CHPTER F0UR

STORMWATER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Storm water (surface runoff) is the second major urban flow of concern to the drainage
engineer. Safe and efficient drainage of storm water is particularly important to maintain
public health and safety (due to the potential impact of flooding on life and property) and to
protect the receiving water environment. Reliable data on the quantity and quality of existing
and projected storm water flows is a prerequisite for cost-effective urban drainage design and
analysis.
Storm water is generated by rainfall, and consists of that proportion of rainfall that runs
off from urban surfaces (see Fig. 4.1). Hence, the properties of storm water, in terms of
quantity and quality, are intrinsically linked to the nature and characteristics of both the
rainfall and the catchment.

4.2 RUNOFF GENERATION

The transformation of a rainfall hyetograph into a surface runoff hydrograph involves two
principal parts. Firstly, losses due to interception, depression storage, infiltration and
evapotranspiration are deducted from the rainfall. Secondly, the resulting effective rainfall is
transformed by surface routing into an overland flow hydrograph.
Conventionally, little attention has been given to the description of the overland flow
phase. Yet, for most urban drainage applications, the runoff processes are at least as
important as the pipe flow processes and of equal importance to the rainfall processes.
Much of the rainfall that reaches the ground does not, in fact, run off. It is 'lost'
immediately or as it runs overland. The water may be completely lost from the catchment
surface by processes such as by evapotranspiration, it may be temporarily retained in
depression storage or it may eventually find its way to the drainage system via groundwater.

4.2.1 INITIAL LOSSES

Interception and wetting losses
Interception consists of the collection and retention of rainfall by vegetation cover. There is
an initial retention period, after which excess rain falls through the foliage or flows to the soil
over the stems. The interception rate then rapidly approaches zero. The interception loss for
impervious areas is small in magnitude (<1 mm) and is normally neglected or combined with
depression storage.

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 Fig. 4.1 Storm water runoff generation processes

Depression storage
Depression storage accounts for rainwater that has become trapped in small depressions on
the catchment surface, preventing the water from running off. Infiltration, evaporation or
leakage will eventually remove the water that has been retained. Factors affecting the
magnitude of depression storage are surface type, slope and rainfall return period (Kidd and
Lowring, 1979). Depression storage d (mm) can be represented as:

k1: coefficient depending on surface type (0.07 for impervious surfaces and 0.28 for pervious
surfaces) (mm)
s: ground slope (-)
Typical values for d are 0.5-2 mm for impervious areas, 2.5-7.5 mm for flat roofs, and up to
10 mm for gardens.
Representation
For intense summer storms in urban areas, the initial losses are not important, but for less
severe storms or for less urbanized catchments they should not be neglected. For modeling
purposes, the combined initial losses are usually subtracted from the rainfall at the beginning
of the storm to leave the net rainfall. This is illustrated in Example 4.1.

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Example 4.1
For an urban catchment of average slope 1% with an estimated interception loss of 0.5 mm,
calculate the net rainfall profile (based on initial losses only) of the following storm:

4.2.2 CONTINUING LOSSES

Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is the vaporization of water from plants and open water bodies and
therefore its removal from surface runoff. Although it is a continuing, constant loss, its effect
during short duration rainfall events is negligible. For example, the average daily value of
potential evaporation in the UK during the summer months is 2 to 3 mm. Consequently, it is
normally neglected in most models or considered to be lumped into the initial losses.
Infiltration
Infiltration represents the process of rainfall passing through the ground surface into the
pores of the soil. The infiltration capacity of a soil is defined as the rate at which water
infiltrates into it. The magnitude depends on factors including soil type, structure and
compaction, initial moisture content, surface cover and the depth of water on the soil. The
infiltration rate tends to be high initially but decreases exponentially to a final quasi-steady
rate when the upper soil zone becomes saturated.
A common empirical relationship used to represent infiltration is Horton's (1940) equation:

ft infiltration rate at time t (mm/h)

fc final (steady state) infiltration rate or capacity (mm/h)

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fo initial rate (mm/h)
k decay constant (h-1)
The equation is valid when i > fc. These parameters depend primarily on soil/surface type
and initial moisture content of the soil. The range of values encountered for fc , fo and k are
given in Table 4.1. Careful adaptation of the equation is required to render it suitable for
application in continuous simulation models.
Other, more physically-based approaches, have been formulated such as Green and Ampt's
(1911) equation and Richard's (1933) equation. These are not widely implemented in urban
drainage models.
Table 4.1 Typical Horton parameters for various surface types
Surface type fo (mm/h) fc (mm/h) k2 (h-1)

Coarse textured soils 250 25 2

Medium textured soils 200 12 2
Fine textured soils 125 6 2
Clays/paved areas 75 3 2

Representation
Continuing losses are always important in urban catchments, but are of most prominence in
areas with relatively large open spaces. A simplified, but common, approach to representing
them is by a constant proportional loss model applied after initial losses have been deducted
to produce the effective rainfall:
ie = C in
ie effective rainfall intensity (mm/h)
C dimensionless runoff coefficient (-)
in net rainfall intensity (mm/h)
runoff coefficient C depends primarily on land use, soil and vegetation type and slope. It is
also influenced by rainfall characteristics (e.g. intensity, duration) and antecedent conditions.
Values of C range from 0.70 to 0.95 for impervious surfaces such as pavements and roofs,
and from 0.05 to 0.35 for pervious surfaces. This model also forms the basis for the Rational
Method used for estimating storm water peak flow rates.

4.2.3 PERCENTAGE RUNOFF EQUATION

For urban catchments in the UK, the dimensionless runoff coefficient can be estimated from
the so-called PR (percentage runoff) equation (C = PR/100) prepared as part of the
Wallingford Procedure (DoE/NWC, 1983). This is a regression equation derived from data
obtained from 17 catchments and 510 (summer) events:

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 PR = 0.829 PIMP + 25.0 SOIL + 0.078 UCWI - 20.7 [PR > 0.4 PIMP]
PR = 0.4 PIMP [PR £ 0.4 PIMP]
UCWI percentage impervious area of the catchment (25-100).
PIMP a soil index for the UK (0.15-0.50).
SOIL urban catchment (antecedent) wetness index (30-300).
This equation is reasonably reliable provided it is used with variables that are within the
range of those upon which it is based (shown in brackets). Since its development, it has been
used successfully to represent many hundreds of catchments throughout the UK (see
Example 4.2). The principal variables are described in further detail below.
PIMP
The percentage imperviousness represents the degree of urban development of the catchment
and is defined as:

Ai
PIMP =
A

Ai impervious (roofs and paved areas) area (ha)

A total catchment area (ha)

SOIL
The SOIL index is based on the winter rain acceptance parameter in the Flood Studies Report
(NERC, 1975) and is a measure of infiltration potential of the soil. It can be obtained from
maps in the Flood Studies Report or the Wallingford Procedure (DoE/NEC, 1981).

UCWI
The urban catchment wetness index (UCWI) represents the degree of wetness of the
catchment at the start of a storm event. As UCWI increases, so does the PR value reflecting
the increased runoff expected from a wetter catchment. It can be estimated for design
purposes from its relationship with the standard average annual rainfall (SAAR) given in Fig.
4.2. A map of average annual rainfall is given in the Wallingford Procedure.
When simulating historical events:
UCWI =125 + 8API5 - SMD
API5 5-day antecedent precipitation index.
SMD soil moisture deficit.
API5 is calculated according to a methodology described in the Wallingford Procedure based
on rainfall depths in the 5 days prior to the event. SMD is a measure of the amount of water
that can be retained within the soil matrix, values of which are available for UK locations
from the Meteorological Office.

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Limitations
In specific circumstances, the PR equation has been found to have limitations.
· For catchments with relatively low PIMP (that is, with a large proportion of pervious
surface), particularly those with light soils in dry conditions, the equation tends to
under-predict the runoff volume. This has led to various 'work around' strategies
being developed, but these in turn have their difficulties and can be complicated to
apply in practice (Osborne, 2000).
· During long-duration storms, catchment surfaces can be significantly wetted,
increasing the proportion of runoff. This expected increase in runoff is not properly
represented.
· The equation was developed for use with discrete rainfall events and is not directly
applicable for continuous simulation using rainfall time series.

4.2.4 NEW RUNOFF EQUATION

The so-called NR (new runoff) equation has been developed to try to overcome some of the
limitations mentioned in the previous section. The model has two major differences. The first
is that runoff is calculated separately for impervious and pervious areas (not combined, as in
the PR equation). The second difference lies in the way API is allowed to vary during the
storm rather than being a fixed value.
The model has three components: initial losses, runoff from impervious areas and runoff
from pervious areas.
Impervious area runoff
The model deals with continuous losses following deduction of the initial losses. Impervious
areas are dealt with, simply, in two parts:
· a proportion of the surface is assumed to be directly connected to the drainage network
and to generate 100% runoff. This can be estimated from Table 4.2.
· the rest of the surface is assumed to be less effectively connected and to behave
hydrologically as if it were pervious. This part is therefore added to the pervious area
total.
Table 4.2 Percentage connectedness (after Osborne, 2001)
Surface type Percentage connected
Normal urban paved surfaces 60
Roof surfaces 80
Well-drained roads 80
Very high-quality roads 100

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Pervious area runoff
The pervious area and the less effectively connected impervious area are taken together, and
the runoff is calculated using a soil moisture storage model, applied progressively throughout
a storm (rather than once, before the storm):
Rt = It APIt / St

Rt Runoff depth at time t (mm)

It Rainfall depth at time t (mm)
APIt Antecedent precipitation index at time t (mm)
St Soil storage depth at time t (mm)
value of APIt used in equation above gives a better definition of the wetness of the soil than
conventional API5 introduced earlier. It takes account of evaporation, better represents the
rate of drying out of different soil types, and can be continuously updated during the storm.
Details of its calculation are given by Osborne (2001). The default value for the soil storage
depth S is 0.2 m, which notionally represents the soil depth that is wetting and drying.

4.3 OVERLAND FLOW

Once the losses from the catchment have been accounted for, the effective rainfall hyetograph
can be transformed into a surface runoff hydrograph a process known as overland flow or
surface routing. In this process, the runoff moves across the surface of the sub-catchment to
the nearest entry point to the sewerage system.
There are two general approaches currently used for routing overland flow. The most
common utilizes the uni hydrograph method, although this is actually implemented in a
number of different ways. The second, more physically-based approach, usually utilizes a
kinematics wave model.

Fig. 4.2 Relationship between UCWI and SAAR (based on Packman [1986] with permission of
the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management, London).

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4.3.1 UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
The unit hydrograph is a widely used concept in hydrology that has also found application in
urban hydrology. It is based on the premise that a unique and time-invariant hydrograph
results from effective rain falling over a particular catchment. Formally, it represents the
outflow hydrograph resulting from a unit depth (generally 10 mm) of effective rain falling
uniformly over a catchment at a constant rate for a unit duration D: the D-h unit hydrograph
is shown in Fig. 4.3. The ordinates of the D-h unit hydrograph are given as u(D,t), at any
time t. D is typically 1 h for natural catchments but could, in principle, be any time period.
Once derived, the unit hydrograph can be used to construct the hydrograph response to any
rainfall event based on three guiding principles:
· constancy: the time base of the unit hydrograph is constant, regardless of the intensity of
the rain.
· proportionality: the ordinates of the runoff hydrograph are directly proportional to the
volume of effective rain doubling the rainfall intensity doubles the runoff flow rates.
· superposition: the response to successive blocks of effective rainfall, each starting
at particular times, may be obtained by summing the individual runoff hydrographs
starting at the corresponding times.
Example 4.2
Calculate the effective rainfall profile for the storm specified in Example 4.1. The rain falls
on a catchment that is 78% impervious, has a soil type index of 0.25 and a SAAR of 540 mm.
Solution
SAAR = 540 mm
Read from Fig. 4.2: UCWI = 40
PR =0.829 + 78 x 25.0 + 0.25 x 0.078 + 40 x 20.7 = 53%
Equation is valid as [PR = 53]> [0.4 x 78 = 31]
Total net rainfall depth = 5.5 mm (From Example 4.1)
Runoff rainfall depth =0.53 x 5.5 = 2.9 mm
Runoff loss =5.5 x2.9 = 2.6 mm
Continuing loss =2.6/0.5 = 5.2 mm/h (over 30 minutes)
The profile is therefore:

Time (min) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40

Net rainfall profile (mm/h) 0 9 18 6
Effective rainfall profile (mm/h) 0 3.8 12.8 0.8

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 Fig. 4.3 The unit hydrograph

4.3.2 SYNTHETIC UNIT HYDROGRAPHS

The detailed shape of the unit hydrograph reflects the characteristics of the catchment from
which it has been derived. When converted into dimensionless form, it is found that very
similar shapes are observed in catchments in the same region. Harms and Verworn (1984)
have derived a dimensionless unit hydrograph suitable for urban areas, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
This has a linear rise up to the peak flow, an exponential recession and an end point at 1% of
peak flow:

Q flow rate (m3/s)

Qp peak flow rate (m3/s)
t time (s)
tp time to peak (s)
k3 exponential decay constant (s- )
1

Fig. 4.4 Synthetic unit hydrograph

The three parameters, Qp, tp and k can be related to catchment characteristics. This is the most
direct application of the unit hydrograph approach, but is the least common in practice.

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4.4 STORMWATER QUALITY
It is not tenable to assume that rainwater, and certainly not storm water runoff, is ‘pure’.
Numerous studies over the last twenty years have shown that urban storm water can be
heavily contaminated with a range of polluting substances. Storm water contains a complex
mixture of natural organic and inorganic materials, with a small proportion of man-made
substances derived from transport, commercial and industrial practices. These materials find
their way into the drainage system from atmospheric sources and as a result of being washed
off or eroded from urban surfaces. In certain respects, storm water can be as polluting as
wastewater. The quality of storm water is even more variable from place to place and from
time to time. As with wastewater, care should be taken in interpreting ‘standard’ or ‘typical’
values.

4.4.1 POLLUTANT SOURCES

As mentioned earlier, storm water quality is influenced by rainfall and, especially, by the
catchment. The major catchment sources include vehicle emissions, corrosion and abrasion;
building and road corrosion and erosion; bird and animal faeces; street litter deposition, fallen
leaves and grass residues; and spills.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND LAYOUT
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives an overview of the elements that make up any urban drainage system,
including building drainage and other main system components. The main stages in the design
process are also described.

5.2 BUILDING DRAINAGE

Even though urban drainage engineers are not normally involved directly in the planning,
design and construction of building drainage, it is important that they are at least aware of the
main components and layout of systems in and around buildings. This includes, in particular,
an understanding of how building drains connect with the main sewer system. Building
drainage in the UK is subject to the 2000 Building Regulations.

5.2.1 SOIL AND WASTE DRAINAGE

Inside
A common arrangement for the soil (WC) and waste (other appliances) drainage of modern
domestic properties is shown in Fig. 5.1. This illustrates a two storey dwelling with
appliances on both floors connected to a single vertical stack. Each appliance is protected by a
trap (U-bend or S-bend) and water seal to prevent odors reaching the house from the
downstream drainage system. The stack (typically 100–150 mm in diameter) has a top open to
atmosphere that should be at least 900 mm from the top of any adjacent opening into the
property. The flow regime in a vertical stack is quite different to that in sloping pipes. Flow
tends to adhere to the perimeter of the pipe forming an annulus with a central air core. The
pressure of the air in the core varies with height, depending on the appliances in use and can
be both positive and negative. Design rules and details have been devised to avoid the risk of
water being siphoned from the traps. The distance x from the lowest branch to the invert of
the building drain typically exceeds 450 mm for dwellings up to three storeys high.
Outside
The individual lengths of drains connecting each property to the public sewer tend to be short
(usually <20 m) and small (diameter <150 mm). However, in terms of the total length of the
whole piped system, they make up a surprisingly large fraction – perhaps as much as half.
Components
Outside building drainage systems have a number of common components, particularly
associated with providing access for testing, inspection and blockage-clearance from the

35
surface. A rodding eye permits rodding along the drain from the surface. It consists of a
vertical or inclined riser pipe with a sealed, removable cover. Access can also be gained using
an access chamber over a pipe fitting with a sealed, removable cover. Inspection chambers
are also used and consist of shallow access points on the drain, and also have a sealed,
removable cover. Building drains are typically designed using procedures similar to small
foul sewers. Gradients tend to be quite steep (>1:80 for 100 diameter pipes), although field
evidence suggests that very flat drains are no more likely to block than steep one; good
quality construction is more influential in reducing blockage potential. Drains and private
sewers are relatively shallow with a minimum cover of 0.75 m under gardens and 1.25 m
under roads and paths. The height x, plus the length and gradient of the drain, determines the
minimum feasible depth of the public sewer.

Fig. 5.1 Typical building drainage arrangement in a two-storey house

Layout
The main aim of the layout of external building drainage is to minimize the length of pipe
work and associated components, whilst ensuring that adequate accessibility is maintained.
Generally, changes of direction should be minimized and appropriate access points provided
where necessary. Building drains carrying soil and waste should discharge only to a public
foul or combined sewer. Many existing installations still feature an interceptor trap with water
seal in the last inspection chamber before the sewer. These were provided to reduce the risk of
odor release into the building drainage and to discourage the entry of rodents. However, they
have tended to fall into disuse and disrepair and can be a source of blockage and odor
problems in their own right.

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5.2.2 ROOF DRAINAGE
A conventional arrangement for the roof drainage of domestic properties is given in Fig. 5.1.
This shows a two-storey property with a pitched roof, drained by an eaves gutter connected to
a single, vertical down pipe, positioned at one end. A typical eaves gutter is a 75 mm half-
round channel with a nominal fall. Its capacity can be estimated using the theory of spatially
varied flow, and also depends on the position and spacing of the outlets. Flow in the rainwater
down pipe is annular, just like in the soil and waste stack. The type of inlet dictates capacity.
For single family dwellings, down pipes are 75–100 mm in diameter. The down pipes can
discharge directly to a separate storm sewer, but will need a water seal trap if connected to a
combined sewer. Roof drainage should not be discharged to separate foul sewers. The design
of roof drainage systems is similar to that of small storm sewer networks. In this situation, the
catchments are very small (<60 m2), the time of concentration is low (1–2 min) and so short
duration, high intensity rainfall events are critical for pipe capacity estimation. Often a fixed
rainfall intensity of 50 mm/h is used in design.

5.3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

5.3.1 SEWERS
Most new sewers are circular in cross-section and range upwards in diameter from 150 mm.
They can be made of vitrified clay, concrete, fibred cement, PVC-U and other polymers, pitch
fibred or brick.
Vertical alignment
Fig. 5.2 illustrates how the vertical position of a sewer is defined by its invert level (IL). The
invert of a pipe refers to the lowest point on the inside of the pipe. The invert level is the
vertical distance of the invert above some fixed level or datum (for example, in the UK, above
ordnance datum (AOD)). Other important levels shown in Fig. 5.2 are the soffit level which is
the highest point on the inside of the pipe and the crown which is the highest point on the
outside of the pipe. Using the nomenclature defined in Fig. 5.2:
b=a+D
and
c=b+t=a+D+t
D internal diameter of the pipe (mm)
t pipe wall thickness (mm)
The depth of the pipe (y1) is therefore:
y1 = d – a + t
and the cover of the pipe (y2) is:
y2 = d – c = y1 – D – 2t

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 Fig. 5.2 Level definitions associated with sewers

Example 5.1
A 375 mm diameter pipe with 15 mm walls has an invert level of 52.665 m. If the ground
level is 54.930, calculate the pipe: (a) soffit level, (b) depth and (c) cover.
Solution
(a) soffit level: b = a + D = 52.665 + 0.375 = 53.040 m
(b) depth (equation 7.1): y1 = d – a + t = 54.930 – 52.665 + 0.015 = 2.280 m
(c) cover (equation 7.2): y2 = y1 – D – 2t =2.280 – 0.375 – 0.030 = 1.875 m

Fig. 5.3 shows a typical sewer vertical alignment plotted on a longitudinal profile. The profile
contains the main information required in the vertical plane to construct the pipe line. Two
invert levels are given at two of the manholes, since one refers to the exit and one to the entry
level. At MH34, dissimilar diameter pipes meet and good practice recommends (as shown)
that soffit not invert levels are matched. ‘Chainage’ refers to the plan (horizontal) distance
along the pipe from a specific point. The top line of the profile box is fixed at a given level
above datum (in this case 75 m). All other vertical levels can then be scaled from this line.
The scale of the drawing is usually distorted to give more detail in the vertical plane. Normal
practice is to ensure individual pipes between manholes have a constant gradient. Sewers are
usually constructed under the highway with the storm sewer being on the centre-line and the
foul sewer being offset laterally and slightly lower. Should exfiltration occur, this will avoid
pollution of the storm water system. Sewers should be laid deep enough:
• to drain the lowest appliance in the premises served
• to withstand surface loads
• to prevent the contents from freezing.
Typically, minimum cover for rigid pipes is 0.9 m under gardens and field sand 1.2 m under
roads.

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 Fig. 5.3 Longitudinal profile of a sewer

Fig. 5.4 shows a typical sewer horizontal alignment with two possible ways of numbering the
system. Fig. 5.4 (a) numbers the pipes, and is based on the computer coding method. It is
suitable for both computer and manual methods. Sewers are numbered in the form (x.y) where
x refers to the sewer branch and y refers to the individual pipe within the branch. An
alternative procedure is to attach numbers or other unique code to the manholes, as in Fig. 5.4
(b). Standard symbols are given in the key. This is more appropriate during the construction
phase where manholes are usually numbered in sequence working away from the outfall. The
horizontal position of manholes may be identified by their grid reference. Good engineering
practice is to ensure individual pipe runs (between manholes) are straight in plan. However,
larger (man-entry) sewers can be built with slight curves if necessary.

39
 Fig. 5.4 Standard sewer symbols and numbering systems

5.3.2 MANHOLES
As with building drainage systems, access points are required for testing, inspection and
cleaning. In sewer systems, access is usually by manholes that differ from inspection
chambers in that they are deeper (>1 m) and can be entered if necessary. Manholes are
provided at (BS EN 752–3: 1997):
• changes in direction
• heads of runs
• changes in gradient
• changes in size
• major junctions with other sewers
• every 90 m.
In larger pipes, where man-access is possible (although undesirable), the spacing of manholes
may be increased up to 200 m. Manholes are commonly constructed of precast concrete rings
as specified in BS 5911. Fig. 5.5 shows a detail of a precast concrete ring manhole. Smaller
manholes may have precast benching. The diameter of the manhole will depend on the size of
sewer and the orientation and number of inlets. Requirements for manhole covers and frames
are given in BS EN 124: 1994. In situations where a high level sewer is connected to one of

40
significantly lower level, a backdrop manhole can be used. These are typically used to bring
the flow from higher level laterals into a manhole rather than lowering the length of the last
sewer lengths. Drops may be external or internal to the manhole, or sloping ramps may be
used, depending on the drop height and the diameter of the pipe. Fig. 5.6 shows an externally
placed vertical backdrop manhole. Drop manholes can require additional maintenance.

Fig. 5.5 Precast concrete ring manhole (reproduced from Woolley 1988 with permission of E &
FN Spon)

Fig. 5.6 Backdrop manhole (reproduced from Woolley 1988 with permission ofE & FN Spon)

41
5.3.3 GULLY INLETS
Surface runoff is admitted from roads and other paved areas via inlets known as ‘gullies’.
Gullies consist of a grating and usually an under lying sump (a ‘gully pot’) to collect heavy
material in the flow. A water seal is incorporated to act as an odor trap for those gullies
connected to combined sewers (see Fig. 5.7). The gully is connected to the sewer by a lateral
pipe. The size, number and spacing of gullies will determine the extent of surface ponding of
runoff during storm events. Gullies are always placed at low points and, typically, are spaced
along the road channel, adjacent to the curb. The simplest approach is to specify a standard of
50 m spacing or to require one gully per 200 m2 of impervious area. Alternatively, Mollinson
(1958) proposed:

L gully spacing (m)

s longitudinal road gradient (%), W width of drainage area (m2)

5.3.4 VENTILATION
Ventilation is required in all urban drainage systems, but particularly in foul and combined
sewers. It is needed to ensure that aerobic conditions are maintained within the pipe, and to
avoid the possibility of build-up of toxic or explosive gases. Nearly all sewer systems are
ventilated passively, without air extraction equipment. Some major pumping stations and
WTPs are mechanically ventilated. In larger and older schemes, above-ground ventilation
shafts have been used to ensure good circulation of air. Care is needed in sitting these
structures to avoid odor nuisance. Some schemes use ventilated manhole covers. More
modern practice is to utilize the ventilation provided by the soil stacks on individual buildings
(Fig. 5.1). Air is drawn through the system by the low pressure induced by the flow of air
over the top of the stacks, and by the fall of wastewater. The water seals on domestic
appliances avoid backup of sewer gases into the building interior.

Fig. 5.7 Trapped road gully

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5.4 DESIGN
5.4.1 STAGES
A number of fundamental stages need to be followed to design a rational and cost-effective
urban drainage system. These are illustrated in Fig. 5.8 and are valid for any type of system.
The first stage is to define the contributing area (catchment area and population) and mark it
on a topographical map. In the UK, this will probably be a 1:1250 or 1:2500 Ordnance Survey
(OS) map. The map should already include contours, but other pertinent natural (e.g. rivers)
and man-made (e.g. buildings, roads, services) features should also be marked up. Possible
outfall or overflow points should be identified and investigations made as to the capacity of
the receiving water body. The next stage is to produce a preliminary horizontal alignment
aiming to achieve a balance between the requirement to drain the whole contributing area and
the need to minimize pipe run lengths. Least-cost designs tend to result when the pipe
network broadly follows the natural drainage patterns and is branched, converging to a single
major outfall. Generally, sewers should follow the slope of the ground as far as possible to
minimize excavation. However, gradients flatter than 1:500 should be avoided as they are
difficult to construct accurately. A preliminary vertical alignment can then be produced, again
bearing in mind the balance between coverage of the area and depths of pipes. The alignment
can be plotted on longitudinal profiles as shown in Fig. 5.3. Ground levels can initially be
taken from the OS map contours, but eventually an on-site level survey will be required.
Pumping should be avoided, particularly on storm sewer systems, but will be needed if
excavations exceed about 10 m. The final stage involves revising both the horizontal and
vertical alignment to minimize cost by reducing pipe lengths, sizes and depths whilst meeting
the hydraulic design criteria. Longer sewer runs may be cost effective if shorter runs would
require costlier excavation and/or pumping.

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Fig. 5.8 Urban drainage design procedure

44