the same questions again. When you correlate the two sets of measures, look
for very high correlations (r > 0.7) to establish retest reliability. As you can see, there’s some effort and
planning involved: you need for participants to agree to answer the same questions twice. Few
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questionnaires measure test-retest reliability (mostly because of the logistics), but with the proliferation of
online research, we should encourage more of this type of measure.
Parallel Forms Reliability
Getting the same or very similar results from slight variations on the question or evaluation method also
establishes reliability. One way to achieve this is to have, say, 20 items that measure one construct
(satisfaction, loyalty, usability) and to administer 10 of the items to one group and the other 10 to another
group, and then correlate the results. You’re looking for high correlations and no systematic difference in
scores between the groups.
Internal Consistency Reliability
This is by far the most commonly used measure of reliability in applied settings. It’s popular because it’s
the easiest to compute using software—it requires only one sample of data to estimate the internal
consistency reliability. This measure of reliability is described most often using Cronbach’s alpha
(sometimes called coefficient alpha).
It measures how consistently participants respond to one set of items. You can think of it as a sort of
average of the correlations between items. Cronbach’s alpha ranges from 0.0 to 1.0 (a negative alpha
means you probably need to reverse some items). Since the late 1960s, the minimally acceptable measure
of reliability has been 0.70; in practice, though, for high-stakes questionnaires, aim for greater than 0.90.
For example, the SUS has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92.
The more items you have, the more internally reliable the instrument, so to increase internal consistency
reliability, you would add items to your questionnaire. Since there’s often a strong need to have few items,
however, internal reliability usually suffers. When you have only a few items, and therefore usually lower
internal reliability, having a larger sample size helps offset the loss in reliability.
In Summary
Here are a few things to keep in mind about measuring reliability:
 Reliability is the consistency of a measure or method over time.
 Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for establishing a method or metric as valid.
 There isn’t a single measure of reliability, instead there are four common measures of consistent
responses.
 You’ll want to use as many measures of reliability as you can (although in most cases one is
sufficient to understand the reliability of your measurement system).
 Even if you can’t collect reliability data, be aware of the ways in which low reliability may affect the
validity of your measures, and ultimately the veracity of your decisions
{===============}
Q 2: Explain the effects of content and face validities on performance of the examines. Also
highlight the factors affecting the validity of the measurement tool provide example to
support the answer.
Answer:
Conventional views of validity (Cronbach, 1971)
 Face validity: Face validity simply means that the validity is taken at face value. As a check on face
validity, test/survey items are sent to teachers or other subject matter experts to obtain suggestions
for modification. Because of its vagueness and subjectivity, psychometricians have abandoned this
concept for a long time. However, outside the measurement arena, face validity has come back in
another form. While discussing the validity of a theory, Lacity and Jansen (1994) defines validity as
making common sense, and being persuasive and seeming right to the reader. For Polkinghorne
(1988), validity of a theory refers to results that have the appearance of truth or reality.
The internal structure of things may not concur with the appearance. Many times professional
knowledge is counter-common sense. The criteria of validity in research should go beyond "face,"
"appearance," and "common sense."
 Content validity: In the context of content validity,
we draw an inference from the test scores to a larger
domain of items similar to those on the test. Thus,
content validity is concerned with sample-
population representativeness. i.e. the
knowledge and skills covered by the test items should
be representative to the larger domain of
knowledge and skills.
For example, computer literacy includes skills in
operating system, word processing, spreadsheet, database,
graphics, internet, and many others. However, it is difficult,
if not impossible, to administer a test covering all aspects
of computing. Therefore, only several tasks are sampled
from the universe of computer skills.
Content validity is usually established by content experts. Take computer literacy as an example again. A
test of computer literacy should be written or reviewed by computer science professors because it is
assumed that computer scientists should know what are important in his own discipline. At first glance,
this approach looks similar to the validation process of face validity, but yet there is a subtle difference. In
content validity, evidence is obtained by looking for agreement in judgments by judges. In short, face
validity can be established by one person but content validity should be checked by a panel, and thus
usually it goes hand in hand with inter-rater reliability.
However, this approach has some drawbacks. Usually experts tend to take their knowledge for granted
and forget how little other people know. It is not uncommon that some tests written by content experts
are extremely difficult.
Second, very often content experts fail to identify the learning objectives of a subject. Take the following
question in a philosophy test as an example:
What is the time period of the philosopher Epicurus?
a. 341-270 BC
b. 331-232 BC
c. 280-207 BC
d. None of the above
This type of question tests the ability of memorizing historical facts, but not philosophizing or any form of
logical reasoning. The content expert may argue that "historical facts" are important for a student to
further understand philosophy. Let's change the subject to computer science and statistics. Look at the
following two questions:
When was the founder and CEO of Microsoft, William Gates III born?
a. 1949
b. 1953
c. 1957

Which of the following statement is true about ANOVA
a. It was invented by R. A. Fisher in 1914
b. It was invented by R. A. Fisher in 1920
c. It was invented by Karl Pearson in 1920

It would be hard pressed for any computer scientist or statistician to accept that the above questions fulfill
content validity. As a matter of fact, the memorization approach is still a common practice among
instructors.
Further, sampling knowledge from a larger domain of knowledge involves subjective values. For example,
a test regarding art history may include many questions on oil paintings, but less questions on watercolor
paintings and photography because of the perceived importance of oil paintings in art history.
Content validity is sample-oriented rather than sign-oriented. A behavior is viewed as a sample when it
is a subgroup of the same kind of behaviors. On the other hand, a behavior is considered a sign when it is
an indictor or a proxy of a construct (Goodenough, 1949). Construct validity and criterion validity, which
will be discussed later, are sign-oriented because both of them indicate behaviors that are different from
those of the test.
{===============}
Q 3: Write down learning outcomes for any unit of English for 9th class and develop an easy type
test item with rubric, 5 multiple choice questions and 5 short questions for the written
learning outcomes.
Answer:
Humans are linguistic animals. Language is the most fundamental and pervasive tool we have for
interpreting our world and communicating with others as we act in and attempt to transform that world.
Whether they pursue an emphasis in literature or writing, English majors gain a deeper understanding of
the resources of the written word. Both literature and writing courses help students explore how writers
use the creative resources of language-in fiction, poetry, nonfiction prose, and drama-to explore the entire
range of human experience. English courses help students build skills of analytical and interpretive
argument; become careful and critical readers; practice writing-in a variety of genres-as a process of
intellectual inquiry and creative expression; and ultimately to become more effective thinkers and
communicators who are well-equipped for a variety of careers in our information-intensive society.
Specific learning outcomes for English courses include the following:
1. Reading: Students will become accomplished, active readers who appreciate ambiguity and complexity,
and who can articulate their own interpretations with an awareness and curiosity for other perspectives.
2. Writing skills and process: Students will be able to write effectively for a variety of professional and
social settings. They will practice writing as a process of motivated inquiry, engaging other writers’ ideas
as they explore and develop their own. They will demonstrate an ability to revise for content and edit for
grammatical and stylistic clarity. And they will develop an awareness of and confidence in their own voice
as a writer.
3. Sense of Genre: Students will develop an appreciation of how the formal elements of language and
genre shape meaning. They will recognize how writers can transgress or subvert generic expectations, as
well as fulfill them. And they will develop a facility at writing in appropriate genres for a variety of
purposes and audiences.
4. Culture and History: Students will gain a knowledge of the major traditions of literatures written in
English, and an appreciation for the diversity of literary and social voices within–and sometimes
marginalized by–those traditions. They will develop an ability to read texts in relation to their historical
and cultural contexts, in order to gain a richer understanding of both text and context, and to become
more aware of themselves as situated historically and culturally.
5. Critical Approaches: Students will develop the ability to read works of literary, rhetorical, and cultural
criticism, and deploy ideas from these texts in their own reading and writing. They will express their own
ideas as informed opinions that are in dialogue with a larger community of interpreters, and understand
how their own approach compares to the variety of critical and theoretical approaches.
6. Research Skills: Students will be able to identify topics and formulate questions for productive inquiry;
they will identify appropriate methods and sources for research and evaluate critically the sources they
find; and they will use their chosen sources effectively in their own writing, citing all sources appropriately.
7. Oral communication skills: Students will demonstrate the skills needed to participate in a conversation
that builds knowledge collaboratively: listening carefully and respectfully to others’ viewpoints; articulating
their own ideas and questions clearly; and situating their own ideas in relation to other voices and ideas.
Students will be able to prepare, organize, and deliver an engaging oral presentation.
8. Valuing literature, language, and imagination: Students will develop a passion for literature and
language. They will appreciate literature’s ability to elicit feeling, cultivate the imagination, and call us to
account as humans. They will cultivate their capacity to judge the aesthetic and ethical value of literary
texts–and be able to articulate the standards behind their judgments. They will appreciate the expressive
use of language as a fundamental and sustaining human activity, preparing for a life of learning as readers
and writers.
{===============}
Q 4: Describe the measures of variation also elaborate how these measures can be utilized in the
interpretation of the test results, provide example where necessary.
Answer:
I was going to write this about intelligence and intelligence quotients, but that got really complicated
really fast. So, let's talk about obesity instead, because you're more likely to hear about the rising rates of
obesity rather than the rising IQs. (Unless you go on to do psychological assessments. Then I would
recommend you look up the Flynn Effect and the Idiocracy Theory.) But this lesson is about weight and
understanding the descriptions of it.
Weight, like so many other things, is not static or unchanging. Not everyone who is 6 feet tall is 200
pounds - there is some variability. When reporting these numbers or reviewing them for a project, a
researcher needs to understand how much difference there is in the scores. This is where we will look
at measures of variability, which are statistical procedures to describe how spread out the data is. They
are:
 Range: defined as a single number representing the spread of the data
 Standard deviation: defined as a number representing how far from the average each score is
 Variance: defined as a number indicating how spread out the data is
When trying to understand how spread out the data is, we, as researchers, need to differentiate and know
the difference between population and sample. A population is defined as the complete collection to be
studied, like all the police officers in your city. A sample is defined as a section of the population and
would be a selection of police officers you are studying. This can be anywhere from 1% to 99% of them.
When researchers do psychological experiments, they often must work with samples, because to find
everyone in the population is nearly impossible. If you want a population data set, such as the world's
weight, for example, that would be about seven billion data points. If you wanted the population data set
of everyone in California, then that means you need about 33 million data points. In my own town, this is
about 100,000 people. The trick is trying to make your sample data look like the population, which means
you need to find measures on how variable your data is compared to the estimated population.
Measures of variation Quantities that express the amount of variation in a random
variable (compare measures of location). Variation is sometimes described as spread or dispersion to
distinguish it from systematic trends or differences. Measures of variation are either properties of
a probability distribution or sample estimates of them.
The range of a sample is the difference between the largest and smallest value. The interquartile range is
potentially more useful. If the sample is ranked in ascending order of magnitude two values of x may be
found, the first of which is exceeded by 75% of the sample, the second by 25%; their difference is the
interquartile range. An analogous definition applies to a probability distribution.
The variance is the expectation (or mean) of the square of the difference between a random variable and
its mean; it is of fundamental importance in statistical analysis. The variance of a continuous distribution
with mean μ is and is denoted by σ2. The variance of a discrete distribution is and is also denoted by σ2.
The sample variance of a sample of n observations with mean x̄ is and is denoted by s2. The value (n – 1)
corrects for bias.
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance, denoted by σ (for a distribution) or s (for a
sample). The standard deviation has the same units of measurement as the mean, and for a normal
distribution about 5% of the distribution lies beyond about two standard deviations each side of the
mean. The standard deviation of the distribution of an estimated quantity is termed the standard error.
The mean deviation is the mean of the absolute deviations of the random variable from the mean.
{===============}
Q 5: Write notes on the following:
a) Trades in assessment
Answer:
Educational assessment is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on the
knowledge, skill, attitudes, and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning. Assessment data
can be obtained from directly examining student work to assess the achievement of learning outcomes or
can be based on data from which one can make inferences about learning.[2] Assessment is often used
interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the
learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), a course, an academic
program, the institution, or the educational system as a whole (also known as granularity). The word
'assessment' came into use in an educational context after the Second World War.
As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning outcomes for
learning, provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes,
implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well
student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in
student learning.
The final purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the
practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of
knowledge, and the process of learning.
{===============}
b) Use of computer in testing
Answer:
Technology can be used for assessment purposes at various levels ranging from the management of the
assessment information to a fully automated assessment system. Using technology for the management
of assessment information can enable information to be presented in different ways to meet the needs of
different audiences (such as teachers, students, course organisers and external examiners). Not only the
quality of presentation of reports but more importantly the range and scope of their content can be
improved by utilising technology for this purpose. At the other extreme, in a fully automated assessment
system all aspects of the system from the assessment which the student completes to the processing and
administration of the marks, including the overall management of assessment information, is technology-
based.
Assessment strategy should be considered during Course Design, here it is useful to ask ourselves:
 What kind of things do we want our students to learn?
 What opportunities will be provided?
 What assessment tasks will be set?
 What methods of assessment will be used?
Analysing the types of learning which we require to take place has significant implications for the
instructional design, assessment strategies and methods. Since assessment involves measuring it gives rise
to problems in: Choosing a valid assessment instrument; Finding a suitable unit of measurement; Ensuring
the test is measuring what it is supposed to measure; Scorer reliability, especially if more than one marker
is involved; Using valid statistical methods and drawing valid inferences from measures.
Why change current practice?
 Drive to find effective new and improved assessment methods.
 Focus on Quality Assurance.
 The changing aims of HE (mix of academic, vocational and general transferable skills).
 Emphasising deep learning rather than shallow.
 Interest in using new teaching methods.
 Need for greater cost effectiveness.
 To save staff time.
Advantages in the use of IT for Assessment
 More frequent formative and summative assessment.
 Staff can be alerted sooner to adapt their teaching.
 Can spend less time marking.
 Self-assessment; in the student's own time, at their own pace, when they are ready.
 Increased student confidence.
 Students like rapid results.
{===============}
c) Use of e-portfolio
Answer:
An electronic portfolio (also known as an eportfolio, e-portfolio, digital portfolio, or online portfolio) is a
collection of electronic evidence assembled and managed by a user, usually on the Web. Such electronic
evidence may include input text, electronic files, images, multimedia, blog entries, and hyperlinks. E-
portfolios are both demonstrations of the user's abilities and platforms for self-expression. If they are
online, users can maintain them dynamically over time.
One can regard an e-portfolio as a type of learning record that provides actual evidence of achievement.
Learning records are closely related to the learning plan, an emerging tool which individuals, teams,
communities of interest, and organizations use to manage learning.[citation needed] To the extent that a
personal learning environment captures and displays a learning record, it may also operate as an
electronic portfolio.
E-portfolios, like traditional portfolios, can facilitate students' reflection on their own learning, leading to
more awareness of learning strategies and needs. Comparative research by M. van Wesel and A. Prop
between paper-based portfolios and electronic portfolios in the same setting tentatively suggests that use
of an electronic portfolio may lead to better learning outcomes.
{===============}
Course: Research Methods in Education (8604)
Level: B.Ed 1.5 Years
Semester: Autumn, 2017
ASSIGNMENT No. 2
Q.1. What is mean by research tools? Compare questionnaire and interview as

research tool.
Answer:
Constructing a research tool is the first practical step in carrying out research process. You will
need to decide how you will collect the data then you construct a research instrument for this.
If you are planning to collect data specifically for your research then you have to develop a
research instrument or select an already developed one. If you are using a secondary data
(information already collected for other purposes), develop a form to extract required data.
Field testing a research tool is an important part. But as a rule, field testing should not be
carried out on the sample of your study but on a similar population.
1. These are research materials that are necessary to perform research.
2. All inventions, discoveries and knowledge can become research tools.
3. Universities and public research institutions have many resources that can be
considered research tools.
4. In the pharmaceutical industry and in other industries, the ability to efficiently and
quickly obtain essential materials and resources is a major key to R&D success.
As it is indicated in the title, research methodology outlines the researcher's strategy, the
research method, the research approach, the methods of data collection, the selection of the
sample, the research process, the type of data analysis, the ethical considerations and the
research limitations.
Compare questionnaire and interview as research tool:
Once the research problem is defined and research design is laid out, the task of data
collection begins. There are two types of data, i.e. primary data and secondary data. The data
collection methods of these two types of data differ, because, in the case of primary data, the
collection of data must be original, while in secondary data, data collection is much like a
compilation. The different methods of collecting primary data, like observation, interview,
questionnaire, schedule and so on. Many think that questionnaire and interview are one and
the same thing, but there are a lot of differences between these two.
Definition of Questionnaire
Questionnaire refers to a research instrument, in which a series of question, is typed or

printed along with the choice of answers, expected to be marked by the respondents, used
for survey or statistical study. It consists of aformalisedd set of questions, in a definite order
on a form, which are mailed to the respondents or manually delivered to them for answers.
The respondents are supposed to read, comprehend and give their responses, in the space
provided. A ‘Pilot Study’ is advised to be conducted to test the questionnaire before using
this method. A pilot survey is nothing but a preliminary study or say rehearsal to know the
time, cost, efforts, reliability and so forth involved in it.
Definition of Interview
The interview is a data collection method wherein a direct, in-depth conversation between
interviewer and respondent takes place. It is carried out with a purpose like a survey, research,
and the like, where both the two parties participate in the one to one interaction. Under this
method, oral-verbal stimuli are presented and replied by way of oral-verbal responses. It is
considered as one of the best methods for collecting data because it allows two way
exchange of information, the interviewer gets to know about the respondent, and the
respondent learns about the interviewer. There are two types of interview:
 Personal Interview: A type of interview, wherein there is a face to face question-

answer session between the interviewer and interviewee, is conducted.
 Telephonic Interview: This method involves contacting the interviewee and asking
questions to them on the telephone itself.
Key Differences Between Questionnaire and Interview
The difference between questionnaire and interview can be drawn clearly on the following
grounds:
1. A form consisting of a series of written or printed multiple choice questions, to be marked

by the informants, is called questionnaire. A formal conversation between the interviewer
and respondent wherein the two participates in the question-answer session is called
interview
2. The questionnaire method of collecting data involves emailing questionnaire to

respondents in a written format. On the contrary, interview method is one wherein the
interviewer communicates to the respondent orally.
3. The questionnaire is objective while the nature of the interview is subjective.
4. In an interview, open-ended questions are asked by the interviewer to the respondent. As

against this, closed-ended questions are asked through a questionnaire.
5. The questionnaire provides fact-based information to the respondents. Conversely,

analytical information can be gathered through interviews.
6. As question are written in a proper manner in a questionnaire, the order cannot be

changed. Unlike interview, wherein the order of questions can be changed as per needs
and preferences.
7. The collection of data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical, as money
is spent only on the preparation and mailing of the questionnaire to the respondent. In
contrast, an interview is a little expensive method, because, to provide data either the
respondents have to come to the interviewer or the interviewer has to visit the
respondents individually.
8. Questionnaire method is more time consuming than an interview, as in an interview, the

responses are spontaneous, while the informant takes his own time to reply, in the case of
the questionnaire.
9. In questionnaire method, a single questionnaire is mailed to many respondents. However,
only one person at a time can be interviewed in a case interview.
10. The probability of non-responses is very high in case of the questionnaire, as many people
avoid answering it and so they return the questionnaire with providing their responses. On
the other hand, the chances of non-responses are almost nil in case of an interview,
because of direct interaction between interviewer and respondent.
11. In the questionnaire, it is not known, as to who replies it, which is not in the case of an
interview.
Conclusion
So, whatever method you use for your research project, to collect information, it must fulfil
your requirements. As both the methods have their pros and cons, it cannot be said which
method is best, i.e. while questionnaire method takes more time, interview method requires
high investment. So, you can choose any of the two, considering your needs and expectations
from the data collected.
{====================}
Q.2. What is test? and what are different types of test used in educational research?
Answer:
A test or examination (informally, exam or evaluation) is an assessment intended to measure a

test-taker's knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many other topics
(e.g., beliefs). A test may be administered verbally, on paper, on a computer, or in a confined
area that requires a test taker to physically perform a set of skills. Tests vary in style, rigor and
requirements. For example, in a closed book test, a test taker is often required to rely upon
memory to respond to specific items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one
or more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator when responding to an
item. A test may be administered formally or informally. An example of an informal test would
be a reading test administered by a parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be a
final examination administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a
psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test score. A test score
may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion, or occasionally both. The norm may
be established independently, or by statistical analysis of a large number of participants. An
exam is meant to test a child's knowledge or willingness to give time to manipulate that
subject.
A standardized test is any test that is administered and scored in a consistent manner to
ensure legal defensibility. Standardized tests are often used in education, professional
certification, psychology (e.g., MMPI), the military, and many other fields.
A non-standardized test is usually flexible in scope and format, variable in difficulty and
significance. Since these tests are usually developed by individual instructors, the format and
difficulty of these tests may not be widely adopted or used by other instructors or institutions.
A non-standardized test may be used to determine the proficiency level of students, to
motivate students to study, and to provide feedback to students. In some instances, a teacher
may develop non-standardized tests that resemble standardized tests in scope, format, and
difficulty for the purpose of preparing their students for an upcoming standardized test.
Finally, the frequency and setting by which a non-standardized tests are administered are
highly variable and are usually constrained by the duration of the class period. A class
instructor may for example, administer a test on a weekly basis or just twice a semester.
Depending on the policy of the instructor or institution, the duration of each test itself may
last for only five minutes to an entire class period.
In contrasts to non-standardized tests, standardized tests are widely used, fixed in terms of
scope, difficulty and format, and are usually significant in consequences. Standardized tests
are usually held on fixed dates as determined by the test developer, educational institution, or
governing body, which may or may not be administered by the instructor, held within the
classroom, or constrained by the classroom period. Although there is little variability between
different copies of the same type of standardized test (e.g., SAT or GRE), there is variability
between different types of standardized tests. Any test with important consequences for the
individual test taker is referred to as a high-stakes test.
Different Types of Testing
There are four types of testing in schools today — diagnostic, formative, benchmark, and
summative. What purpose does each serve? How should parents use them and interpret the
feedback from them?
1. Diagnostic Testing
This testing is used to “diagnose” what a student knows and does not know. Diagnostic
testing typically happens at the start of a new phase of education, like when students will start
learning a new unit. The test covers topics students will be taught in the upcoming lessons.
Teachers use diagnostic testing information to guide what and how they teach. For example,
they will plan to spend more time on the skills that students struggled with most on the
diagnostic test. If students did particularly well on a given section, on the other hand, they
may cover that content more quickly in class. Students are not expected to have mastered all
the information in a diagnostic test.
Diagnostic testing can be a helpful tool for parents. The feedback my kids receive on these
tests lets me know what kind of content they will be focusing on in class and lets me
anticipate which skills or areas they may have trouble with.
2. Formative Testing
This type of testing is used to gauge student learning during the lesson. It is used throughout
a lecture and designed to give students the opportunity to demonstrate that they have
understood the material, like in the example of the clock activity mentioned above. This
informal, low-stakes testing happens in an ongoing manner, and student performance on
formative testing tends to get better as a lesson progresses.
Schools normally do not send home reports on formative testing, but it is an important part
of teaching and learning. If you help your children with their homework, you are likely using a
version of formative testing as you work together. For example, while watching my son, Luke,
measure objects using inches and centimeters this week, I was able to see when he chose the
wrong unit or when he did not start the measurement at the zero point on the tape measure.
That was a form of formative testing. I find it helpful as a parent because it lets me correct any
mistakes before they become habits for my sons.
3. Benchmark Testing
This testing is used to check whether students have mastered a unit of content. Benchmark
testing is given during or after a classroom focuses on a section of material, and covers either
a part or all of the content has been taught up to that time. The assessments are designed to
let teachers know whether students have understood the material that’s been covered.
Unlike diagnostic testing, students are expected to have mastered material on benchmark
tests, since they covers what the children have been focusing on in the classroom. Parents will
often receive feedback about how their children have grasped each skill assessed on a
benchmark test. This feedback is very important to me as a parent, since it gives me insight
into exactly which concepts my boys did not master. Results are broken down by skills, so if I
want to further review a topic with my boys, I can find corresponding lessons, videos, or
games online, or ask their teachers for resources.
4. Summative Testing
This testing is used as a checkpoint at the end of the year or course to assess how much
content students learned overall. This type of testing is similar to benchmark testing, but
instead of only covering one unit, it cumulatively covers everything students have been
spending time on throughout the year.
These tests are given — using the same process — to all students in a classroom, school, or
state, so that everyone has an equal opportunity to demonstrate what they know and what
they can do. Students are expected to demonstrate their ability to perform at a level
prescribed as the proficiency standard for the test.
{====================}
Q.3. Define population and sampling? Explain different types of random sampling.
Answer:
Population sampling is the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the
entire population. The sample must have sufficient size to warrant statistical analysis.
Sampling is done usually because it is impossible to test every single individual in the
population. It is also done to save time, money and effort while conducting the research. Still,
every researcher must keep in mind that the ideal scenario is to test all the individuals to
obtain reliable, valid and accurate results. If testing all the individuals is impossible, that is the
only time we rely on sampling techniques. Performing population sampling must be
conducted correctly since errors can lead to inaccurate and misleading data.
Types of Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
In this type of population sampling, members of the population do not have equal chance of
being selected. Due to this, it is not safe to assume that the sample fully represents the target
population. It is also possible that the researcher deliberately chose the individuals that will
participate in the study. Non-probability population sampling method is useful for pilot
studies, case studies, qualitative research, and for hypothesis development. This sampling
method is usually employed in studies that are not interested in the parameters of the entire
population. Some researchers prefer this sampling technique because it is cheap, quick and
easy.
Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, every individual in the population have equal chance of being
selected as a subject for the research. This method guarantees that the selection process is
completely randomized and without bias. The most basic example of probability sampling is
listing all the names of the individuals in the population in separate pieces of paper, and then
drawing a number of papers one by one from the complete collection of names.
The advantage of using probability sampling is the accuracy of the statistical methods after
the experiment. It can also be used to estimate the population parameters since it is
representative of the entire population. It is also a reliable method to eliminate sampling bias.
TYPES OF RANDOM SAMPLING
1. Simple Random Sampling
"A simple random sample is a sample in which every member of the population has an equal
chance of being chosen."
2. Systematic Sampling
"In systematic sampling, every kth member of the population is chosen for the sample, with
value of k being approximately N/n." (N: # in population; n: # of samples)
3. Cluster Sampling
"A cluster sample is a simple random sample of groups, or clusters, of a population. Each
member of the chosen clusters would be part of the final sample."
4. Stratified Sampling
"A stratified sample is obtained by dividing the population into mutually exclusive groups, or
strata, and randomly sampling from each of these groups."
{====================}
Q.4. Suppose you have to conduct research on topic i.e. Problems of headmistresses
in higher secondary school in Lahore Division? Develop a research proposal on
this topic.
Answer:
ABSTRACT
A school is a social institution and is responsible for the growth. It is the development and
progress of future citizen. It is a basic and fundamental principle that no institution can work
smoothly and properly without good and efficient leadership. The study has been designed to
investigate the make a survey of difficulties faced by the heads of Secondary Schools in
Rawalpindi district with an objective to explore the factors leading to various difficulties. The
population of the study was all the Secondary Schools in Rawalpindi district. The sample of
the study was 32 secondary schools, out of 16 Rural and 16 Urban. Further more out of 16
rural 8 schools were Boys and 8 Girls school. A questionnaire was developed for the heads of
Secondary Schools for collection of data. The questionnaires were personally given to the
heads of Secondary School. The percentages of respondents were good for the purpose of
the study. The major conclusions of the study were the higher authorities did not co-operate
with the heads in solving various problems of the schools. There was shortage of teaching
staff and menial staff. Majority of the heads of secondary schools did not give proper
guidance and counseling services. The major recommendations of the study is given for
solving the problems the heads immediate attention should be given to solve the serious
problems faced by the heads of secondary schools. As the funds are not sufficient to provide
adequate facilities for the students hence it is recommended that funds should be raised from
public
INTRODUCTION
Education is a process through which a nation develops its self-consciousness by sensitizing

individuals who compose it. It is not mere public instruction; it is a social institution, which
provides mental, physical, ideological, and moral training to the individuals of the nation.
Education as a process is necessary for the creation of a sound mind in sound body. Dewey
defines education in these words education is a process of living through a continuous
reconstruction of experiences. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual;
which will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities (Hamid and Khalid,
1965).
Secondary education is an important sub-sector of the entire education system. On the one
hand it provides middle level work for the economy and on the other it acts as a feeder for
the higher levels of education. The quality of higher education, which is expected to produce
high quality professionals in different fields of social economic and political life of the
country, hinges on the quality of secondary education. This level of education therefore needs
to be organized in such a way that it prepares young men and women for the pursuit of
higher education as well as prepares them to adjust to their practical lives meaningfully and
productively. (Govt. of Pak, 1959).
A school is a social institution and is responsible for the growth, development and progress of
future citizen. It is a basic and fundamental principle that no institution can work smoothly
and properly without good and efficient leadership. (Mohiyuddin. 1956).
The headmasters do not take the position necessary for effective management and they are
always in trouble by interference from outside. At the same time headmaster must be given
effective contact over the position and responsibility similar to the authority of headmaster
elsewhere in the world. He must be the type of persons who can handle his staff and public, a
man whose ideas carry weight and whose character is an example for his students (Govt. of
Pak, 1959).
"The schools actually have to function as an integral aspect of each community. Cooperation
and coordination with other agencies of government in many communities this coordination
has been maintained on a voluntary base. Its operation is a democracy is very desirable".
"Leadership always requires cooperation and coordination but not dictatorship". A leader is
one who seems the willing cooperation of his followers. Hence a headmaster, who merely
gives orders and expects them to be obeyed is not a good leader, He is only dictator. He
seems obedience because he has the power. But such a man is hardly loved or respected. The
leader of a school can be successful only when secures willingly cooperation from his co-
workers and make them to realize that the problems of school are theirs and not his own.
(Morphet, 1960).
The headmaster occupies a unique position in the school system, which is seeking to assume
the teacher a greater part in the management of education. He is the center of the inter-
relationship (Spears, 1950).
Therefore, it is the first and foremost duty of the Headmasters of secondary Schools to
cooperate with the public and community in order to improve the development and growth
of the school activities. The headmasters are not provided residential facilities in this
connection also. The researcher was interested to know as to what kind of difficulties were
being faced by the heads, their respective schools and what kind of remedies could be
suggested to make them efficient and lesser their tension about the work load.
There are many difficulties and problems, which are being confronted by the high school
head master/head mistress in order to achieve the desired objectives and goals of education.
Schools have become big business in more ways than in size above increasing urbanization
rendered the task of community relations incredibly more complex. New trend in instruction
takes place-challenging burden upon the leaders. Teachers are becoming more articulate
often less patient with authoritarian administration. The curriculum plans and student
activities have come of age too and these activities perplexing the problems of scheduling
and financing of appraisal. (Spain, 1956)
Training for competence does not involve training a person's mental faculties so that they will
be available to serve him in every appropriate situation which arrive- not entirely a matter of
person the correct habits competence then is patterned behaviour- a pattern of general
action which tends by and large, to repeat itself as similar situation arises (Graff and Calvin.
1957). Good Administrator as one whom does not plan for others but plans with others. It
means that a good administrator takes his faculty into confidence. Since he knows human
nature, he knows the art of human relations (Shamim, 1964). A perfect system of human
relationship cannot be achieved over night. No administrative techniques are so good to
eliminate all stress and frictions. The administrator seeking advice of the staff and community
and making decisions on group based thinking and discussion has the best chance of making
the vision.
The relations of the principal and teachers must be characterized by reciprocity and not by
rivalry. Both must share whether the enterprise fails or succeed because one cannot without
others cooperation (Reavis, 1942).
{====================}
Q.5. Explain guidelines for writing a research report.
Answer:
Every person has a different style of writing. There is not really one right style for a report, but
there are some basic principles for writing a research report clearly.
Preparing a research report involves other activities besides writing; in fact, writing is actually
the last step in the preparation process. Before writing can take place, the results of the
research project must be fully understood and thought must be given to what the report will
say. Thus, preparing a research report involves three steps: understanding, organising and
writing. The general guidelines that should be followed for any report or research paper are
as follows:
Consider the audience: The information resulting from the study is ultimately of importance
to marketing managers, who will use the results to make decisions. Thus, the report has to be
understood by them; the report should not be too technical and not too much jargon should
be used. This is a particular difficulty when reporting the results of statistical analysis where
there is a high probability that few, if any, of the target audience have a grasp of statistical
concepts. Hence, for example, there is a need to translate such terms as standard deviation,
significance level, confidence interval etc. into everyday language. This is sometimes not an
easy task but it may be the case that researchers who find it impossible do not themselves
have a sufficiently good grasp of the statistical methods they have been using.
Qualitative research also presents difficulties. The behavioural sciences have their own
vocabulary, much of which is not encountered in everyday speech. Examples include:
cognitive dissonance, evoked set, perception, needs versus wants, self-actualisation. It should
be noted that these are extreme examples; many words, phrases and concepts used a very
precise way by behavioural scientists are also present in everyday speech but often in a less
precise or different way. This also presents opportunities for misunderstandings.
Be concise, but precise: On the one hand, a written report should be complete in the sense
that it stands by itself and that no additional clarification is needed. On the other hand, the
report must be concise and must focus on the critical elements of the project and must
exclude unimportant issues. There is a great temptation, on the part of inexperienced
researchers, to seek to convey all that they did in order to obtain information and to
complete the research. This is done almost as if the researcher is afraid that the audience will
not other wise appreciate the time, effort and intellectual difficulties involved. What the
researcher has to come to realise is that he/she will be judged by the contribution towards
solving the marketing problem and not by the elegance or effort involved in the research
methodology.
Understand the results and drawing conclusions: The managers who read the report are
expecting to see interpretive conclusions in the report. The researcher must therefore
understand the results and be able to interpret these. Simply reiterating facts will not do, and
the researcher must ask him/herself all the time "So what?"; what are the implications. If the
researcher is comparing the client's product with that of a competitor, for example, and
reports that 60 percent of respondents preferred brand A to brand B, then this is a description
of the results and not an interpretation of them. Such a statement does not answer the 'So
what?' question.
The following outline is the suggested format for writing the research report:
· Title page
· Summary of findings
· Table of contents
· List of tables
· List of figures
Introduction
· Background to the research problem
· Objectives
· Hypotheses
Methodology-Data collection
· Sample and sampling method
· Statistical or qualitative methods used for data analysis
· Sample description
Findings
Results, interpretation and conclusions.
The summary of findings is perhaps the most important component of the written report,
since many of the management team who are to receive a copy of the report will only read
this section. The summary of findings is usually put right after the title page, or is bound
separately and presented together with the report.
The introduction should describe the background of the study and the details of the research
problem. Following that, automatically the broad aim of the research can be specified, which
is then translated into a number of specific objectives. Furthermore, the hypotheses that are
to be tested in the research are stated in this section.
In the methodology chapter the sampling methods and procedures are described, as well as
the different statistical methods that are used for data analysis. Finally, the sample is
described, giving the overall statistics, usually consisting of frequency counts for the various
sample characteristics..
Once the sample has been described, the main findings are to be presented in such a way
that all objectives of the study are achieved and the hypotheses are tested. As mentioned
before, it is essential that the main findings are well interpreted and conclusions are drawn
wherever possible.
Data presentation
Easy-to-understand tables and graphics will greatly enhance the readability of the written
research report. As a general rule, all tables and figures should contain:
1. Identification number corresponding to the list of tables and the list of figures
2. A title that conveys the content of the table or figure, also corresponding to the list of
tables and the list of figures, and
3. Appropriate column labels and row labels for tables, and figure legends defining specific
elements in the figure.
There are a number of ways to produce tables and figures. When typing a report on a
typewriter or word-processor, it is sometimes easiest to type a table out by hand. However,
when complicated tables have to be produced, it is advisable to use spreadsheet software like
Lotus 123 or Excel.
{====================}
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Course:CitizenshipEducationandCommunityEngagement(8606)Se
mester:Autumn,2017Level:B.EdAssignmentNo.2
Q.1 a)Explainsocialdeviance.
Answer:
Insociology,deviancedescribesanactionorbehaviorthatviolatessocialnorms,includingaformallyenactedrul
e(e.g.,crime),aswellasinformalviolationsofsocialnorms(e.g.,rejectingfolkwaysandmores).Itisthepurviewof
criminologists,psychiatrists,psychologists,andsociologiststostudyhowthesenormsarecreated,howtheych
angeovertime,andhowtheyareenforced.
Normsarerulesandexpectationsbywhichmembersofsocietyareconventionallyguided.Devianceisanabsen
ceofconformitytothesenorms.Socialnormsdifferfromculturetoculture.Forexample,adeviantactcanbecom
mittedinonesocietythatbreaksasocialnormthere,butmaybenormalforanothersociety.
Viewingdevianceasaviolationofsocialnorms,sociologistshavecharacterizeditasanythought,feeling,oractio
nthatmembersofasocialgroupjudgetobeaviolationoftheirvaluesorrulesorgroupconduct,thatviolatesdefi
nitionsofappropriateandinappropriateconductsharedbythemembersofasocialsystem.Thedepartureofcer
taintypesofbehaviorfromthenormsofaparticularsocietyataparticulartimeand"violationofcertaintypesofgr
oupnormswherebehaviorisinadisapproveddirectionandofsufficientdegreetoexceedthetolerancelimitoft
hecommunity.
Deviancecanberelativetoplaceandtimebecausewhatisconsidereddeviantinonesocialcontextmaybenon-
deviantinanother(e.g.,fightinginanursinghomevs.fightingduringahockeygame).Killinganotherhumanisco
nsideredwrong,exceptwhengovernmentspermititduringwarfareorforselfdefense.Deviantactionscanbem
alainseormalaprohibita.
Functions
Deviantactscanbeassertionsofindividualityandidentity,andthusasrebellionsagainstgroupnormsofthedo
minantcultureandinfavorofasub-
culture.Devianceaffirmsculturalvaluesandnorms.Italsoclarifiesmoralboundaries,promotessocialunitybycr
eatinganus/themdichotomy,encouragessocialchange,andprovidesjobstocontroldeviance."Certainfactor
sofpersonalityaretheoreticallyandempiricallyrelatedtoworkplacedeviance,suchasworkenvironment,andi
ndividualdifferences.""Situatedinthemasculinityanddevianceliterature,thisarticleexaminesa"deviant"
1 We Deal All Kind Of Assignment (Hand Made & Photo Copy), Also Guess
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masculinity,thatofthemalesexworker,andpresentsthewaysmenwhoengageinsexworkcopewiththejob."Int
heseminal1961reportTheGirlDelinquentandtheMaleStreet-
CornerGang,MarthaS.Lewiswrotethatfemalejuveniledelinquentswereattractedtomalegangmembersandt
hegangsub-culture.
ThestudyofSocialDevianceisthestudyoftheviolationofculturalnormsineitherformal(criminal)orinformal(de
viant)contexts.
Socialdevianceisaphenomenonthathasexistedinallsocietieswheretherehavebeennorms.Therearetwopos
sibilitiesforhowanindividualwillactinthefaceofsocialnorms;conformorviolate.Thereareimplicitsocialnorm
sandexplicitsocialnorms.Explicitsocialnormsarenotnecessarilylaws(suchasasignatacomputerlabthatsaysf
oodanddrinkareprohibited).Inreality,thereisoftenablendofconformityanddevianceinthewayspeoplebeha
ve.Rarelyifeverdoesapersondeviatefromorconformtoallnorms.Furthermore,somebehaviorsinthemselves
reflectbothconformityanddevianceatonce.Considerbreakingthespeedlimit,whichistechnicallyalegalviolat
ion,butwhichisalsoconformist,particularlyonfreewayswheremotorists"gowiththeflow."Thatisacriticalfeat
ureofdeviance,conformity,andnorms.Relativityabounds.Thatis,normscanchangeovertime(e.g.womeninth
epaidlaborforce),dependonsituationalcontext(e.g.laughingatapartyasopposedtodoingsoatafuneral),dep
endonstatuses(e.g.anadolescentblowingupneighbors'mailboxesasopposedtoanelderlywomandoingso),
andanynumberofotherfactors.Butit'snotallrelative.Thereareformsofdeviance(andcertainnorms)thatareab
outasuniversalasanythinginthesocialsciencescanbe,suchaswhenonemaliciouslyharmsachild.Inlightofthe
waywethinkaboutnorms,deviance,andconformity,manythinkersthroughouthistoryhavetriedtoexplainthe
causesbehinddeviance.
{================}
b) Differentiatebetweenformalandinformaldeviance?
Answer:
Deviance,inasociologicalcontext,describesactionsorbehaviorsthatviolateinformalsocialnormsorformally-
enactedrules.Amongthosewhostudysocialnormsandtheirrelationtodeviancearesociologists,psychologist
s,psychiatrists,andcriminologists,allofwhominvestigatehownormschangeandareenforcedovertime.
Devianceisoftendividedintotwotypesofactivities.Thefirst,crime,istheviolationofformallyenactedlawsandis
referredtoasformaldeviance.Examplesofformaldevianceincluderobbery,theft,
rape,murder,andassault.Thesecondtypeofdeviantbehaviorinvolvesviolationsofinformalsocialnorms(nor
msthathavenotbeencodifiedintolaw)andisreferredtoasinformaldeviance.Examplesofinformaldevianceinc
ludepickingone’snose,belchingloudly,orstandingunnecessarilyclosetoanotherperson.
Deviancecanvarydramaticallyacrosscultures.Culturalnormsarerelative,whichmakesdeviantbehaviorrelati
veaswell.Forinstance,intheUnitedStates,Americansdonotgenerallyimposetime-
basedrestrictionsonspeech.However,intheChristDesertMonastery,specificrulesgoverndeterminewhenres
identscanandcannotspeak,andspeechisbannedbetween7:30pmand4:00am.Theserulesareoneexampleof
hownormsvaryacrosscultures.
Currentsociologicalresearchondeviancetakesmanyforms.Forexample,Dr.KarenHalnonofPennsylvaniaSta
teUniversitystudiesinformaldevianceandfocusesonwhatshecalls“deviancevacations,”wherebypeopleofa
givensocioeconomicstatusvoluntarilyenteradifferent,oftenlower,socialstrata.Oneexampleinvolveshetero
sexualwhitemaleswhobecomedragqueensonweekends.Thisbehaviorrepresentsaluxury,becauseheterose
xualwhitemalescanaffordtomakeatemporarilyshift,knowingthattheymaysubsequentlyreturntothecomfor
tsoftheirprevailingsocioeconomicstatus.Otherexamplesincludeperformerswhomayaffectdeviantbehavio
rsinordertogaincredibilitywithanaimtoincreasingcommercialprofits.
Likedeviance,normsarealwaysculturallycontingent.Tostudynormsanddeviance,onemustcontextualizethe
action,orconsidertheactioninlightofallofthecircumstancessurroundingit.Forexample,onecannotmerelysa
ythatshowingupnudetoajobinterviewisaviolationofsocialnorms.Whileitisusuallysocialconventiontoshow
upinsomemannerof(usuallyprofessional)dresstoajobinterview,thisismostlikelynotthecaseforsomeoneint
erviewingtobeanudemodel.Tounderstandthenorm,onemustunderstandthecontext.
Theviolationofsocialnorms,ordeviance,resultsinsocialsanction.Differentdegreesofviolationresultindiffere
ntdegreesofsanction.Therearethreemainformsofsocialsanctionfordeviance:1)legalsanction,2)stigmatizat
ion,and3)preferenceforonebehavioroveranother.Formaldeviance,ortheviolationoflegalcodes,resultsincri
minalactioninitiatedbythestate.Informaldeviance,orviolationofunwritten,socialrulesofbehavior,resultsins
ocialsanction,orstigma.Lesserdegreesofsocialviolationresultinpreferenceratherthanstigmatization.While
societymightdeemitpreferabletoshowuptomostjobinterviewswearingasuitratherthancasualattire,youwill
likelynotbeoutoftherunningforthejobifyouarewearingkhakisratherthanasuit.However,shouldyoushowup
nudetomostinterviews,youwouldlikelybestigmatizedforyourbehavior,sinceitwouldbesuchadrasticdepart
urefromthenorm.
Wesaythatthenormthatgovernswearingprofessionalratherthancasualattiretoajobinterviewisafolkwaybec
auseitsviolationresultsinlesserdegreeofsocialsanctions—
thedevelopmentofapreferenceratherthanstigmatization.Thenormthatgovernswearingclothingtomostjo
binterviews,ratherthanshowingupnude,isamorebecauseitsviolationresultsinamoreseriousdegreeofsocial
sanction.
{================}
Q.2 a) Criticallyanalyzetheeffectofschooloncommunity.
Answer:
Schoolisaspecialinstitution,createdtoservespecificsocialneeds.It,therefore,notonlygetsaimsandobjective
sfromsocietybutitscontentsandmethodsarealsodeterminedinaccordancewiththeactivities,carriedoninso
ciety,forwhichtheschoolfunctions.
Butsocietyisdynamicandchangesveryfrequently.Itis,therefore,essentialthatthecharacterandnatureofeduc
ation,impartedintheschool,alsochangeaccordingtotheneedsanddevelopmentsofthesociety.
Aschoolisnotmerelyaplaceofformallearning,butalsoaplaceofsociallearning.Itisasocialunitandanintegralpa
rtofthetotalorganisationofsociety.
InthewordsofProfessorK.G.Saiyidain:“Apeople’sschoolmustobviouslybebasedonthepeoplesneedsandpr
oblems.Itscurriculumshouldbeanepitomeoftheirlife.Itsmethodofworkmustapproximatetotheirs.Itshouldr
eflectallthatissignificantandcharacteristicsinthelifeofthecommunityinitsnaturalsetting.”
Itis,therefore,thatschooleducationiscorrelatedwiththesocialenvironmentofchildren.Agoodsocietyisthepr
oductofagoodschoolsystemandagoodschoolsystemistheproductofagoodsociety.Sotheremustbeintimat
erelationshipsbetweentheschoolandthesociety.
Itshould,however,benotedthatinabigcountrylikeIndia,everycommunityisinter-
relatedwithothercommunitiesandisapartofthelargecommunity,knownasnation.
Theschool,therefore,shouldadoptitseducationalprogrammeinawaythatitshouldrenderspecificservicetoth
elocalcommunityandalsomeettheneedsofthelargecommunityornation,asawhole.
Inotherwords,theschoolshouldadoptitsculturalandsocialactivitiestoitsregionalandnationalneeds.
IfIweretoaskyou'Whatdidyoulearninschool?'whatwouldyousay?Wouldyoutellmeaboutthesubjectknowle
dgeyougainedandtheclassesyouattended?Wouldyoutalkaboutthetimeyouspentwithfriendsandyourparti
cipationinextracurricularactivities?Schoolscertainlyactasatransmitterofknowledgeandacademicskillsliker
eading,writing,andarithmetic.Buttheyalsoserveotherfunctionsinoursocietyaswell,andthesecanbecategori
zedasmanifestorlatentfunctions.
Amanifestfunctionofschoolisafunctionthatpeoplebelieveistheobviouspurposeofschoolandeducation.
Manifestfunctionsofeducationarethosethatareintendedandthatmostpeoplethinkabout.Forexample,inele
mentaryschool,parentsexpecttheirchildrentolearnnewinformationbutalsohowto'getalong'withotherchil
drenandbegintounderstandhowsocietyworks.So,twoofthemostsignificantmanifestfunctionsofschoolsbe
yondteachingsubjectknowledgearesocializationandthetransmissionofculturalnormsandvalues.
Socializationreferstoaprocessbywhichindividualsacquireapersonalidentityandlearntheknowledge,langu
age,andsocialskillsrequiredtointeractwithothers.Again,studentsdon'tonlylearnfromtheacademiccurricul
umpreparedbyteachersandschooladministrators.Theyalsolearnsocialrulesandexpectationsfrominteracti
onswithothers.StudentsinAmericareceiverewardsforfollowingschedulesanddirections,meetingdeadlines,
andobeyingauthority.Theylearnhowtoavoidpunishmentbyreducingundesirablebehaviorslikeoffensivela
nguage.Theyalsofigureoutthattobesuccessfulsocially,theymustlearntobequiet,towait,toactinterestedeve
nwhenthey'renot,andtopleasetheirteacherswithoutalienatingtheirpeers.
Besidessocialization,anothersignificantmanifestfunctionofschoolisthetransmissionofculturalnormsandv
aluestonewgenerations.Schoolshelptomoldadiversepopulationintoonesocietywithasharednationalidenti
tyandpreparefuturegenerationsfortheircitizenshiproles.Studentsaretaughtaboutlawsandourpoliticalway
oflifethroughciviclessons,andthey'retaughtpatriotismthroughritualssuchassalutingtheflag.Studentsmust
alsolearnthePledgeofAllegianceandthestoriesofthenation'sheroesandexploits.BecauseAmericaisacapital
istnation,studentsalsoquicklylearntheimportanceofbothteamworkandcompetitionthroughlearninggam
esintheclassroomaswellasactivitiesandathleticsoutsidetheclassroom.
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b) Discusstheroleofcommunityinimprovingtheschoolenvironment.
Answer:
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Q.3 a) Analyzetherelationshipbetweencommunicationandeffectiveteaching.
Answer:
Whatis‘communication’?AccordingtotheConciseOxfordDictionarythewordmeans‘theactofimparting,esp
eciallynews’,or‘thescienceandpracticeoftransmittinginformation’.Thesedefinitionsclearlyshowthelinkbet
ween‘teaching’and‘communication’:teachersareconstantlyimpartingnewknowledge,ortransmittinginfor
mation.
Hubleyhasshownusthatcommunicationisacomplexprocess.Atanystageofthisprocessthingsmaygowrong,
makingthecommunicationlesseffective.Forinstance,thesendermaynotexpresswhats/hewantstosayclearly
;ortheroommaybenoisy;orthereceivermaynotunderstandthewordsthesenderisusing.Tobeeffective,teach
ershavetotrytominimisethesebarrierstocommunication.Wedothisinanumberofways–
forexample,bymakingsurethattheroomisquietandwelllit;byspeakingslowlyandclearly;byonlyusingwords
whichthestudentsshouldbeabletounderstand.However,themostimportantwaytoovercomethebarriersist
wo-
waycommunication.Thismeansgettingregularfeedbackfromthereceivers(thestudentsinthiscase):dotheyr
eallyunderstandwhatwearetryingtoputacross.
Person-to-PersonCommunication:PresentationSkills
Inthepreviousarticlewediscusseddifferentstylesofteaching.Someteachersliketotalk,andexpectthestudent
stowritedownwhattheysayandtolearnit(thisstyleencouragessuperficiallearning-
andrapidforgetting!).Otherteachersseetheirroleasoneofhelpingthestudentstolearnatadeeperlevel-
tounderstandnewideasandconceptssowellthattheycanapplytheminaworksituation.Eitherway,theseteach
erswilldoabetterjobiftheycommunicatewellwiththeirstudents.
Animportantelementofcommunicationinteachingistheuseofteachingaids.Wehaveallheardthesaying:‘Wh
atIhear,Iforget;whatIsee,Iremember;whatIdo,Iknow’.Pictures,writtenpostersandpracticaldemonstrationsi
mprovecommunicationandweshouldusethemasmuchaspossible.Mostofushaveaccesstopaper,posters,ac
halkboard,oranoverheadprojector.Wecanusetheseto
prepareaidsforourlessons:summariesofimportantfacts,orpicturesanddiagrams.Theoverheadprojectorisp
articularlyuseful,becauseitallowsustofaceourstudentswhileusingit.
HowcanIknowwhetherIamcommunicatingwellasateacher?Communicationisaskill–
andweimproveourskillsbygettingfeedbackonthewayweperformthem.Wecangetsuchfeedbackbyaskinga
nexperiencedcolleaguetositinonourteaching,andtogiveusfeedback.Wecanalsoasksomeonetorecorduso
navideotapeasweteach,whichwetheninspectcriticallyafterwards.Ineithercasethefeedbackwillbebetterifw
euseachecklisttojudgeourperformance.
WrittenCommunication:Handouts
Teacherscommunicatebyspeaking,butalsobywriting.Wehaveseenhowwecanimprovetheoverheadproject
ortransparenciesweuse,ifwewritethemcarefully.Thesameistrueofthehandoutsthatalmostallteachersprepa
refortheirstudents.
Whatisahandout?Itisnotaphotocopyofajournalarticle,orofsomepagesoutofatextbook.Rather,itisadocum
entwhichtheteacherwriteshim/herself.Itmaybeasummaryofimportantpointstobelearnt;oraguidetostude
ntsonworktheyhavetodo,orreferencestheyhavetolookup.Teachersmayusehandoutsforstudentstoreferto
duringalesson,andstudentswilldefinitelyusethemintheirself-
studytime.Becausehandoutsaresuchanimportantwayofcommunicatingwithstudents,theymustcommunic
ateeffectively
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b) Howcanyouasateachercreateconducivelearningenvironment?
Answer:
Bydefinition,aconducivelearningenvironmentisaplatformdevoidofbothphysicalintimidationandemotion
alfrustration,whichallowsforafreeexchangeofideas.Thekeyproponentsofthelearningprocessareteachersa
ndlearners,assuchtheirfreedomofinteraction,safetyandrespectshouldbeequallyguaranteedwithinthephy
sicalandemotiveenvironmenttheyfindthemselvesin.Thefirstportoflearningisthephysicalenvironment,whi
chincludes,butisnotlimitedtoclassrooms.Theclassroomshouldbeneat,wellventilatedandspacioustoallowf
orfreemovement.Thechairsanddesksshouldbearrangedneatlytogivetheteacheraclearviewoftheclass,with
learnersfacingthechalkboard.
Alllearningandteachingmaterialslikechalks,booksandchartsshouldbeathand.Theclassroomshouldbesafet
oboththeteacherandthelearners.Thesmallertheclasses,themoreeffectiveteacherpupilinteractionis,andthe
morerewardingteachingbecomes.Mostlearnersalsofeelweigheddownbylargernumbersinclassrooms.Em
otionsplayacrucialroleinbothteachingandlearningandthereforeshouldbeharnessedandembraced.Mutual
respectisanindispensableingredientintherecipeoflearning,(Stronge:2002;Wilenetal:2004).Ateacherwhofe
elsdisrespectedeasilygetsfrustratedandislikelytodeliverdismally;similarlyadisrespectedlearnerdisengage
shimself/herselffromthelearningprocess.Thelearnershouldfeelrelaxed,respected,trusted,acceptedandsaf
ewhenhisorherteacherisaround.
Theteacher,therefore,shouldalwaysbeunintimidating,friendly,respectful,tolerantandaccommodatingforl
earnerstowarmuptohimorher.He/sheshouldberespectedandnotfeared.Youngerlearners,especiallythelo
werforms,tendtowithdrawintotheirshellsiftheteacherexhibitsaspectsofintimidationandpatronization.Und
ernocircumstancesshouldtheteacherusedisparagingremarkseventothosephysicallyorintellectuallychalle
nged,neithershouldhe/sheallowsuchremarksintheclassroom.Amarketerisquicktoremindhiscustomerstha
tagoodproductsellsitself,butitsreputationisheightenedthroughrepackagingandconstantadvertising;andi
tisalsoindisputablethatanexperiencedcaptainorpilotisasafetyassurancetopassengers.
Credibilitysells,thusthecompetentteachershouldbeawarethatlearnersarenotdullards,astheycaneasilydisc
ernmediocrityfromexcellence.Theeffectivenessofanylearningmethodapplieddependslargelyontheteache
randitsworthisdeterminedbyresults.Iftheresultsarealwayspoor,thenthetrainer’sreputationdips,andtheop
positeisalwaystrue.Hisorhercredibilitybothindeportmentanddeliveryheightensreputation.Asisthecasewit
hpassengersonaplane,learnersfeelsecureinhandstheycantrust,andthatinitselfregulatestheirbehaviouran
dlearningpatterns.Itisperiloustherefore,foronetowalkintoaclassroomcluelessandillprepared.
Learningisaninteractionofideaswhoseeffectivenessliesintheconsiderationofboththeteacherandthelearne
rsastheyallcontributetotheoutcome.Theteachermaybethesourceofknowledgebutiscertainlynottheonlyo
ne,aslearnersalsohaveaccesstoothersourcesofinformationliketextbooks,journalsandtheinternet.Intoday’
sglobalisedworldtheteachershouldbethecustodianoftheknowledgethatlearnersacquireasrawdataelsewh
ere,guidethemintheacquisitionofsuchinformationandhoneit,sothatitbecomeseffectiveasacademicknowl
edge.“Learnersareconsciousofwhattheywanttoachieve,andalthoughtheymaynotbecertainofthehowpart
ofit,they
definitelyknowwhatintereststhemassuchtheteachershouldbeprivytotheirgoalssoastobeableto“influencet
henatureoftheactivitiestheyundertake,engageseriouslyintheirstudy,regulatetheirbehaviour,andknowoft
heexplicitcriteriaandhighexpectationsofwhattheyaretoachieve,”(QueensdaleDepartmentofEducation,20
05).
Whatisofinteresttolearnersiswhatappealstothemmore,sotheyshouldbegivenareasontolisten,otherwiseth
eirattentionwillbedrawnelsewhere.Activelearningthrivesonquestionsbecausequestionsaremoreimportan
tthananswers(TerryHeich:2014);asthephilosopherSocratespositsthatthebestwaytoansweristoaskquestio
ns,andthescientistAlbertEinsteinconcursthatthebeststrategyintheacquisitionofknowledgeistokeepasking
questions.Thecompetentteacher,therefore,shouldnotforcehisorlearnerstoaskquestions,butshouldencou
ragethemtofreelyaskthemaccordingtotheirunderstandingoftheconceptstaught.Learnerswhoaskintellige
ntquestionsareencouragingastheypropelthelessonforward,asopposedtopassiveabsorbersofinformation.
Thereareaplethoraofreasonswhylearnersmaynotaskquestionswhichincludelackofunderstandingoftheobj
ectivesoutlinedbecauseofpoordeliveryonthepartoftheteacher,lackofinterestfromthelearners,orsatiation;t
hepresumedsatisfactionofthelearner.
Goodquestionswillalwaysleadtodiscussionsandinteractionofideasbetweentheteacherandthelearnersand
hence,shouldbeparamountinthelearningprocess.Theclassroomfunctionsasacommunity,whereeveryonep
laysapart,withtheteacherbeingthehead;incontrolandcommandsrespect.Freeinteractionshouldbethehall
mark,sothateverymemberisgivenachancetoairhisorherideas.Regardlessoftheirdifferentbackgrounds,lear
nersareequal,asshouldbereflectedthroughgroupworkandemphasisedthrough-
outthelearningprocess.Allcontributionsshouldberespectedtoencourageparticipationandfosterasenseof
belonging.Useofthesamelearningmodelstimeandagain,reducestheclassroomtoacellofmonotonyandbor
edom.Suspenseandsurprisearekeyelementsintheattentionspanofthehumanmind;hence,everylessonshou
ldbeanewexperience.
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Q.4 a) Discusstheeffectsoftechnologyonjobmarket.
Answer:
We’vewatchedtheworldaroundchangecompletely,astechnologyhasadvancedmorerapidlythaneverimagi
ned.Thingsthatseemedlikefar-
fetchedsciencefictioneven10yearsagoarebecomingourreality.Personaltechnologytakescareofsomanytas
ksforus,givingusthetimetofocusonthe
unexplored.Technologyhaschangedthewayweeducate,socializeandwork.Butwhenthingsadvancesoquickl
y,theworldmayhaveahardtimecatchingup.
Advancesinrecenttechnologyhaverenderedsomeprofessionsobsoleteandgivenquiteafewothersarunfort
heirmoney.Alotoftasksthatpeoplehavebeencompletingforcenturiesarebeingdonedigitally,forlessmoney
andwithmoreaccurateresults.Makinganefforttobeinnovativeandstayuptodateonnewadvancementsintec
hnologywillmakeyourpersonallifeeasier,andyourprofessionallifemoresecure.
ProfessionsAffectedbyTechnology
Newgadgetsandappshavemademanyformsofentertainmentalmostdisappear.Bookstoresarerapidlydown
sizingaspeopleopttobuybooksontheirtabletsinstead,amoreefficientandeco-
friendlywaytoread.Newspapersandmagazinesstruggletosellcopiesbecausemostpeoplescanthemorningn
ewsontheirsmartphoneorlaptopforfree.Movierentalsarenearlyathingofthepast,replacedbyHBOandNetfli
x.Themusicindustryhasstruggledtocatchuptotheamountofillegalpiracythatgoeson,andwhilemanypeople
stillbuydigitalcopiesoftheirfavoritealbums,thecompactdiscissoonbecomingathingofthepast.Aspeople,w
e’vequicklyadaptedtotheconvenientandeasierwaystoread,watchandlisten.However,theindustriesbuiltaro
undentertainmentovermanydecadeshavestruggledtomaintainrelevancy.
Someindustrieshaveshownthatwedon’thavetocompetewithmachinesforjobs;wecanworkwiththem.Thou
ghcountlesswebsitesmakeiteasytoplanourownvacations,travelagentscanofferusdealsanddiscountsweca
n’tgetonourown.Localfarmerscan’tcompetewithcorporateprices,buttheyofferusauthenticallyorganicpro
ducewecan’tgeteverywhereelse.Librariansaren’tjustshelvingbooks.They’regrantingcomputeraccess,aidin
gwithresearch,runningbookclubsandmuchmore.
StayingRelevantwithTechnology
Pickingacareer
Asifcollegestudentsneedanotherfactorindecidingonamajor,right?Butwithaneconomythatstillhasn’tcomp
letelyrecovered,it’simportanttoconsiderwhatindustrieswillhaveajobwaitingforyouwhenyougraduate.Wh
enyou’rewritingdownyourtalents,interestsandgoals,makeanothercolumnforjobfieldsthatarealwaysinde
mand(likenursing)orarerapidlygrowing(likeIT).Ifyouhaveyourheartsetononecareer,considerwhereit’sgoin
gandhowitwilladapttonewtechnology.
Runningabusiness
Ifyou’reabusinessowneroryouhavealeadershiprole,beingawareofupcomingtechnologicaladvancesisimp
ortant.Stayinnovativeandupdated.Noticewhatothersuccessfulcompaniesaredoingwithnewtechnologyan
dhowitcouldimproveyourproductivity,salesorcustomersatisfaction.Lastly,thinkabouthowtheproductorse
rviceyouofferfitsintooureverydaylives,andwhattechnologycouldpotentiallyjeopardizethat.
Stayingonyourtoes
Nomatterwhatyourjobis,everybodyshouldmakeasincereefforttostayuptodateonwhattechnologyisoutan
dhaveabasicunderstandingofhowtouseit.Itcanbefrustratingtothoseofuswhoaretechnologicallychallenge
d,butitpaysoffinthelongrun.Themoreyouknowabouttechnology,theeasieryourlifewillbeandmoreappeali
ngyouaretofutureemployers.
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b) HowhasthePakistanisocietyrespondedtothistechnologicalchange?
Answer:
Nodepartmentoflife–beiteconomic,cultural,religiousorrecreational–
hasbeenfreefromtheeffectofthisgreattransformationinprogress.Theoldsystemofclassificationandstratific
ationofsocietyasawholeischanginggraduallyandslowlybutsurelyandcertainly.
Wemaygoforsomelittlechanges.Forinstance,wemaychangeclothingstyle.Wemaychangeourroomsetting.
Wemaychangeoureatingstuff.Wemaydowhatevermakesushappy.
Movementisthestuffandessenceoflife,bothforindividualandthesociety.FromtheindependencedayofAugu
st14,1947uptodate,Pakistan’shasbeenasocietyintransition.ThesocietyofPakistanisdynamicandthereforee
ver-
changing,anditspatternsarechangingtransformingfromtimetotime.Thenationalsocietyhasbeenrespondi
ngtothechallengesofenvironment,naturalandman-made.Nodepartmentoflife–
beiteconomic,cultural,religiousorrecreational–
hasbeenfreefromtheeffectofthisgreattransformationinprogress.Theoldsystemofclassificationandstratific
ationofsocietyasawholeischanginggraduallyandslowlybutsurelyandcertainly.
Thefactorsandcircumstancesresponsibleforthesechangescanbeenumeratedasbelow;partitionofsub-
continent,technologicalandscientificinventions,growthofurbanizationandindustrialization,expansionofc
ommercialactivitiesandinternationaltrade,changesintheeconomicstructureofthecountryinitiatingtheindu
strializationofitseconomy,thespreadofliteracyresultingintheriseofa
secularintelligentsia,theeffectofthespreadofdifferentideologiesofdifferentpoliticalpartiesinthecountry,th
eimpactofthehighlydevelopedcountriesoftheworldonoursociety,theworkingandinfluenceofthetradeunio
nandco-
operativemovement,theexpansionoftheareareachedbythemassmediaofcommunicationlikeradio,press,ci
nema,televisionetc.migrationandfinallyculturaldiffusion.
Changesarethespiceoflife.Isittrue?OfcourseYES!Itistruebecauseeverybodyneedsachangeinwhateverheis
doing.Wewantchangesaroundus.Monotonouslifejustmakesusfeelbored.Itisgoodtohaveachange.Itisnoti
mportantthatweshouldgoforbigchangeseveryday.Wemaygoforlittlechangesthatshouldbeprettyaffordab
le.Ifweareseekingforahealthyandentertaininglifethenchangesareveryimportant.Changesmustbepositive.
Ifwewillgofornegativeonesthentheywillobviouslyhaveanegativeimpactuponourlives.Negativeimpactsare
accountableforsomemorenegativechangessoweneedtobeassiduousinthisregard.
Wemaygoforsomelittlechanges.Forinstance,wemaychangeclothingstyle.Wemaychangeourroomsetting.
Wemaychangeoureatingstuff.Wemaydowhatevermakesushappy.Whateveryoudotohaveachangebutone
thingisimportantthatthesechangesshouldnotbotheryouinanyway.Changeyourlifethewayyouwanttochan
gebutbecarefulthatthesechangesshouldbebetterforall.
Oursocietystronglybelievesinrelationshipsbutthiscultureusetheseasasourceofenjoyment,sotheelemento
frespecthascompletelyvanished.Theverycloserelativesi.e.Father,mother,brothers,sistersarethebigsource
ofenjoymentforthem.Theythroughjokesonthemandinsultonthestageinthefrontofhundredofpeople.They
compeltheirsisterstodanceandfeltprestigehappinesswhilewatchingtheirdance.Althoughalltherelationiste
mporaryinnaturebuttheyhaveusedtheworddady,mama,brotherandsisterwhileactinginthestageplay.Thes
erelationsarelosingtheirsacrednessanduniqueness.Forthesepeoplethewords,likeFather,mother,brothers,
andsistershavenomeaningsatthestage.Theytreatallthepeoplesameonthestageduringplayordrama.Therei
snobodyyoungerorelderinplayallofequalagesotheythroughjokesononeandotherwithnoregardtotheage
oftargetedperson.Someothersocialrelationshipisalsogreatlyaffectedbythisdramaculture.Allclosefriendsa
ndrelativesarethenthepersonwhoaredirectlyorindirectlyinvolveintheseactivities.Father,mother,brothers,
andsistersallareenjoyingthemselveswhileworkingintheplay.
Pakistan'sfashionrevolutionhasshiftedintosecondgear,evidentbytheincreasingnumberofdesignerstores
mushroomingallacrossthecities.StalwartslikeAmirAdnan,HSY,Maheen,SonyaBattla,DeepakPerwaniandKa
rmahaveenjoyedretailpresenceforalongtimebutnow,evendesignerslikeNomiAnsari,SaraShahid,SamanAr
if(Nayna)andZaraShahjahanwhohavebeeneyeingthemarketskeptically,arethrowingcautiontothewind.
Theyhaverealizedthatthenumbersaregettingbigandthemoneygamebigger.Andnowwhentheindustryhas
decidedtoshakeoffthestigmaofmade-to-orderbridals,it'stimetodiveintothemassmarkethead-
onandpreparetoinvestininexpensivereadytowear,madeavailableinretailaislesofmassmarketstores.It'sthe
needofthehourandthatshouldbecometheorderoftheday.
Thehabitofcontinuallychangingthestyleofclothing,glasses,shoes,hairstylesandevennowadaysmobilesand
vehiclesarepartoffashions.Inmoderntimesfashionisprevailingnotonlyinthesethingsbutitisalsorangingfro
mcolorsofinsetsinahometoofficesofmultinationalsorganizations.Butgenerallyfashionistakenashowtoimp
rovepersonalityandhowtolooksmartanduptodate.Bothelectronicandprintmediaareplayingapivotalrolein
thisregard.
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Q.5 a) Describethedevelopmentofyearlyplansforschoolcommunitycollaborative.
Answer:
ThesuccessofPLCshingesoncollaboration,butdon'tassumeit'llcomenaturally.Helptheteamsdeveloptheiro
wnprotocolsandnorms.AnneSmith,assistantsuperintendentofLongIsland'sMattituck-
CutchogueSchoolDistrict,beganbyfacilitatingeverythingherself.Shewantedherteacherstoknowthattheyw
erenotbeingjudged."Youneedtoteachthemhowtoaskquestionsthatdon'tputpeopleonthedefensive,"Smit
hsays.Shecirculatedarticlesandbooksandencouragedthemtoformstudygroups.AsaPLCfacilitator,NancyKr
akowka,asixth-
gradelanguageartsteacheratthedistrict'sCutchogueEastElementarySchool,knowsthatcollaborationdoesn
'thappenovernight."Ispentalotoftimefiguringouthowtomakeitwork,"shesays."Insteadofsaying,'Thisishow
we'llrunourPLC,'Iaskedeveryoneforinput."
Krakowka'sgroupworkedtofindacommongoal--
creatingstudentportfolios.Oncetheyletdowntheirguardandstartedsharingtheirownmethods,theybegant
olearntogether.Fiveofthemworkedwithasixthteachertomovepastherfearofusingportfolios.Havingtheirsu
pportmadeherwillingtotaketherisk.
CreateanAtmosphereofTrust
Totheeducatoraccustomedtoclosingthedoor,sharinginformationabouttechniquescanbediscomforting.T
oovercomethosebarriers,encourageteacherstoformabookcluboradiscussiongroupaboutateachingtopic,
suggestsJosephAguerrebere,presidentandCEOoftheNationalBoardforProfessionalTeachingStandards.O
ncetheyshareopinionsinatrustingsetting,they'llbeopentodiscussingmore.
It'suptotheschoolleadertoestablishtrust."Theformalandinformalleadershavetobeclearthatthegoaliscolla
borationandnotcompetition,"saystheMattituck-
CutchogueSchoolDistrict'sAnneSmith."Youcan'tclobberpeopleabouttestscoresandthensay,'Let'scollabor
ate.'Whatareyoudoingtosupporttheteacher?"Aguerreberesuggestsaskingteacherstopairupandobservee
achother'sclasses."Thereshouldbenojudgmentinthesevisits,"hesays."Thegoalisbuildingcomfort."
AllowEnoughTime
It'simportanttocarveoutenoughtimeforlearningteamstomeetandworkthroughtheirissuesregularly.Nancy
Krakowka'sgrade-
levelPLCsbeganbymeetingonceamonthforregularmeetings.Theyalsohadthreedaylonggatheringseachye
ar,aswellascommonprepperiods.
Afterafewmonths,teachersbeganleavingtheirdoorsopenandmeetinginformallythroughouttheday.AnneS
mithfindsadditionalmeetingtimebyhiringsubstitutestocomeintocoverentiregrades.Andnextyear,she'sgu
aranteeingdesignatedtime:HercontractwillincludeanadditionalthreehoursaweekdedicatedtoPLCs.
Smith'sstaffcomesupwithwaystohelpPLCsmeetdespitetimeconstraints.Thelibrarianandthemusicteachera
tKrakowka'sschoolhavestartedastorytellingunitthatcantakeuptothreeclassesatatime,allowingthoseteach
erstomeet.
BeBroadandInclusive
AlthoughmanyPLCsconsistonlyofteachers,abroaderpopulationcanbebroughtin,suchasadministrators,pa
rents,andcommunitymemberswhosupporttheirschool.Theobjectiveistoaligneveryone'sinterestsandexpe
rtisewiththeschool'svisionandgoals.
Insomecases,"teachercommunitiesarenotasrobustascross-rolecommunities,"saysGiselleMartin-
Kniep,founderofCommunitiesforLearning:LeadingLastingChange.Forexample,ifagroupisconsideringrepl
acingsuspensionwithcommunityservice,thecommunitycanprovideideas.In
casesinvolvingbiggroups,itmakessensetoformsmallersatellitesthatgatherfeedbacktodelivertothelargergr
oup.
{================}
b) Discuss“SandwichApproach”inthecontextofparentteachermeeting.
Answer:
Haveyoueverusedthe“sandwichapproach”togivenegativefeedbacktoyourdirectreports?Yousandwichthe
negativefeedbackbetweentwopiecesofpositivefeedback.It’sacommonmethod,butthesandwichapproach
maybeunderminingbothyourfeedbackandyourrelationshipswithyourdirectreports.First,let’slookatwhyle
adersusethesandwichapproachandwhyitdoesn’twork.Inmyworkwithleadershipteams,themajorityofleade
rssaytheyhaveusedthesandwichapproachtogivenegativefeedback.Theyofferseveralreasons:
Theythinkit’seasierforpeopletohearandacceptnegativefeedbackwhenitcomeswithpositivefeedba
ck.WhenIasktheseleadershowtheyknowthis,almostallofthemacknowledgethattheysimplyassumeit.When
Iask—orhavethemask—
theirdirectreportshowtheywouldprefertoreceivenegativefeedback,almostallofthedirectreportssaytheyw
antjustthemeat—
nosandwich.Ifyougiveafeedbacksandwich,youriskalienatingyourdirectreports.Inaddition,theyarelikelyto
discountyourpositivefeedback,believingitisnotgenuine.
Theyassumethesandwichapproachprovidesbalancedfeedback.Theseleaderswantdirectreportstound
erstandthatthenegativefeedbackisonlypartoftheirperformanceevaluation.Butthisbalanceclaimdisintegra
teswhenIask,“Doyoualsofeeltheneedtobalanceyourpositivefeedbackwithnegativefeedback?”Itisimporta
nttogivepositivefeedback,butsavingittooffsetnegativefeedbackdelaysthevalueofthepositivefeedback.Th
eresearchshowsthatfeedback—positiveornegative—isbestsharedassoonaspossible.
Theybelievethatgivingpositivefeedbackwithnegativefeedbackreducesdiscomfortandanxiety.Less
often,leadersadmitthattheyusethesandwichapproachbecausethey’reuncomfortablegivingnegativefeedb
ack.It’seasiertoeaseintotheconversationwithsomepositivefeedback,theseleaderssay.Infact,though,“easin
gin”createstheveryanxietytheyaretryingtoavoid.Thelongeryoutalkwithoutgivingthenegativefeedback,th
emoreuncomfortableyou’relikelytobecomeasyouanticipategivingthenegativenews;yourdirectreportswill
senseyourdiscomfortandbecomemoreanxious.
Effectiveleadersaretransparentaboutthestrategiestheyusewhenworkingwithothers.Thesandwichapproac
hisdesignedtoinfluenceotherswithouttellingthemwhatyou’redoing—
itisaunilaterallycontrollingstrategy—
inotherwords,astrategythatrevolvesaroundyouinfluencingothers,butnotbeinginfluencedbytheminreturn.
ImaginethatyouplantousethesandwichapproachwithAlexandStacey,twodirectreportswhojustgaveaprese
ntationtoyourseniorleadershipteam.Tounderstandwhyyou’rereluctanttoshareyourstrategy,takethetrans
parencytest—athoughtexperimentwiththreesimplesteps:
1.Identifyyourstrategyfortheconversation.YourstrategyistostartwithsomepositivefeedbacktorelaxAle
xandStacey,thengivethemthenegativefeedback—thepurposeofthemeeting—
andthenendwithmorepositivefeedbacksotheywon’tbesodisappointedorangry.
2.Imaginetellingthepeopleyourstrategy.Youwouldsaysomethinglike,“AlexandStacey,Ihavesomenega
tivefeedbacktogiveyou.I’llstartwithsomepositivefeedbacktorelaxyou,andthengiveyouthenegativ
efeedback,whichistherealpurposeofourmeeting.I’llendwithmorepositivefeedbacksoyouwon’tbes
odisappointedorangryatmewhenyouleavemyoffice.Howdoesthatworkforyou?”
3.Observeyourreaction.Doyoufindyourselflaughingattheabsurdityofmakingyourstrategytransparent
?Ifyouthink“Icouldneversaythat,”it’sbecausethestrategyisunilaterallycontrolling:itisanattempttoc
ontrolthesituationwithoutlettingAlexandStaceyinontheplan.Unilateralcontrolstrategiesonlywork
whentheotherpeopledon’tknowyourstrategyorarewillingtoplayalong.Andtheyarelesseffectivetha
ntransparentstrategies.
Youcanusethisthree-
questiontransparencytestinanysituationtodeterminewhetheryourstrategyisunilaterallycontrolling.
AvoidtheSandwich:UseanEffective,TransparentStrategy
Here’sanapproachtogivingnegativefeedbackthatistransparentandincreasesyouandyourdirectreports’abil
itytolearnfromthefeedback:
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ogoingforward.I’mopentothepossibilitythatImaybemissingthingsorthatIcontributedtheconcernsI’mraisi
ng.Howdoesthatworkforyou?”
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rstrategyandaskingthemifitwillwork,you,Alex,andStaceyjointlydesignthemeetingprocess,increasingthec
hancethatyouwillalllearnfromit.Second,becauseeveryoneknowstheplannedsequenceofthemeeting,every
onecanworkjointlytokeepthemeetingontrack.Finally,byexpressingthatyoumaynothavealltheinformation
andthatyoumayevenhavecontributedtotheproblem,youshiftthemeetingfromoneinwhichyou’resimplytell
ingAlexandStaceywhatyouthinktoameetinginwhichallofyouareexploringtogetherwhathappenedandplan
ninghowtomoveforward.
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oachsimplybecauseyouaresayingdifferentwords.Itworksbecauseyou’veshiftedyourmindset.Thatshiftmea
nsthinkingofnegativefeedbackasawaytohelpyourdirectreportsimproveasyoulearnwhatyoumaybemissin
g.Itmeansthinkingoffeedbackasawayforyouandotherstomakeinformedchoicestogether.Givingnegativef
eedbacktransparentlymeansrespectingyourdirectreports,notcontrollingoralienatingthem;makesbothyo
urnegativeandpositivefeedbackfeelmoregenuinetoyourdirectreports;andlowersyourdiscomfortandtheir
anxiety.
{================}
Critical Thinking and Reflective Practices (8611)
B. Ed (2/5, 1/5 Years)
Autumn, 2017
ASSIGNMENT No. 01
Q.1 Do you agree that critical thinking is necessary for teachers in 20th century?
Support your answer with reference from various scholarly reading./
Answer:
The intellectual roots of critical thinking are as ancient as its etymology, traceable, ultimately,
to the teaching practice and vision of Socrates 2,500 years ago who discovered by a method
of probing questioning that people could not rationally justify their confident claims to
knowledge. Confused meanings, inadequate evidence, or self-contradictory beliefs often
lurked beneath smooth but largely empty rhetoric. Socrates established the fact that one
cannot depend upon those in "authority" to have sound knowledge and insight. He
demonstrated that persons may have power and high position and yet be deeply confused
and irrational. He established the importance of asking deep questions that probe profoundly
into thinking before we accept ideas as worthy of belief.
He established the importance of seeking evidence, closely examining reasoning and
assumptions, analyzing basic concepts, and tracing out implications not only of what is said
but of what is done as well. His method of questioning is now known as "Socratic
Questioning" and is the best known critical thinking teaching strategy. In his mode of
questioning, Socrates highlighted the need in thinking for clarity and logical consistency.
Socrates set the agenda for the tradition of critical thinking, namely, to reflectively question
common beliefs and explanations, carefully distinguishing those beliefs that are reasonable
and logical from those which — however appealing they may be to our native egocentrism,
however much they serve our vested interests, however comfortable or comforting they may
be — lack adequate evidence or rational foundation to warrant our belief.
Socrates’ practice was followed by the critical thinking of Plato (who recorded Socrates’
thought), Aristotle, and the Greek skeptics, all of whom emphasized that things are often very
different from what they appear to be and that only the trained mind is prepared to see
through the way things look to us on the surface (delusive appearances) to the way they
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really are beneath the surface (the deeper realities of life). From this ancient Greek tradition
emerged the need, for anyone who aspired to understand the deeper realities, to think
systematically, to trace implications broadly and deeply, for only thinking that is
comprehensive, well-reasoned, and responsive to objections can take us beyond the surface.
In the Middle Ages, the tradition of systematic critical thinking was embodied in the writings
and teachings of such thinkers as Thomas Aquinas (Sumna Theologica) who to ensure his
thinking met the test of critical thought, always systematically stated, considered, and
answered all criticisms of his ideas as a necessary stage in developing them. Aquinas
heightened our awareness not only of the potential power of reasoning but also of the need
for reasoning to be systematically cultivated and "cross-examined." Of course, Aquinas’
thinking also illustrates that those who think critically do not always reject established beliefs,
only those beliefs that lack reasonable foundations.
In the Renaissance (15th and 16th Centuries), a flood of scholars in Europe began to think
critically about religion, art, society, human nature, law, and freedom. They proceeded with
the assumption that most of the domains of human life were in need of searching analysis
and critique. Among these scholars were Colet, Erasmus, and Moore in England. They
followed up on the insight of the ancients.
Francis Bacon, in England, was explicitly concerned with the way we misuse our minds in
seeking knowledge. He recognized explicitly that the mind cannot safely be left to its natural
tendencies. In his book The Advancement of Learning, he argued for the importance of
studying the world empirically. He laid the foundation for modern science with his emphasis
on the information-gathering processes. He also called attention to the fact that most people,
if left to their own devices, develop bad habits of thought (which he called "idols") that lead
them to believe what is false or misleading. He called attention to "Idols of the tribe" (the
ways our mind naturally tends to trick itself), "Idols of the market-place" (the ways we misuse
words), "Idols of the theater" (our tendency to become trapped in conventional systems of
thought), and "Idols of the schools" (the problems in thinking when based on blind rules and
poor instruction). His book could be considered one of the earliest texts in critical thinking,
for his agenda was very much the traditional agenda of critical thinking.
2
In the 20th Century, our understanding of the power and nature of critical thinking has
emerged in increasingly more explicit formulations. In 1906, William Graham Sumner
published a land-breaking study of the foundations of sociology and anthropology, Folkways,
in which he documented the tendency of the human mind to think sociocentrically and the
parallel tendency for schools to serve the (uncritical) function of social indoctrination :
"Schools make persons all on one pattern, orthodoxy. School education, unless it is regulated
by the best knowledge and good sense, will produce men and women who are all of one
pattern, as if turned in a lathe. An orthodoxy is produced in regard to all the great doctrines
of life. It consists of the most worn and commonplace opinions which are common in the
masses. The popular opinions always contain broad fallacies, half-truths, and glib
generalizations (p. 630).
At the same time, Sumner recognized the deep need for critical thinking in life and in
education:
"Criticism is the examination and test of propositions of any kind which are offered for
acceptance, in order to find out whether they correspond to reality or not. The critical faculty
is a product of education and training. It is a mental habit and power. It is a prime condition
of human welfare that men and women should be trained in it. It is our only guarantee
against delusion, deception, superstition, and misapprehension of ourselves and our earthly
circumstances. Education is good just so far as it produces well-developed critical faculty. A
teacher of any subject who insists on accuracy and a rational control of all processes and
methods, and who holds everything open to unlimited verification and revision, is cultivating
that method as a habit in the pupils. Men educated in it cannot be stampeded. They are slow
to believe. They can hold things as possible or probable in all degrees, without certainty and
without pain. They can wait for evidence and weigh evidence. They can resist appeals to their
dearest prejudices. Education in the critical faculty is the only education of which it can be
truly said that it makes good citizens” (pp. 632, 633).
John Dewey agreed. From his work, we have increased our sense of the pragmatic basis of
human thought (its instrumental nature), and especially its grounding in actual human
purposes, goals, and objectives. From the work of Ludwig Wittgenstein we have increased our
3
awareness not only of the importance of concepts in human thought, but also of the need to
analyze concepts and assess their power and limitations. From the work of Piaget, we have
increased our awareness of the egocentric and sociocentric tendencies of human thought and
of the special need to develop critical thought which is able to reason within multiple
standpoints, and to be raised to the level of "conscious realization." From the massive
contribution of all the "hard" sciences, we have learned the power of information and the
importance of gathering information with great care and precision, and with sensitivity to its
potential inaccuracy, distortion, or misuse. From the contribution of depth-psychology, we
have learned how easily the human mind is self-deceived, how easily it unconsciously
constructs illusions and delusions, how easily it rationalizes and stereotypes, projects and
scapegoats.
To sum up, the tools and resources of the critical thinker have been vastly increased in virtue
of the history of critical thought. Hundreds of thinkers have contributed to its development.
Each major discipline has made some contribution to critical thought. Yet for most
educational purposes, it is the summing up of base-line common denominators for critical
thinking that is most important. Let us consider now that summation.
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Q.2 Compare the work of at least two critical theories and explain how they help in
developing critically pedagogy in classroom.
Answer:
Critical Theory (or "social Critical Theory") is a school of thought that stresses the reflective
assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social
sciences and the humanities. As a term, Critical Theory has two meanings with different
origins and histories: the first originated in sociology and the second originated in literary
criticism, whereby it is used and applied as an umbrella term that can describe a theory
founded upon critique; thus, the theorist Max Horkheimer described a theory as critical
insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them".
In sociology and political philosophy, the term Critical Theory describes the neo-Marxist
philosophy of the Frankfurt School, which was developed in Germany in the 1930s. This use of
4
the term requires proper noun capitalization, whereas "a critical theory" or "a critical social
theory" may have similar elements of thought, but not stress its intellectual lineage
specifically to the Franfurt School. Frankfurt School theorists drew on the critical methods of
Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud. Critical Theory maintains that ideology is the principal obstacle
to human liberation. Critical Theory was established as a school of thought primarily by the
Frankfurt School theoreticians Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer, Walter
Benjamin, and Erich Fromm. Modern Critical Theory has additionally been influenced by
György Lukács and Antonio Gramsci, as well as the second generation Frankfurt School
scholars, notably Jürgen Habermas. In Habermas's work, Critical Theory transcended its
theoretical roots in German idealism, and progressed closer to American pragmatism.
Concern for social "base and superstructure" is one of the remaining Marxist philosophical
concepts in much of contemporary Critical Theory.
While critical theorists have been frequently defined as Marxist intellectuals, their tendency to
denounce some Marxist concepts and to combine Marxian analysis with other sociological
and philosophical traditions has resulted in accusations of revisionism by Classical, Orthodox,
and Analytical Marxists, and by Marxist-Leninist philosophers. Martin Jay has stated that the
first generation of Critical Theory is best understood as not promoting a specific philosophical
agenda or a specific ideology, but as "a gadfly of other systems".
CRITICAL THEORY AND EDUCATION
Though relatively few educators--including educational technologists--appear to concern
themselves directly with critical theory (McLaren, 1994a), a number of influential educators are
pursuing the theory in one or more of its current manifestations. Henry Giroux and Peter
McLaren are among the best known of today's critical theorists, and we find critical theorists
working across a spectrum of intellectual frames: postmodernism (Peters, 1995); critical
pedagogy (Kanpol, 1994); power (Apple, 1993; Cherryholmes, 1988); teaching (Beyer, 1986;
Gibson, 1986; Henricksen & Morgan, 1990; Simon, 1992; Weiler & Mitchell, 1992); curriculum
(Apple, 1990; Giroux, Penna & Pinar, 1981; Beyer & Apple, 1988; Pinar, 1988; Castenell &
Pinar, 1993); feminist pedagogies (Ellsworth, 1989a; Lather, 1991; Luke & Gore, 1992); teacher
education (Sprague, 1992); mass media/communications studies (Hardt, 1993); vocational-
5
technical studies (Davis, 1991); research summaries about critical theory (Ewert, 1991); and
research using methods of the critical sciences (Carr & Kemmis, 1986; Grumet, 1992).
At least two publications attend in depth to Habermasian critical theory in education. Ewert
(1991) has written a comprehensive analysis of the relationships of Habermasian critical
theory to education, and in A Critical Theory of Education, Young (1990) tries to present a
rather complete picture of Habermas's critical theory and its relations to education. Young
says that critical theorists believe that extreme rationalization has lent itself to the further
development of an alienated culture of manipulation. In the science of education, this led to a
view of pedagogy as manipulation, while curriculum was divided into value-free subjects and
value-based subjects where values were located decisionistically. The older view of pedagogy
as a moral/ethical and practical art was abandoned (p. 20).
Young (1990) further points out that Habermas and other critical theorists believe that:
We are on the threshold of a learning level characterised by the personal maturity of the
decentered ego and by open, reflexive communication which fosters democratic participation
and responsibility for all. We fall short of this because of the one-sided development of our
rational capacity for understanding (p. 23).
Another seminal thinker who is responsible for several notions of critical theory in education
is Paulo Freire. Freire's work, especially Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire, 1969), has been
very influential in critical-education circles:
Freire's project of democratic dialogue is attuned to the concrete operations of power (in and
out of the classroom) and grounded in the painful yet empowering process of
conscientization. This process embraces a critical demystifying moment in which structures of
domination are laid bare and political engagement is imperative. This unique fusion of social
theory, moral outrage, and political praxis constitutes a kind of pedagogical politics of
conversation in which objects of history constitute themselves as active subjects of history*

ready to make a fundamental difference in the quality of the lives they individually and
collectively live. Freire's genius is to explicate ... and exemplify ... the dynamics of this process
of how ordinary people can and do make history in how they think, feel, act, and love (West,
1993, p. xiii).
6
{=================}
Q.3 Apply or observe at least five teaching strategies in a classroom and explain
which strategies help most in promoting critical thinking among students?
Answer:
Critical thinking has been an important issue in education, and has become quite the
buzzword around schools. The Common Core State Standards specifically emphasize a
thinking curriculum and thereby requires teachers to elevate their students’ mental workflow
beyond just memorization—which is a really good step forward. Critical thinking is a skill that
young minds will undeniably need and exercise well beyond their school years. Experts agree
that in keeping up with the ever-changing technological advances, students will need to
obtain, understand, and analyze information on a much more efficient scale. It is our job as
educators to equip our students with the strategies and skills they need to think critically in
order to cope with these tech problems and obstacles they face elsewhere.
Fortunately, teachers can use a number of techniques that can help students learn critical
thinking, even for children enrolled in kindergarten. Here are some teaching strategies that
may prove immediately effective:
Teaching Strategies to Encourage Creativity
Traditionally, elementary teachers prepare templates for art projects before they give it to
their students. By doing so, it levels the creative playing field and can, in some ways, help the
classroom run more smoothly if every child’s snowflake looks the same.
I know it may be a bit unnerving to relinquish a bit of control, but rest assured that not having
everything prepped in advance is a good thing. Instead, give students all of the supplies
needed to create a snowflake, and let them do it on their own. This will allow students to
become critical thinkers because they will have to use their prior knowledge to consider what
a snowflake looks like, how big it is, what color it is, etc.
Do Not Always Jump in to Help
It’s too easy to always find a solution for a student who needs your help. Kindergarteners
especially will get very upset when they can’t find their crayons or scissors. The easy way for a
teacher to answer is “It’s OK, you can borrow a pair of scissors from me.” Instead of always
7
readily finding a solution for your students, try responding with “Let’s think about how we can
find them.” Then, you can assist the student in figuring out the best possible solution for
finding their lost item.
Brainstorm Before Everything You Do
One of the easiest and most effective ways to get young children to think critically is to
brainstorm. Regardless of subject, have students think about what they’ll be doing, learning,
or reading— before actually starting each activity. Ask a lot questions, like “What do you
think this book will be about?” Or “Tell me three things you think you will be learning in this
lesson about space?” Give students every opportunity you can to be critical thinkers.
Classify and Categorize
Classification plays an important role in critical thinking because it requires students to
understand and apply a set of rules. Give students a variety of objects and ask them to
identify each object, then sort it into a category. This is a great activity to help students think
and self-question what object should go where, and why.
Compare and Contrast
Much like classifying, students will need to look closely at each topic or object they are
comparing and really think about the significance of each one. You can have students
compare and contrast just about anything—try this out with the book your class is reading
now. Compare and contrast the weather forecast for today and yesterday. Compare the shape
and color of a pumpkin to another vegetable. Compare and contrast today’s math lesson with
last week’s—the ideas are endless.
Make Connections
Encouraging students to make connections to a real-life situation and identify patterns is a
great way to practice their critical thinking skills. Ask students to always be on the look for
these connections, and when they find one to make sure they tell you.
Provide Group Opportunities
Group settings are the perfect way to get your kids thinking. When children are around their
classmates working together, they get exposed to the thought processes of their peers. They
8
learn how to understand how other people think and that their way is not the only route to
explore.
When this valuable skill is introduced to students early on in the education process, students
will be capable of having complex thoughts and become better problem solvers when
presented with difficulty. It’s important for students to possess a variety of skills, but it’s just
as important for them to understand the skills and how, and when to use them.
{=================}
Q.4 Write a personal note about how you reflect in daily life? Write down a detailed
reflection on a classroom that you may spend in teaching or observing at least
for three days?
Answer:
"Your words are the bricks and mortar of the dreams you want to realize. Your words are the
greatest power you have. The words you choose and their use establish the life you
experience." - Sonia Choquette
Whether we are young or old, we all have a story to tell, something to express and to offer
the world. Writing activities, and in particular reflective writing, fosters our creativity which is
driven by our life experiences. A growing body of research finds that writing about our
responses to events, situations or new information can have a variety of health benefits.
Reviewing aspects of our lives (its setbacks and positive aspects) can help manage stress,
anxiety and depression, improve mood, self-esteem and positive thinking, help process
broken relationships, help ease symptoms associated with trauma, chronic pain and illness,
and even strengthen our immune system.
Writer Ann Turkle says that, in effect, journaling "becomes a record of generous attention
paid to the immediate moment." Setting aside time to write and reflect helps us make sense
of the world around us, validates our experiences, helps us regroup and find balance in our
busy lives, and be a vehicle for decision making, change and growth.
By writing, we have the opportunity to build a blueprint, a moral compass by which we live
and how we treat others.
If journal writing helps us become better communicators, how do we get started?
9
1. Begin with a gracious heart: writing for ourselves is not about being the best writer, having
the correct spelling and grammar, or even having the nicest handwriting. Letting go of what
we think we should write about requires courage and can lead to boundless creative
possibilities. A journal is a safe place for us to work things out, express our innermost feelings
and engage with our own thoughts.
2. Set the tone: Carve out a special time and place to write. We each have a time of day when
we are more productive. For some, writing in the mornings is more productive and helps face
the day while others prefer writing in the evening to help process the day's events. Whether
in a quiet area of the house, or in a bustling coffee shop, finding the right time and
environment for reflective writing can help us relax. Carrying a small journal in our bag or
purse can help us record and retrieve special moments in our day.
3. Decide what type of journal to begin: Gratitude journals focus on life's blessings, prayer
journals record life moments or people in need prayer, and personal development journals
track career goals. Fitness journals help maintain accountability and encouragement with
healthier living choices, travel journals record experiences encountering new places and
people, and art journals serve as a way to collect inspirational thoughts, images, sketches and
clippings. Take your pick! 4. Use a variety of reflective prompts: a) Ask questions with a limit:
Write about two moments you'll never forget, five words that best describe you and 10 things
that make you smile. Limiting ourselves to certain parameters helps us focus.
b) Stream of consciousness writing: Based on Julia Cameron's The Artists Way, write down
whatever comes to mind for three minutes. Putting un-edited thoughts to paper is an
excellent meditative practice for our busy lives. c) Write a letter to yourself: Record your goals,
what you want your life to look like in a year's time, and ways you can attempt to achieve it.
Seal it and open it in six months to see how you are doing. d) Pick a memento: Choose an
object and write about when, where and from who it was received. Discuss its importance and
meaning. Objects have the power to open floodgates to meaningful memories.
5. Seek out community resources: Look for local writers' groups either at the library or
community centre, local creative arts classes that have writing components, or even swap
ideas with friends and family.
10
Remind yourself there is not a right or wrong way to write reflectively; it's a "space for
questions that may not have answers, a place for thoughts that may otherwise not have a
home and a safe container for emotions so that they do not have to be loose in the world."
(Kelly Brown)
{=================}
Q.5 Develop a reflective report of an event using Gibbs’ Model?
Answer:
Over the last three months we have been taking part in a number of different activities, which
wouldn’t normally be included in Physical Education in schools. These included Tai Chi,
Martial Arts, Rowing, Skipping and Parkour just to name a few. Whitehead (2010) suggested
that by acquiring a range of movement skills and patterns I would find it easier to access a
variety of structured physical activity settings. By taking part in these activities I was able to
develop my own knowledge and skills and also see how I could take these activities and
develop my skills in that area to then bring them into schools when I become a physical
educator. These different activities gave me a chance to develop other parts of physical
literacy such as confidence, motivation and self-expression (Whitehead 2010).
Most of the sessions that I had taken part in I had never done before and therefore wasn’t
physically literate in those areas, some of the sessions also put us into new learning
environments, especially rowing. It is important that we experience different activity settings

as physical competence will be enhanced, only by experiencing a range of settings will
movement patterns and skills be challenged (Whitehead 2010).
For the first few sessions I was injured and was unable to take part in the activities therefore I
was able to observe the group and watch their development through each activity and also
see if I noticed any reoccurring incidents. One thing I did notice was the divide between the
males and females of the group and the different levels of confidence they had. Lirgg (1993)
found that males preferred mixed sex classes in schools as they felt more confident, however
the females preferred same sex classes as there was more student involvement because there
was only females in the class.
11
Another thing that was noticed was the different levels of motivation the students had for
each different activity. Whitehead (2010) defined motivation to be a drive and eagerness to
take part, we need to be motivated to thrive in movement skills, maintain ability we already
have and make progress.
The majority of sports we took part in caused some of us to feel apprehensive and nervous
about taking part as we had never tried them before. However, there were a few sports
activities that didn’t really cause any of us to feel apprehensive, which were handball and
volleyball. This was because these sports activities had been carried out before in schools or
clubs, I also think as we were in teams and it became really competitive as a group we fell
back into our comfort zones. Whereas street dance and Tai Chi definitely made us feel out of
our comfort zones, this was because a lot of us hadn’t experienced activities where we had to
express ourselves with body movements and non-verbal communication.
Some individuals found this quite hard as they seemed to feel embarrassed, we were asked to
get into groups and make up a routine to show at the end of the session, out of eight groups
only two volunteered to perform as the majority of us were all too embarrassed and didn’t
feel comfortable doing it. Comfort zones can be defined as an image that is formed of us,
DePaul (2011) suggested that by letting go of the fear of making mistakes will help
individuals learn to accept mistakes will be made and try to compete anyway. When
comparing this reaction to that of Handball there was a huge difference in confidence levels
and motivation levels just because that competitive team environment is what we are used to.
Feelings
When I found out what activities we were going to be doing in this module I felt very excited
and motivated to take part in all of them. Whitehead (2010) proposed that young individuals
need to be aware of different activities and the movement demands they possess, they also
need to gain a rich variety of experiences, therefore it was going to be really beneficial to us
to try these new activities.
A few of the sessions, for example martial arts and rowing, I was feeling very apprehensive
about before, martial arts being something I had never done before and new it would include
12
some sort of wrestling which I didn’t feel comfortable about and rowing something that I had
always wanted to try but had never been brave enough.
By trying these new sports which I wasn’t used to taking part in I was able to see how I cope
when out of my comfort zone or in a different environment. Whitehead (2010) suggested that
a physically literate individual is able to read the environment taking shape, size, weight,
surface and speed into account All of these can be linked to rowing, and all of which I found
really difficult to read and cope with, however as the rowing session went on I feel that I
progressed and was able to adapt to the environment and become more literate.
Evaluation
Taking part in all of the different activities was really beneficial for my own personal
development through Physical Education. I was able to experience and attempt skills that I
had never tried before and learn and progress at the same time. A few of the skills really
tested our motivation and confidence levels and put us out of our comfort zones, for example
Martial Arts.
We had to practice movements on a partner which were sometimes a bit uncomfortable and
close, however this is what we had to do to learn the skill, and the amount of confidence we
had and motivation was what kept us attempting the skills. Whitehead (2010) realises that
complex environments can include those where we move as individuals without any
equipment or we experience unpredictable situations and we have to interact and move with
another individual. Physically literate individuals should hold enough physical competence to
succeed in these challenges (Whitehead 2010).
Teacher interactions was one really good experience that I took from the different physical
activities, in Handball, the coach really interacted with us and was asking questions on what
our team was doing well and what we needed to do to improve and try and win. Whitehead
(2010) suggested that the interaction between the coach and the participant is critical for the
development of physical literacy. However in Parkour, the coach seemed to become
frustrated when students decided they couldn’t carry out the tasks and they wanted to sit out,
a good coach in order to develop physical literacy needs to be alert to individuals responses
adapt and redirect the tasks so that participants do want to take part (Whitehead 2010).
13
Observing these different types of teacher interactions helped me learn which the best way to
help students progress in their lessons.
{=================}
14
Critical Thinking and Reflective Practices (8611)
B. Ed (2/5, 1/5 Years)
Autumn, 2017
ASSIGNMENT No. 02
Q.1 What is action research? What types of problems are addresses in action
research? Develop a proposal to conduct an action research in a school.
Answer:
Action research is either research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective
process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as
part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.
There are two types of action research: participatory and practical. Denscombe (2010, p. 6)
writes that an action research strategy's purpose is to solve a particular problem and to
produce guidelines for best practice. Action research involves actively participating in a
change situation, often via an existing organization, whilst simultaneously conducting
research. Action research can also be undertaken by larger organizations or institutions,
assisted or guided by professional researchers, with the aim of improving their strategies,
practices and knowledge of the environments within which they practice. As designers and
stakeholders, researchers work with others to propose a new course of action to help their
community improve its work practices.
Kurt Lewin, then a professor at MIT, first coined the term "action research" in 1944. In his 1946
paper "Action Research and Minority Problems" he described action research as "a
comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action and
research leading to social action" that uses "a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a
circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action". Action research is an
interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving actions implemented in a
collaborative context with data-driven collaborative analysis or research to understand

underlying causes enabling future predictions about personal and organizational change
(Reason & Bradbury, 2001). After six decades of action research development, many methods
have evolved that adjust the balance to focus more on the actions taken or more on the
research that results from the reflective understanding of the actions. This tension exists
between
1
1. those who are more driven either by the researcher's agenda or by participants;
2. those who are motivated primarily by instrumental goal attainment or by the aim of
personal, organizational or societal transformation; and
3. 1st-, to 2nd-, to 3rd-person research, that is, my research on my own action, aimed
primarily at personal change; our research on our group (family/team), aimed primarily at
improving the group; and 'scholarly' research aimed primarily at theoretical generalization
or large-scale change
Action research challenges traditional social science by moving beyond reflective knowledge
created by outside experts sampling variables, to an active moment-to-moment theorizing,

data collecting and inquiry occurring in the midst of emergent structure. "Knowledge is
always gained through action and for action. From this starting point, to question the validity
of social knowledge is to question, not how to develop a reflective science about action, but
how to develop genuinely well-informed action – how to conduct an action science". In this
sense, performing action research is the same as performing an experiment, thus it is
an empirical process.
What types of problems are addresses in action research?
Many of the principles enunciated by Baker & Proudford are principles which are fundamental
to the theory and practice of action research. Three terms in particular are of significance.
These are ‘participatory decision making’, ‘collaborative planning’ and ‘reflexive processes’. All
of these are key terms for action research. Kemmis & McTaggart (1988, p. 5) provide the
following definition of action research which emphasises its participatory, collaborative and
self-reflective nature and firmly locates it as a form of social action oriented towards
improvement. Action research is a form of collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by
participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own
social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of these practices and the
situations in which these practices are carried out.
The importance placed upon the improvement of understanding as well as practice and upon
the improvement of the situation in which the practice takes place as well as the practice
itself, points to the appropriateness of action research as a school improvement strategy. In
2
the improvement principles enunciated above the importance of schools “identifying their
own problems” and having “knowledge of alternative models” suggests that changes in
knowledge and understanding are as important to school improvement as are changes in
practices. Furthermore, the recognition that “altering the culture of the school is a critical
aspect of the improvement process” highlights the link between educational improvement
and improvement in “the situations in which [educational] practices are carried out”. While
there are various methods to conducting action research, there are also various types of
action research in the fields of education, including individual action research, collaborative
action research and school-wide action research. For example:
 Individual action research involves working independently on a project, such as an
elementary school teacher conducting her own, in-class research project with her
students.
 Collaborative action research involves a group of teachers or researchers working

together to explore a problem that might be present beyond a single classroom,
perhaps at the departmental level or an entire grade level.
 School-wide action research generally focuses on issues present throughout an
entire school or across the district. Teams of staff members would work together using
school-wide action research. As you can see, action research can be used in many
educational settings.
We'll explore two examples of action research being used in the field of education. The first
example discusses observation as the method of choice for collecting data in the classroom.
The second example discusses using surveys as the method of choice for collecting data. The
cycle of action research is emphasized in each of the examples.
{=================}
Q.2 Write down a critical essay on the current science syllabus taught at grade 4-6.
Answer:
3
Curriculum is typically a phenomenon which includes many dimensions of learning, including
rationale, aims, content, methods, resources, time, assessment, etc; which refers to various
levels of planning and decision-making on learning (for example, at the supra-, macro-,
meso-, micro- and nano-levels); or, international, national, local, classroom and individual
levels; and which relates to multiple representations of learning (for example, as already
mentioned, ‘intended’, ‘implemented’, ‘attained’, etc). Curriculum can be understood as the
totality of what children learn while at school – including what they learn through classroom
activities; in interdisciplinary tasks; across the school, for example, in the playground, at lunch
time when eating (civic responsibilities, etc.). This curricular totality also includes opportunities
for wider achievement through sport, music, debating, and the like. For the purposes of this
paper, curriculum is defined in a holistic, process-oriented way. This definition is based on the
belief that, while curriculum might commonly be perceived as a set of documents, the quality
of those documents is closely connected to the processes used to develop them and to the
means through which they are put into practice. In other words, judging the quality of the
curriculum itself cannot be done in isolation from the broader processes of curriculum
development, implementation and evaluation.
The syllabus has been structured to cover each of the three years of Primary 1-3. Each year·s
work has been grouped under five sections or themes (Diversity of matter, Cycles, Systems,
Energy and Interactions of matter). Each of these themes is related to everyday experiences of
the child, and to commonly observed phenomena in the child·s environment. The main aim is
to enable pupils appreciate the links between different scientific topics and thus help them to
integrate scientific ideas in dealing with phenomena. The sections/themes cover a core of
concepts which provide broad based understanding of the environment upon which the
foundation for further study could be built.
The topics under each theme are not to be looked at as separate or isolated blocks of
knowledge. In general, there are no clear borders between these themes. There are some
topics that are common to different themes. A conscious effort should therefore be made by
the teacher to let pupils see the link between themes whenever possible. In particular, it will
be noted that Systems, Energy and Interactions of matter are closely related. Another feature
of the syllabus is the Spiral Approach. This is characterised by revisiting concepts and skills at
4
different levels with increasing degrees of depth at each stage. The spiral approach has the
benefit of matching scientific concepts and skills to pupils· cognitive development. It
therefore helps pupils to build a gradual mastery of scientific skills.
Diversity of matter
Pupils should recognize that there is a great variety of living and non-living things in the
world. Humans seek to organise this great variety to better understand the world in which
they live. There are common threads that connect all living things. There are also unifying
factors in the diversity of nonliving things that scientists use to classify them. The study of the
diversity in the world should also help pupils to appreciate the importance of life·s diversity
and therefore take necessary steps for maintaining this diversity. Topics covered under
Diversity of matter include the following:
- Variety and characteristics of living things
- Materials
- Classification of organisms and materials
Cycles Pupils should recognise that there are repeated patterns of change in nature and
should seek to understand how these patterns occur. Examples of cycles are the day and
night cycle, life cycles of living things and the recycling of resources. Studying these cycles
helps humans to understand the Earth as a selfsustaining system and secondly, helps humans
to be able to predict events and processes. Topics included under cycles are as follows:
- Life cycles of the mosquito
- Water cycle
- Day and night cycles
- Convection and ventilation
- Reproduction in plants and animals
- Land and sea breezes etc.
{=================}
Q.3 Explain with examples why do we need assessment schedules as well as peer
support and mentoring?
Answer:
5
Peer mentoring is a form of mentorship that usually takes place between a person who has
lived through a specific experience (peer mentor) and a person who is new to that experience
(the peer mentee). An example would be an experienced student being a peer mentor to a
new student, the peer mentee, in a particular subject, or in a new school. Peer mentors are
also used for health and lifestyle changes. For example, clients, or patients, with support from
peers, may have one-on-one sessions that meet regularly to help them recover or rehabilitate.
Peer mentoring provides individuals who have suffered from a specific life experience the
chance to learn from those who have recovered, or rehabilitated, following such an
experience. Peer mentors provide education, recreation and support opportunities to

individuals. The peer mentor may challenge the mentee with new ideas, and encourage the
mentee to move beyond the things that are most comfortable. Most peer mentors are picked
for their sensibility, confidence, social skills and reliability.
Critics of peer mentoring insist that little is known of the nature of peer mentoring
relationships and that there are few consistent studies indicating the outcomes of peer
mentoring beyond good feelings among peers and the development of friendships. Peer
mentoring led by senior students may discourage diversity and prevent critical analysis of the
higher education system.
Program design characteristics
The frequency with which peer mentors and mentees meet varies according to the particular
mentoring program. Some pairs may make contact once a month, while others may meet 3-4
times per month or more. It is usually advised that mentors and mentees meet more often in
the beginning of the relationship in order to establish a good foundation. Mentors and
mentees may maintain contact through email, telephone or in-person meetings. Peer
mentoring organizations may also set up social events for those participating in the program.
These events provide good opportunities for increased social interaction between mentors
and mentees.
The compatibility of mentor and mentee is a factor that should be taken into consideration
when choosing pairs. Mentors and mentees may benefit from having similar backgrounds,
6
interests and life experiences. Age, gender, ethnicity, language preferences, and education
may be taken into consideration when pairing mentors with mentees.
The quality of the peer mentoring relationship is important for mentees to experience
positive results. A mentor relationship is more successful when the mentor cares for the whole
person and not just the academic or career side of a person. Successful mentors tend to be
available, knowledgeable, educated in diversity issues, empathic, personable, encouraging,
supportive, and passionate. Although this is not an exhaustive list of qualities, they have been
shown to be important for successful mentoring relationships. It is important to keep qualities
like this in mind when recruiting and training mentors.
The objectives of a peer mentoring program should be well-defined and measurable. The
effectiveness of the program should be monitored to ensure that the objectives are being
met. One way to monitor the effectiveness of a program is to administer evaluations to the
mentors and mentees.
In education
Peer mentoring in education was promoted during the 1960s by educator and theorist Paulo
Freire:
"The fundamental task of the mentor is a liberatory task. It is not to encourage the mentor’s
goals and aspirations and dreams to be reproduced in the mentees, the students, but to give
rise to the possibility that the students become the owners of their own history. This is how I
understand the need that teachers have to transcend their merely instructive task and to
assume the ethical posture of a mentor who truly believes in the total autonomy, freedom,
and development of those he or she mentors."
Peer mentors appear mainly in secondary schools where students moving up from primary
schools may need assistance in settling into the new schedule and lifestyle of secondary
school life, however peer mentoring can occur at the grade school level,
the undergraduate level, and the graduate school level. The goals of the program may vary
according to the level, the educational institution or the discipline.
Peer mentors in secondary schools aid in the transition of younger students from primary
school to secondary school. They may assist mentees with their school work and study
7
skills, peer pressure (such as pressure to use drugs or have sex), issues with attendance and
behavior, and typical family problems. Youth mentors are persons for children or adolescents
to spend time with, often to compensate for absent family members or an inadequate home
environment. Mentoring programs for youth can be especially useful for students who are
suffering from a lack of social support, and who therefore may be susceptible to delinquency.
Peer mentors for undergraduates may assist newly admitted students with time management,
study skills, organizational skills, curriculum planning, administrative issues, test preparation,
term paper preparation, goal setting, and grade monitoring. Additionally, such mentors may
provide other forms of social support for the student, such as friendship, networking, and
aiding the student's adjustment to college life.
A peer mentor at the graduate school level may assist new students in selecting an advisor,
negotiating the advisor/advisee relationship, preparation for major examinations, publishing
articles, searching for jobs, and adjusting to the rigors of graduate school life.
In higher education
Peer mentoring in higher education has enjoyed a good name and is seen favorably by both
educational administrators and students. During the last decade, peer mentoring has
expanded and is found in most colleges and universities, frequently as a means to outreach,
retain, and recruit minority students. Peer mentoring is used extensively in higher education
for several reasons:
 Benefits attributed to classical mentoring (when an older adult mentors a younger
person) can translate to peer mentoring relationships, mainly when the peer mentor
and the mentee have similar backgrounds;
 The lack of role models or volunteers forces administrators and student leaders to use
students as peer mentors of other students—usually first year students, ethnic
minorities, and women—in order to guide, support, and instruct junior students;
 Because peer mentoring programs require a low budget for administration and/or
development, they become a cheap alternative to support students perceived as likely
to fail.
8
Advantages in education
Peer mentoring may help new students adapt to a new academic environment faster. The
relationship between the mentor and mentee gives the mentee a sense of being connected to
the larger community where they may otherwise feel lost. Mentors are chosen because they
are academically successful and because they possess good communication, social and
leadership skills. As a consequence, mentors serve as positive role models for the students,
guiding them towards academic and social success. Mentors provide support, advice,
encouragement, and even friendship to students. Peer mentoring may improve student
retention rates.
Mentors also stand to benefit from the mentor/mentee relationship. Mentors develop
friendships through their participation in mentoring programs and usually derive satisfaction
from helping a younger student, and possibly shaping his or her life in a positive way.
Mentors may also be paid, and they may receive other benefits such as prioritized
registration, course credit, and references.
In higher education tutorial settings, the benefits of peer mentoring programs also extend to
class tutors. Using grounded theory techniques, Outhred and Chester found that five themes
underlie their experiences: role exploration, sharing responsibility, regulation of the peer-
tutored groups, harnessing the peer tutors’ role, and community.
{=================}
Q.4 Join a group of teachers on social media. Initiate a discussion and write down the
report of what was the topic. What did different people say, and than what is
your conclusion?
Answer:
I’m a big fan of social media. Facebook, Twitter, blogging platforms and other ‘web 2.0’ sites
offer users the ability to publish their thoughts and exchange ideas with a global audience. In
this article I will be discussing ways that you can use social media in your classes and courses.
You can use them in the following ways:
1) Building a class blog, where students can take it in turns to write posts on topics of
interest. Other students can then add comments. The teacher will probably need to moderate,
9
as comment threads can sometimes become heated and if you are representing an
educational institution, this could become a tricky issue.
2) Creating lessons based on blogs. I once devised a reading task taking four types of blog-
one academic, one on the life of an ambulance driver, one personal blog and another on
current affairs. I had students skim read each blog and answer thematic questions. They then
exchanged their opinions on each blog and decided which one seemed most interesting. We
then had a language analysis task, with samples of text from each blog. Students examined
differences in style (i.e. formality), lexis and tone, before focusing on the personal blog, which
used more colloquial language. After a matching task where some key phrases were
identified, students were set the task of writing a blog entry on something they had done that
week.
3) Having students start their own blogs. For this to work, they will probably need support,
as blogging is a habit that has to be kept up consistently and it takes time to get good at it.
Teachers can do this by examining the discourse features of personal blogs and producing a
structured lesson that enables learners to mimic these features in their own writing. Common
discourse features of personal blogs are:
 Short posts
 Informal or colloquial language
 First person perspective
 Contemporary topics
 Taking on the form of a dialogue with readers (especially in comment threads)
Twitter
Twitter is a microblogging site. Microblogging involves writing very short updates on what
you are doing, your ideas, activities, links to interesting sites and so on. Twitter limits updates
to 140 characters, and these updates are known in the Twitter community as ‘tweets’.
When you join the site, you can ‘follow’ other users’ tweets, which appear in a kind of news
feed when you sign in. They have the option of following you back. There is the same culture
10
of regular updates as with regular blogging- and some users are very prolific, tweeting many
times per day, while others are less active.
The short length of tweets is linguistically interesting because it forces the writer to be very
concise, and to focus very specifically on the readers’ interests.
Some ideas for using Twitter in a course:
1) Twitter warmer: Focus on a Twitter feed from a news source such as the BBC or CNN. In
small groups, learners can read one tweet and try to predict the broader details of the story.
They can then exchange ideas with another group before checking fuller details online.
2) Twitter search activity: Twitter has a powerful search tool that allows users to look for
specific search items in the ‘twittersphere’. Learners can be given an item of new vocabulary,
for example, and search for authentic examples of use in real time. They can then derive the
meaning from context (with appropriate support from the teacher).
3) Practice of short forms- the concise nature of Twitter lends itself to this
4) Practice of the present continuous- the immediacy of Twitter suggests the present
continuous, e.g. ‘writing an article on social media in the EFL classroom’
Facebook and other social networking sites
Social networking sites allow users to make connections and keep in touch with other users,
who become ‘friends’. As there is the possibility to interact via messaging (both instant and
via a form of email service) and status updates (you say what you are doing), there is the
opportunity for language practice.
Some sites are more or less ‘serious’ than others. LinkedIn, for example, is a social networking
site for professionals, and has an appearance and functionality to match.
How these sites can be used in class totally depends on the level to which your class
members are willing to interact with each other in a (relatively) private space, and how
suitable that is.
Some ideas:
1) Create a class group on a social networking site. Groups are a form of virtual club. If the
group has a clearly defined purpose, which can be defined in class (perhaps as a task making
11
use of various language items), this will encourage online activity. The teacher can act as an
administrator, suggesting topics for discussion and posting links. This can become more
exciting if members are attracted from outside the class by class members inviting their
friends to join.
2) Your school can create a profile on the site and students can become friends with the
school. Teachers can then answer students’ questions online and engage in discussions. This
will also have the effect of boosting the school’s profile.
Conclusion
Teachers must be aware that while it’s easy and exciting to put your thoughts all over the
web, you must be aware of the law in the country you are working in. You must also be
particularly careful if you’re working with minors and ensure that no sensitive information is
revealed online. Remind your learners never to share addresses or location specific contact
details with people online who they don’t know. You can help protect them by making blogs
password protected, protecting Twitter updates and creating hidden profiles on Facebook.
You should also check terms of use and privacy statements to make sure you know what the
owners of the sites are doing with any information they collect and to check that the services
are suitable for the age group of your class ( Many don’t allow users below the age of 13)
{=================}
Q.5 Write a reflective essay about course elaborating what were your expectation,
how did your learning improved regarding crucial thinking and reflective practice
and how useful is this topic course for you as a teacher?
Answer:
My expectations were not only met, they were exceeded. Before this class, I had no idea what
engineers really do. I knew they help make all of modern society function, but I had no idea in
what way. Besides revealing what my future has in store for me, this class helped me find my
true passion in aerospace engineering. When I applied for school I had no idea why I wanted
to be in aerospace other than it sounded like a challenge. I now realize that I am studying
12
aerospace because not all the “big questions” in this field have answers. Space is essentially
the last frontier, and I’m the kind of person that wants to take part in conquering it.
Coming into this class, I learned of the strict expectations, and was slightly intimidated.
However, once the course began, I relaxed when I realized all the benefits I would receive
from the course. Like we were forewarned, the class was very time-consuming and
challenging. However, it was definitely my favorite course this semester, and I’m disappointed
that I will not have the opportunity to take another course of this experience until my senior
year. Building a satellite was more than I expected when I came to CU, and I had so much fun
along the way. I might not have slept much, but it was definitely worth it. Therefore, this
course exceeded my expectations.
My expectations for this class were completely met. I was worried about all the work at first,
but it all paid off and the launch was really great. I had a few problems of not getting along
with team members but it didn't prove to be a huge problem.
Considering that I did not really know what to expect coming into this class, I would say that
my expectations were vastly exceeded. I began my freshman year without any inkling into
what was truly in store for me or what Aerospace Engineering was really about. All I knew of
this course was that it was a substitute for freshmen projects and dealt with space. It was a
win-win. However, I did first believe that this class would be easy due to that fact that it is
only worth two credits.
This assumption was soon proven to be false as the workload was said to rival that of a five
credit class. Awesome. At first the class did not appear to be too difficult and I thought that
all those stories I heard were exaggerated or possibly lies to trick us into working harder than
was necessary; only a few homework assignments were initially due and all that had taken
place were lectures.
As soon as our teams were assigned, however, this all changed. The pace seemed to increase
weekly, as our overall launch deadline inched closer and closer. Many a nights were spent
compiling and revising proposals (I think that Aden Lounge has actually claimed a good two
weeks of my adult life) and stress levels were always at peak before due dates. I began to see
13
that this class did entail much work and required some hard-core dedication (if you want to
do well, at least). I didn’t like this part, the whole work super hard for a two credit class.
But I would not exchange the experience for anything. Out of all of my classes, this one has
given me the best idea of what a career in Aerospace Engineering entails and what it requires.
I have come to learn that, while it is a rigorous and demanding discipline, it is also very
rewarding. Many of my friends enrolled in other majors actually came to envy me and my
workload because they wished they were as involved in their majors as I was. No other class
thus far has given me any hands on experience and apparently no class in the future will until
I reach upper division courses as a junior and senior.
Although I often complained of the difficulty and amount of time this class consumed, I did
enjoy it. And the workload really wasn’t that bad. I was just being a whiner. If anything, the
workload gave me an idea of what is in store for me in the future, which I can appreciate.
I came into my freshman year unsure if I wanted to pursue this major, but after completing
this class my doubts have been eliminated (if only temporarily) as I can actually imagine
myself doing this line of work in the future.
Plus, from what I’ve heard, there’s a huge job demand for Aerospace Engineers and they
make bank. What more could you possibly ask for?
Yes, all my expectations were met. I thoroughly enjoyed the class, expected a lot of hard work,
and got to launch something into space.
Yes, my expectations were met. Everything on the syllabus and in the first few classes was
done as planned. This really helped me to see where I am going with this educational pursuit.
It has also helped me to determine that I made the right decision. There are always small
changes that can be made to any class/situation that can make it better, but overall the class
is set up well. The students learn quite a bit about what they should expect in the future, but
it starts them off with something they are capable of completing on their own.
My expectations were definitely met. At the beginning of the class, I was unable to imagine
that we would actually be able to construct a working BalloonSat. Along the way, I also picked
up many different skills/pieces of knowledge that I feel will benefit me as an aerospace
engineer. Of course, one of these skills was the not as fun writing of the proposal and DD
14
revisions. Even though that process was not as enjoyable as the actual construction, it gave
me valuable insight into how actual aerospace projects progress and showed how many
things evolve throughout the process. Through this class, I felt that I learned much more
about the aerospace industry and what it means to be an aerospace engineer than I did in
Intro to Aerospace Engineering. The guest speakers were very interesting, and I found myself
even more excited about aerospace after each lecture. I have learned so much through this
class, and am truly thankful that I had the opportunity to take it.
{=================}
15

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We Provide Aiou Assignment, Also Guess Paper, Old Paper, Key Books & Other Helping Material.

3. Technology Leads the Change

Types of Behavior Problems

Effects of Behavior Problems

Biting Nails: Is There Really a Cure?

Blankets and Bears?

Helping Kids with Separation Anxiety

separated from a parent or caregiver.

Helping the Shy Child Bloom

Q 3. a) Differentiate between management, control and discipline.

Importance of Classroom Management

First off, why is classroom management important?

be administered and the results will be more effective.

How to Manage a Classroom Effectively

behavior you want. Start out the day with

going to be students that want

that seems to keep their classes free of disciplinary problems?

3. Deal with Disruptions with as Little Interruption as Possible

your class momentum as possible. If

4. Avoid Confrontations in Front of Students

5. Stop Disruptions with a Little Humor

Q 4. a) Discuss teacher made achievement tests.

Features of Teacher-Made Tests:

1. The items of the tests are arranged in order of difficulty.

4. The preparation of the items conforms to the blueprint.

5. Test construction is not a single man’s business, rather it is a co-operative endeavour.

7. Teacher-made tests may also be employed as a tool for formative evaluation.

8. Preparation and administration of these tests are economical.

10. Teacher-made tests are least used for research purposes.

Steps/Principles of Construction of Teacher-made Test:

English class VII (Public Sector).

Planning of a teacher-made test includes:

given to the objectives to be measured.

d. Deciding the number and forms of items (questions) according to blueprint.

(i) The time for completion of test,

(ii) The marks allotted to each item,

(iii) Required number of items to be attempted,

(iv) How and where to record the answer? and

(v) The materials, like graph papers or logarithmic table to be used.

Uses of Teacher-Made Tests:

2. To help him in formulating new strategies for teaching and learning.

4. To measure students’ academic achievement in a given course.

5. To assess how far specified instructional objectives have been achieved.

6. To know the efficacy of learning experiences.

7. To diagnose students learning difficulties and to suggest necessary remedial measures.

8. To certify, classify or grade the students on the basis of resulting scores.

11. Good teacher-made tests can be exchanged among neighbouring schools.

13. To assess pupils’ growth in different areas.

Q 5. a) Discuss the initiatives taken by the government for universalization of education?

found to use physical punishment with their students.

ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE BOARD

Suggestion for improvement:

Secondary level in Pakistan

Quality of education at the time of independence.

Major factors which brought

b) Discuss the general and specific objectives of secondary education.

Related to learning progressions

Economic prosperity of a nation

Young generation for leadership

Islamic environment and Islamic culture

WHY ISLAMIC EDUCATION?

American society today is drifting aimlessly in a sea of problems:

Gearing up to teach life skills

Problems in Islamic Schools:

B.ed All Assignments (1st & 2nd Semeseter)

B.ed All Assignments (1st & 2nd Semeseter)