Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Research paper

Sea-level changes, shoreline journeys, and the seismic stratigraphy of

Central Luconia, Miocene-present, offshore Sarawak, NW Borneo
Eduard Ko
sa 1
Sarawak Shell Bhd., Level 24, Menara Shell, No 211, Jalan Tun Sambanthan, 50470 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Central Luconia is a geological province of the Sarawak Basin, offshore NW Borneo, characterised by
Received 14 November 2013 extensive development of Miocene to Recent carbonate build-ups. In the subsurface, many of these
Received in revised form build-ups are reservoirs for hydrocarbons. This study focuses on shelf-wide stratigraphic architecture,
7 July 2014
from which implications are drawn for the stratigraphic-sealing potential of the deltaic clastics. A
Accepted 13 July 2014
Available online 29 July 2014
stratigraphic model is proposed whereby clastic sediments surrounding the carbonate build-ups are
interpreted as stacked low-relief deltas deposited in response to high-frequency oscillation of the sea
level. The deltas are shown to have frequently prograded beyond carbonate build-ups. As a result of
Keywords:
Central Luconia
interaction between eustacy and deposition, deltaic topsets are juxtaposed against carbonate build-ups,
Carbonate providing migration routes for hydrocarbons. Most of the carbonate reservoirs are consequently
Deltaic underfilled, with hydrocarbon columns limited to the youngest onlapping stratigraphic sequence.
Seismic stratigraphy © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Sealevel changes
Forced regression

1. Introduction same time in geologic history (e.g., Vahrenkamp, 1998;

Central Luconia is a geological province of the Sarawak Basin,
offshore NW Borneo. The province rests upon substrate whose ri-
gidity during the last 15 MA has enabled the development of more
than 200 carbonate build-ups (Fig. 1). The carbonates are of eco-
nomic significance, with some 65 trillion cubic feet of gas in place
and some minor oil reserves discovered to date (Fig. 2; Scherer,
1980; Mahmud and Saleh, 1999; Wong Abdullah et al., 2012;
Khazali et al., 2013). More than 120 carbonate build-ups remain
undrilled, providing potentially attractive exploration targets and
an incentive to further understand the geology.
Despite five decades of successful commercial exploitation and
intensive research, little consensus has been achieved regarding
fundamental aspects of the geological province; i.e., palae-
obathymetry, palaeogeography, subsidence history, sedimentology
and lithology. The same strata have been elsewhere interpreted as
coastal, fluviomarine or turbidite sands, pro-delta muds, pelagic
clays or carbonates (e.g., compare Ho, 1978; Doust, 1981; Madon,
1999b; Yamin Ali and Abolins, 1999; Wright and Burchette, 2004;
Zampetti, 2010), while carbonate build-ups have been variably
considered growing, subaerially exposed or deeply drowned at the
E-mail address: eduard.kosa@shell.com.
1
Present address: Shell Development Australia, 2 Victoria Avenue, 6000 Perth,
WA, Australia.
Vahrenkamp et al., 2004; Bracco-Gartner et al., 2004; Zampetti
et al., 2004a). The various, and in many cases mutually exclusive,
interpretations have fundamental implications for our perception
of the evolution of this prolific carbonate province, with strong e
and contradictory e implications for hydrocarbon exploration.
In this study, a geological model is proposed whereby the clastic
sediments abutting the carbonate build-ups are interpreted as
stacked delta-lobes responding to high-frequency-oscillating sea
level throughout the evolution of the province (Fig. 3). The deltas
are shown to have frequently migrated past the carbonate build-
ups all the way to the contemporaneous continental slopes.
Deltaic topsets are thus found juxtaposed in a cyclic manner against
the flanks of the carbonate build-ups. The depositional model
outlined here may be applicable to other carbonate provinces
affected by fluctuating sea levels and located within the reach of
regressive clastic systems.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Geography
Central Luconia covers an area of some 45,000 km2, offshore
Sarawak, NW Borneo. It is located 100e300 km from the present
coastline in water depths of 60e140 m, and expressed bathymet-
rically as a promontory of the NW Borneo sector of the Sunda Shelf

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.07.005
0264-8172/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
36 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

Figure 1. A. Geographic and geologic setting of Central Luconia (CL). B. Seabed bathymetry and the carbonate province. CeD. Seismic sections and a block diagram highlighting the
key differences between CL and the neighbouring basins. As a result of tectonic stability, eustatic signal is more pronounced in CL than in the rapidly subsiding basins, and effects of
marine transgressions and regressions are preferentially observed.

(Fig. 1AeB; Sathiamurthy and Voris, 2006; Cullen, 2010). The
shoreface dips relatively steeply down to the 40 m isobath over
10e20 km (2e4 m/km), from where the bathymetric gradient is
very gentle (0.44 m/km) down to the 140 m isobath. Below this
level, the shelf steepens distally and passes into the continental
slope, which dips sharply (up to 90 m/km, 5 ) down to 2.5 km and
subsequently tapers out onto the abyssal plain of the South China
Sea (Fig. 1B).
2.2. Structure
Central Luconia is distinguished from the adjacent tectonic do-
mains on the basis of a relatively shallow burial and structural
simplicity (Fig. 1). The province is flanked by deep basins on the
west, north and east sides: the West Luconia Delta, the North
Luconia Basin and the Baram Delta, respectively. A prominent
lineament known as the West Baram Line separates Central Luconia
from the Baram Delta. The western part of the Baram Delta located
in Sarawak is known informally as the West Baram Delta (WBD). In
the south is the compressed Balingian province (Fig. 1A; Ho, 1978;
Doust, 1981; Mat-Zin and Swarbrick, 1997; Hutchinson, 2005, 2010;
Cullen, 2010).
Although relatively shallow and gently dipping, the Central
Luconia province is subdivided structurally into a number of
regional highs and lows that are further partitioned into localised
extensional horsts and grabens trending systematically SSW-NNE,
while compressional structures mostly trend WSW-ENE (Fig. 2).
Seismic data presented here provide evidence for four structural
events to have significantly affected the province: (i) major dilation
and associated growth-faulting in the Middle Miocene, (ii) minor
dilation and differential subsidence in the Late Middle Miocene, (iii)
minor compression resulting in the inversion of regional troughs
and submergence of regional highs in the Early Pliocene, and (iv)
major compression in the Late Pliocene to Holocene leading to
inversion and denudation in the south concurrent with tilting and
rapid subsidence in the north (Fig. 3).
2.3. Stratigraphy
Owing to a comparatively low and uniform subsidence accom-
panied by a relatively uneventful structural history, Central Luconia
displays depositional styles substantially different from the
neighbouring basins (Madon, 1999a). The West Luconia and the
Baram Delta basins are both characterised by high rates of subsi-
dence resulting in a dominant aggradation of the delta-top sedi-
ments and their passing down-dip into the outboard basins via
gigantic clinoforms such as those of the current continental slope
with up to 2.5 km of relief (Fig. 1CeD). The deltas are also heavily
 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55
Figure 2. Structure map of the Top Cycle III with carbonate build-ups superimposed over the surface. Regional highs and troughs are dissected by densely-spaced extensional faults.
Hydrocarbons are scattered across the province.
compressed and have stratigraphy further complicated by gravity-
driven extensional growth-faulting on the landward side and
compensational toe-thrusting on the basinward side (Hiscott,
2001; Tingay et al., 2005, 2010; Gee et al., 2007; Carvajal et al.,
2009; Cullen, 2010; Hesse et al., 2010; Hutchinson, 2010; King
et al., 2010). By way of contrast, clastic strata in Central Luconia
are comparably thinner, flatter and free of large-scale gravity-
driven deformation (Fig. 1C, D). The sediments are dominated by
prograding clinoforms, which form the basis for the subdivision of
the stratigraphy into 8 ‘regressive cycles separated by major
transgressions’ (Ho, 1978; Doust, 1981; Hageman, 1987). These cy-
cles, numbered I to VIII and ranging in age from the Eocene to the
Present, can be further subdivided into higher-frequency cycles at
various scales (Fig. 3).
Carbonates are found throughout the stratigraphy, although the
Middle Miocene appears to have witnessed a major period of car-
bonate inception coincident with a regional extensional event at
the end of Cycle III (van Vliet and Krebs, 2009). In general, car-
bonate build-ups are observed to have died earlier and be thinner
(<500 m) in the south, while they become gradually longer-lived,
thicker (up to 3000 m) and reaching higher in the stratigraphy
northwards (Ho, 1978; Epting, 1980, 1989; Doust, 1981;
Vahrenkamp et al., 2004). Carbonate strata are highly cyclic on
various scales, with cycles generally consisting of argillaceous
transgressive carbonate facies dominated by rodoliths, echinoids
fragments and lime mud overlain by cleaner highstand carbonate
facies composed principally of coral fragments and capped by
exposure surfaces. Laterally within cycles, primary-facies variations
typical of Cainozoic tropical carbonate build-ups are observed:
coral framestones and fringing grainstones-rudstones dominate
the high-energy edges of the build-ups, while the interiors are
prone to mudstone-wackestone facies deposited within sheltered
lagoons (Epting, 1980, 1989; Doust, 1981; Sun and Esteban, 1994;
Yamin Ali and Abolins, 1999; Bracco Gartner et al., 2004;
Zampetti et al., 2004a; Warrlich et al., 2010; Zampetti, 2010).
37
3. Previous work e rationale for study
In early publications on the geology of the province, Ho (1978)
and Doust (1981) introduced the concept for the inception of the
carbonate build-ups during a maximum transgression, marking the
turning point in an overall transgressive-regressive cyclothem of
the Sarawak Basin. A number of important derivative concepts have
thus been born: (i) carbonates are interpreted to have been at all
times surrounded by open water until ‘smothering’ by advancing
deltas in the south and ‘sub-aquatic drowning’ and burial under
‘prodelta megaforesets’ in the north, (ii) northward tilting of the
province is interpreted to have occurred during the deposition of
the carbonate build-ups so as to make room for the ‘megaforesets’,
(iii) carbonate build-ups in the centre and north of the province are
consequently interpreted to have acquired great heights of several
kilometres above seabed as a result of this tilting, (iv) sediments
filling the abysses of the ‘inter-reef canyons and plains’ separating
the supposedly high-relief build-ups are consequently interpreted
as deep-marine sediments.
These concepts, which have governed the geological thinking
in Central Luconia for over three decades, have important impli-
cations for hydrocarbon exploration. ‘Pro-delta muds’ down-
lapping onto ‘drowned’ carbonate build-ups imply unlimited
stratigraphic seals around the build-ups. Central Luconia is, how-
ever, notorious for very short hydrocarbon columns relative to the
relief of the carbonate build-ups, many of which have been
explained to result from stratigraphic leakage (Yamin Ali and
Abolins, 1999). Figure 4A depicts prominent sands forming a ma-
jor ‘thief zone’ controlling hydrocarbon-water contacts in many
carbonate build-ups. The nature of these ‘thief sands’ has been
interpreted widely differently, however, from coastal (Madon,
1999b), shallow ‘fluviomarine’ and ‘holomarine inner neritic’
(Ho, 1978; Doust, 1981) to deep-marine ‘prograding inter-reef
turbidites’. Numerous palaeogeographic reconstructions exist for
the province, and virtually all concur in palaeocoastlines being
38 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

Figure 3. Sequence stratigraphy and associated geological time scale applied in this paper.

drawn landward of any contemporaneous carbonate build-ups 4. Data and methods

(e.g., Scherer, 1980; Doust, 1981; Hageman, 1987; Agostinelli
et al., 1990; Mat-Zin and Swarbrick, 1997; Madon, 1999b). The
palaeogeographic schemes, on the other hand, differ fundamen-
tally in interpretation of the seafloor bathymetry and of the cor-
responding depositional environments. The locations of the
palaeocoastlines also vary by up to 200 km and 90 , respectively.
This ambivalence of the palaeocoastline interpretation is of great
significance for hydrocarbon exploration. Depending on a partic-
ular interpretation for a given time period, a prospect or a
concession might have been located 200 km out in the ocean,
crossed by the coast, or covered by dry land, with diametrically
different implications for such aspects of the geology as the
reservoir quality or stratigraphic sealing capacity.
4.1. Seismic mapping techniques
The study is based on a large regional grid of 2D seismic sup-
plemented by some 3D seismic and 97 exploration wells. The
seismic-interpretation workflow applied has been designed to: (i)
refine the existing stratigraphic framework based on flooding sur-
faces, (ii) identify lateral limits to seismic-stratigraphic units, and
(iii) link stratigraphic components to corresponding relative sea-
level positions. The existing subdivision of the stratigraphy into
Cycles IeVIII (Ho, 1978, Figs. 4 and 5) has been retained, although
the interpretation has been much refined in Cycles IVeVIII through
the addition of surfaces providing boundaries between genetic
 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55 39

Figure 4. Regional sections (see Fig. 1B for location). The stratigraphy is consistent across the province; comprising a series of progradational units with clinoforms indicating
migration of palaeocoastlines by up to 200 km. Note gas-water contacts in (A) coincident with major stratigraphic surfaces. Also note the location of the terminal slopes of most
sequences in the vicinity of the current shelf-break, on the seaward side of most carbonate build-ups.

depositional sequences and lithology domains within the Cycles
(Fig. 5).
The stratigraphic architecture is complemented by surfaces
approximating the sea level at important timelines (Fig. 6). These
surfaces serve two purposes. First, seismic can be flattened on
them to the palaeobathymetry envisaged. This is particularly
important for back-stripping exercises, where flattening on sur-
faces with complex palaeobathymetry would lead to unrealistic
scenarios. Second, they allow inter-carbonate correlation and
precise timing, via linkage to clastic biostratigraphy, of carbonate
40 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

Figure 5. Seismic section through Central Luconia (see Fig. 1B for location), illustrating the seismic-interpretation methodologies and stratigraphic principles employed by this
study. A. Sequence stratigraphy. Note location of terminal shelf edges and slopes within 50 km of the current shelf-margin. B. Section flattened on top of Cycle III. Cycle III is
isopachous and pinches out across a terminal slope. Cycle IV thickens across syndepositional faults. Cycles VeVI are of uniform thickness and pinch out across terminal slopes.
Cycles VIIeVIII are wedge-shape, resulting from tectonic tilting. CeD. Key geometric patterns and stratigraphic components. E. Seismic amplitudes and well-log data. Bright
amplitudes correspond with sand in wells. F. Evaluation of stratigraphic sealing capacity of the clastic strata.

strata and intra-carbonate events such as karst, exposure and
flooding surfaces.
4.2. Seismic facies and depositional domains
The seismic strata are subdivided into four depositional do-
mains or ‘gross depositional environments’ commonly distin-
guished in the context of deltaic sedimentology: (i) topsets, (ii)
foresets, (iii) bottomsets and (iv) channel fills (Figs. 4e6). Identifi-
cation of these stratigraphic components has been assisted by
automated extraction from the seismic of geometric attributes of
‘divergence’, ‘convergence’ and ‘unconformity’ (Fig. 5C; van Hoek
et al., 2010). Parallel strata landward of clinoforms are branded
‘topsets’. Inclined strata immediately basinward of the topsets are
identified as ‘foresets’. Parallel strata basinward of the foresets are
marked out as ‘bottomsets’. In accordance with the concept of
‘shelf-top’ and ‘shelf-edge’ deltas (e.g., Hiscott, 2001; Mellere et al.,
2002; Burgess et al., 2008; Carvajal et al., 2009), foresets prograding
over older topsets are said to be in ‘shelf-top’ settings, while those
draping over contemporaneous continental slopes are considered
to be in ‘shelf-edge’ settings. Topsets and foresets dominate the
stratigraphy in the shelf-top settings. Bottomsets are virtually ab-
sent on the shelf, as the foresets tend to downlap and pinch out
against the underlying flooding surfaces. Only in front of the ter-
minal slopes and in the basins surrounding Central Luconia are
bottomsets significantly developed (Figs. 4 and 5).
4.3. Sequence stratigraphic philosophy
The stratigraphic framework based on ’regressive cycles sepa-
rated by major transgressions' coincidentally conforms to the
Galloway (1989) convention of sequence stratigraphy whereby
‘genetic depositional units’ are separated by flooding surfaces.
Erosional unconformities are typically found in the upper part of
each regressive unit, and could alternatively be used as sequence
boundaries as per the more commonly applied sequence-
stratigraphic concept by Vail et al. (1977). However, erosional
scours tend to have limited extent and to pass laterally into
conformable horizons that are difficult to distinguish as sequence
boundaries. The forced-regressive and lowstand parts of the
depositional sequences also tend to be similar in scale, shape,
amplitude patterns and lithology to the preceding highstand
 E. Ko
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Figure 5. (continued).
regressive sediments. In contrast, major changes in lithology and
seismic facies tend to occur across flooding surfaces (e.g., Figs. 4 and
5), which are therefore retained as the basis for sequence-
stratigraphy.
Downlap terminations of clinoforms in the seismic data are
interpreted to indicate flooding surfaces. The width of belts of
seismically resolvable clinoforms is considered to indicate the
minimum extent of marine transgressions. Terminal slopes (i.e.,
the most basinward clinoforms below flooding surfaces) provide
the outer limits for surfaces of maximum regression (Fig. 5A).
Terminal shelf edges, at the upper limits of the terminal slopes, are
taken to approximate the position of the palaeocoastlines at the
time of maximum regressions (Fig. 5B). Coastal onlap (i.e., land-
ward onlap terminations of down-stepping clinoforms; Fig. 6B) is
also taken to indicate palaeo-sea-levels. The height of clinoforms is
considered to reflect the depth of the basin at the time of depo-
sition (e.g., Fig. 6C).
5. Results e stratigraphy
The stratigraphic concepts developed in this paper for the clastic
overburden of the carbonate province are summarised in Figure 3.
The key characteristics of the deltaic and carbonate systems at
specific time intervals, from the Middle Miocene to the Present, are
described in the following sections.
41
5.1. Cycle III
Cycle III covers the whole of Central Luconia, and is charac-
terised by a remarkable consistency in thickness (500e600 m) and
lithology, consisting of shales interbedded with thin silts and sands
(Figs. 7, 8F). The unit terminates in a corridor, 10e15 km wide, of
well-developed clinoforms. These are up to 300 m thick and un-
usually steep, dipping at c. 95 m/km or 5.5 along the NE edge of the
province (Fig. 7AeC). The terminal slope approximates the West
Baram Line, and extends into North Luconia (Fig. 7A). Low-relief
carbonate platforms, 50 me200 m thick and characterised by
steep, aggradational margins, are found at various levels within
Cycle III (Figs. 7DeE, 8F; Epting, 1989). In 3D seismic, areas sepa-
rating the Cycle III carbonate platforms resemble straight to low-
sinuosity channels, hinting towards fluvial and/or tidal influence
on the location of carbonate factories (Fig. 7DeE).
5.2. Cycle IV
Cycle IV is a rather poorly understood and broadly defined unit,
owing to the fact that all post-Cycle III carbonate build-ups grow
into it, while very few wells penetrate it (Fig. 8A). In this study,
Cycle IV is defined as a growth unit bounded by the faulted top of
Cycle III at the base and a prominent flooding surface at the top. The
unit is up to 600 m thick in the south of Central Luconia, and thins
42 E. Ko
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Figure 6. A composite line linking West Baram Delta (WBD) with SW Luconia Delta (SWLD). Highlighted are the key sequence-stratigraphic principles and methodologies
entertained by this study. WBD prograded from the SE, and is portrayed in dip-orientation, showing ubiquitous clinoforms. In contrast, strata of the SWLD are shown in a strike-
orientation, and thus generally appear parallel, although being punctuated by erosional unconformities and channels.

outwards via onlap onto the top of Cycle III (Figs. 4e6). It can be
internally subdivided into various thinner units on the basis of low-
relief shingling clinoforms indicating flooding and regression, and
erosional unconformities indicating exposure (e.g., Fig. 8F). The li-
thologies observed from well cuttings and cores include mostly
claystone, calcareous shale and marlstone, with intercalations of
thin, blocky siltstone and sandstone. The latter are difficult to
correlate between wells, and seem to be poorly connected. The
terminal slope of the unit closely approximates that of Cycle III,
near to the West Baram Line and the current shelf-edge, although it
does not seem to extend into North Luconia (Fig. 8A). A narrow
corridor of small (up to 160 m) seismically resolvable clinoforms,
generally very gentle but locally dipping at up to 70 m/km or 4 , is
developed at the seaward end of the unit (Fig. 8BeC).
Some 250 carbonate build-ups originated on the top of Cycle III
and persisted partly or completely through Cycle IV (Fig. 8A). On
regional highs, carbonate build-ups are separated by low to
moderately sinuous gaps resembling fluvial or tidal channels
(Fig. 8A, D, E). In contrast, build-ups in the troughs are elongated
along SSW-NNE-trending extensional faults (Figs. 2, 8A). Towards
the top of Cycle IV, carbonate build-ups evolved significantly from
these early contours. Some back-stepped and turned into conical
pinnacles. Others expanded laterally in the form of ‘stringers’ or
low-relief clinoforms, 20e30 m high, into the ambient basins
(Epting, 1980, 1989; Bracco Gartner et al., 2004; Zampetti et al.,
2004a,b). Coalescence of initially separate platforms is also
observed in the upper part of Cycle IV (e.g., Fig. 8F).
5.3. Lower Cycle V
Cycle V is separated from the underlying Cycle IV by a major
flooding surface, with downlapping clinoforms indicating a
 E. Ko
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Figure 7. A. Distribution and facies of Cycle III. BeC. Geometry of the Cycle III shelf margin. DeE. Carbonate build-ups revealed by seismic amplitudes extracted 20e50 ms TWT
below the top of Cycle III. Carbonate platforms seem to be separated by braided channels, indicating fluvial and/or tidal control on carbonate inception.
landward shift of the coastline by at least 200 km. Two prominent
deltaic sequences numbered 2.6 and 3.1, respectively, were
deposited in the SE of Central Luconia, while the rest of the prov-
ince appears to have been temporarily starved of clastic deposition
as a result of the back-stepping (Fig. 9). Another consequence of this
general back-stepping of the delta was that carbonate build-ups
over most of the province were left to grow unhindered by clas-
tics for some 3.5 MA, while at the same time ample accommodation
space was created on the shelf for the subsequent clastic strata. In
contrast with the underlying Cycle IV, no synsedimentary tectonic
deformation is observed during Lower Cycle V (Figs. 4, 5 and 9E).
The ‘West Baram Delta Lobe 2.6’ (WBD2.6) is some 200 m thick
and comprises two lobate delta bodies prograding in a generally
NW direction from the West Baram Delta area (Fig. 9A). Litho-
logically it is similar to Cycle IV, consisting of calcareous shale and
marlstone intercalated with thin, blocky siltstone and sandstone
layers that cannot easily be correlated between wells. In seismic,
the unit displays parallel topsets with channels and scour surfaces
passing down-dip into steep (75 m/km, 4.3 ) clinoforms (Figs. 8F,
9B, D, E). The clinoforms are up to 150 m thick and downlap
directly onto the top of Cycle IV (Fig. 9B). Several erosional un-
conformities, with relief of up to 150 m, are found in the upper
part of the unit (Figs. 6AeB, 9D). In the southern lobe, the terminal
slope has been eroded away; a coastal cliff-like scar has been
formed in its place (Fig. 9B). The erosional scar is onlapped
discordantly by clastic strata interpreted as the lowstand systems
tract of WBD2.6 marked as ‘East Trough Lobe 3.1’ (ETL3.1) in
Figure 9BeC.
43
The overlying ‘West Baram Delta Lobe 3.1’ (WBD3.1; Fig. 9C) is
similar in lithology to the underlying strata. The outboard slope
corridor of the delta is composed of moderately steep clinoforms
(42 m/km, 2.4 ), up to 80 m thick, prograding over the edge of the
underlying WBD2.6 and downlapping onto ET3.1 (Fig. 9B).
5.4. Upper Cycle V
In general, the Upper Cycle V is more sand-rich than the older
strata. Sediments derived from SW Luconia are comparatively
shalier, however, than those originating in the West Baram Delta.
The Upper Cycle V is of uppermost Miocene age. It is subdivided
vertically into genetic sequences numbered 3.2 and 3.3 (Figs. 4 and
5), although a much finer vertical and lateral subdivision can be
made on the basis of flooding surfaces and erosional un-
conformities punctuating the numerous delta-lobes that build up
this most complex part of the stratigraphy (e.g., Figs. 3, 6, 10 and 11).
Avulsion and abandonment surfaces are widespread, identified by
angular discordances between obliquely downlapping clinoforms
of deltas prograding in various directions (e.g., Fig. 6). Shelf-edge
trajectories, truncation surfaces, and coastal onlaps provide evi-
dence for rapid sea-level changes and deposition commonly gov-
erned by forced regression (Fig. 10). Back-stepped delta bodies are
mostly confined to the West Baram Delta area, while the down-
stepped bodies generally extend all the way to the contempora-
neous continental slopes (Figs. 10 and 11).
In the lower part of the succession, various low-relief back-
stepped deltas are found in the SE, while across the shelf down-
44 E. Ko
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Figure 8. A. Distribution and facies of Cycle IV. BeC. Geometry of the Cycle IV shelf margin. DeE. Seismic amplitudes extracted 20e50 ms TWT above the top of Cycle III. Carbonate
platforms seem to be separated by meandering channels, indicating fluvial and/or tidal control on deposition. F. Semi-regional section through the southern part of Central Luconia.
Note initially separated carbonate build-ups in the centre of the section prograding over surrounding clastics and eventually coalescing at the top of Cycle IV.

stepped strata are lumped together as the ‘Main Lobe 3.2’ (Main3.2;
Fig. 10AeB). This composite stratigraphic unit consists of parallel
topsets punctuated by numerous erosional unconformities and
passing down-dip into steep (up to 63 m/km, 3.6 ) clinoforms,
which are up to 600 m thick and prograde over more than 150 km
(Fig. 10A, F). The considerable thickness of the clinoforms devel-
oped in the shelf-top setting within this unit reflects syndeposi-
tional subsidence in the regional troughs, as well as progradation of
the Upper Cycle V deltas into the accommodation space that had
been created by the back-stepping of the underlying WBD2.6-
WBD3.1 deltas (Fig. 9). Main3.2 is overlain by a smaller delta
body termed ‘West Baram Delta Lobe 3.2’ (WBDL3.2). This is similar
in scale, shape and spatial extent to WBDL2.6 and WBDL3.1
(Figs. 4B, 6, 10A). The deposition of WBDL3.2 coincided with an
episode of pronounced subsidence associated with growth faulting
and slumping in the East Trough (Fig. 4B).
The terminal slope of WBDL3.2 is onlapped by ‘Main Lobe 3.3’
(Main3.3; Figs. 3, 6). This composite genetic depositional unit
 E. Ko
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Figure 9. Lower Cycle V stratigraphy. A. Distribution and facies of TB2.6-age strata. B. Geometry of TB2.6-TB3.1 delta-edges. West Baram Delta Lobe 2.6 (WBD2.6) terminates in the
form of a coastal cliff, which is onlapped by lowstand sediments of East Trough Lobe 3.1 (ET3.1). This is downlapped by the subsequent highstand West Baram Delta Lobe 3.1
(WBD3.1). C. Distribution and facies of TB3.1-age strata. D. Erosional surfaces in the northern part of the deltas. E. Semi-regional section illustrating the clinoformal geometry at the
front of WBD2.6 and WBD3.1 deltas. Note intercalation of carbonates and clastics at major stratigraphic surfaces, and the demise of the carbonate platforms coincidental with
stratigraphic breaks in the clastics.

extends over the entire shelf, abutting the flanks of contempora- ubiquitous coastal onlaps indicate frequent oscillation of the sea
neous carbonate build-ups. Low-relief clinoforms, 50e70 m high level and prevailing deposition under forced regression in the outer
and dipping at 22 m/km or 1.3 , dominate the outer part of the unit. reaches of the deltaic systems (Fig. 10C). When mapped out,
Numerous truncation unconformities, up to 90 m deep, and erosional unconformities reveal extensive drainage networks
46 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

Figure 10. Upper Cycle V stratigraphy. A. Distribution and facies of TB3.2-age strata. B. Clinoforms in the outer fringes of Main3.2, which can be correlated between 2D seismic lines,
extend seaward of contemporaneous carbonate build-ups. C. Distribution and facies of TB3.3-age strata. D. Terminal slopes of Main3.2 and Main3.3. E. Drainage network on top of
Main3.3. F. Down-stepping of clinoforms in the outer part of Main3.2 and Main3.3 indicating deposition under forced regression.

terminating at the shelf edge (Fig. 10EeF). Various smaller delta-
lobes, including ‘East Trough Lobe 3.3’ (ETL3.3) and ‘West Baram
Delta Lobe 3.4’ (WBDL3.4; Figs. 3, 10C, 11), overlie Main3.3. These
are separated by flooding surfaces and arranged in an overall back-
stepping manner, however their stratigraphy also includes ele-
ments of forced regression and erosion, such as down-stepping
clinoforms, truncation surfaces, channels and steep erosional
scars at the delta fronts (Fig. 11).
Carbonate-build-up morphology at the stratigraphic levels cor-
responding to Upper Cycle V is characterised by widening-upward
of the build-ups in the form of ‘wings’, ‘stringers’ and low-relief
carbonate clinoforms prograding chiefly towards the oncoming
 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55 47

Figure 11. Upper Cycle V stratigraphy. A. Cross-section of East Trough Lobe 3.3 (ET3.3). Note erosional unconformities and down-stepping of clinoforms indicative of forced
regression. B. Steep, low-relief (c. 100 m) clinoforms of West Baram Delta Lobe 3.4 (WBD3.4). Note down-stepping of clinoforms at the terminus of the delta. C. Laterally the
clinoforms at the edge of WBD3.4 are eroded, and instead a coastal cliff is preserved.

clastics (Figs. 4CeD, 6). Platforms on the Central Ridge were
considerably enlarged during this time, to the extent of becoming
effectively linked into a single coalesced entity (Fig. 4CeD). Build-
ups in the south of Central Luconia have mostly expanded during
this period and subsequently died, buried under conformable
deltaic topsets. In contrast, build-ups located on major highs in the
centre and north of the province survived into later times, having
been saved from clastic cover by distance and elevation.
5.5. Cycle VI
A major change in lithology occurs across the contact of Cycles V
and VI, from predominantly sandstone and siltstone to mostly
claystone (Figs. 4A, 5F). This change in lithology appears to have
been associated with a shift in the provenance of the bulk of the
sediments to SW Luconia. The seismic character also changes
fundamentally; from highly reflective seismic facies dominated by
steep clinoforms and erosional unconformities in Upper Cycle V to
transparent, low-amplitude, gently dipping reflectors in Cycle VI
(Fig. 5). Three major depositional units are distinguished,
numbered 3.4-3.6 (Fig. 3). These are arranged in an overall
transgressive-regressive manner, with the younger units
prograding over the edges of the older ones (Figs. 5, 12 and 13).
Although separated by pronounced transgressions, these deltas
also contain multiple erosional unconformities near their tops
(Figs. 6B, 12C).
‘Main3.4’ is a mud-dominated clastic system derived generally
from South-West Luconia and filling up the depositional space
created by the back-stepping of the delta-lobes in the upper part of
Cycle V (Figs. 11, 12A, C). It is characterised by very gently dipping
clinoforms (6 m/km, 0.33 ), which are up to 90 m thick and pro-
grade over more than 150 km (Fig. 12A, C). The strata become
slightly silty/sandy upwards. The overlying Main3.5 and Main3.6
deltas are similar in size and regressive clinoformal architecture to
Main3.4, however become significantly sandier upwards in
response to a gradual renewal of sediment influx from West Baram
Delta (Figs. 12 and 13). Several delta-lobes, prograding from
different directions and separated by angular unconformities be-
tween the variably dipping clinoforms, can be distinguished within
the upper part of Cycle VI, although have as yet not been mapped
out in detail.
An important compressional event took place during the
deposition of Main3.5, leading to the inversion of the regional
troughs and the sinking of the Central Ridge. This was an important
48 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

Figure 12. A. Distribution and facies of TB3.4-age strata. B. Distribution and facies of TB3.5-age strata. C. Regional section illustrating the gently-dipping clinoformal stratigraphy of
the succession. DeE. Clinoforms developed at the outer reaches of the TB3.5-age delta. The maximum relief of the clinoforms is 120 m.

event as it has facilitated early consolidation of the stratigraphic became subjected to renewed compression. This has resulted in a
seal of some of the largest hydrocarbon accumulations in the northward tilting leading to rapid subsidence and deposition along
province. The onset of another major structural event subsequently the fringes of the province, and a coeval uplift and denudation in
took place during the deposition of Main3.6, when Central Luconia the inboard areas (Figs. 4D, 5, 15). The tilting was initiated
 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55 49

Figure 13. A. Distribution and facies of the TB3.6-age strata. B. Geometry of the TB3.6 delta-front. Some 3 MA ago, CL began to tilt northwards. A discrete wedge-shaped body, ‘Bijan
Apron 3.6’, marks the onset of this tectonic tilting. C. Distribution and facies of the TB3.7-age strata. D. Geometry of the TB3.7-equivalent shelf-edge. Aggradational topsets and km-
scale foresets dominate the outer reaches of the stratigraphy.

approximately 3 MA ago with the deposition of a distinct wedge of
sediment designated as ‘Bijan Apron 3.6’ (Figs. 12C, 13A-B).
5.6. Cycles VII-VIII
Cycles VII and VIII are both characterised by wedge-shape ge-
ometry, expanding rapidly basinward and pinching out landward
(Figs. 4, 5, 13D). The strata are predominantly aggradational,
responding to continuous tectonic tilting. The aggradation has
produced oversteepened continental slopes, c. 2.5 km high and
dipping at up to 5 . The deltaic topsets are characterised by high
sand content and distinct cleaning-up cyclicity (Figs. 4A, 5E, 13B, D).
Numerous erosional unconformities dot the stratigraphy. Seabed
topography, shallow cores and seismic amplitudes provide evi-
dence for widespread fluvial deposition. Several carbonate build-
ups currently thriving in the north of the province were initiated
at the base of Cycle VIII (Fig. 1B).
6. Synthesis and interpretation
6.1. Synthesis
The stratigraphic evolution of the clastic overburden of the
carbonate province of Central Luconia is schematically summarised
in Figure 14. The following generalisations can be made. Carbonate
build-ups are found in older strata, however Cycle III provides the
foundation of the economically exploited carbonate province
studied here. The trend of the terminal slope of Cycle III along the
West Baram Line testifies to the existence of this lineament at that
time. In contrast, no bathymetrical break seems to have then
existed between Central and North Luconia (Fig. 7). The uniform
thickness of Cycle III indicates uniform subsidence and flat ba-
thymetry. Carbonate platforms are found at various levels inside
Cycle III (e.g., Figs. 7DeE, 8F), indicating very shallow water depths
repeatedly allowing the establishment of carbonate-producing
ecosystems. Channel-like features extracted from 3D seismic far
inboard of the terminal slope (Fig. 7DeE) also hint towards
shallow-water and periodically perhaps even subaerial conditions.
Cycle III is consequently interpreted to have been deposited on a
frequently flooded, muddy coastal plain (Yamin Ali and Abolins,
1999).
The deposition of Cycle III terminated in response to a major
extensional tectonic event. The flat surface of Cycle III has been
fragmented into fault blocks over which the growth strata of Cycle
IV were deposited (Fig. 14A). Subsequently, during Lower Cycle V,
deltaic deposition was largely confined to the inner parts of the
shelf, allowing for large carbonate build-ups to grow outboard of
the back-stepped deltas. During Upper Cycle V, prolific clastic
50 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55

Figure 14. Stratigraphic evolution and resulting lithological variations in the clastic overburden of Central Luconia. AeB. Back-stepping of Lower Cycle V deltas created deep ac-
commodation space on the shelf, resulting in high-relief clinoforms in Upper Cycle V. C. Following a major transgression at the onset of Cycle VI, a series of muddy ramps have filled
the basin. D. Tectonic uplift in the south and rapid subsidence in the north resulted in a thick wedge of young sediments. EeF. Gross depositional environments and lithological
composition of the Luconia shelf.

supply has resulted in the filling of the accommodation space on
the shelf by large clinoforms commonly reaching the continental
slope (Fig. 14B). Cycle VI initiated with another major flooding
event associated with a profound change in lithology and related
clinoform morphology (Fig. 14C). Finally, compression initiated
during the latter part of Main3.6's deposition has lead to tectonic
uplift in the south and to rapid subsidence and aggradation of Cy-
cles VII-VIII in the north (Fig. 14D).
Tracking down these shifts of depocentres, clinoform belts and
terminal depositional slopes through time allows the interpretation
of an overall stratigraphic architecture in terms of basic elements of
deltaic stratigraphy (Fig. 14E). Although long-distance landward
migrations of the facies-belts and their respective palaeocoasts are
apparent, most of the terminal slopes reside in the vicinity of the
current shelf-edge near the structural boundaries of Central Luco-
nia. The lithologies within the stratigraphic framework can be
described as follows (Fig. 14F). Cycle III consists of clays encapsu-
lating low-relief carbonate platforms at regional highs. Cycle IV and
Lower Cycle V comprise predominantly clay and marl, with thin
and poorly connected sands and silts. In the Upper Cycle V, silt- and
sand-rich lithologies dominate. The lower part of Cycle VI consists
virtually of clay, with thinly developed, though laterally persistent,
silts and sands found in the highest portions of each regressive
depositional unit. Finally, the Upper Cycle VI and younger strata are
composed of laterally persistent sands and silts separated by clays
plastering high-frequency flooding surfaces.
6.2. Interpretation
Clastic deltas in Central Luconia are observed to have frequently
migrated beyond contemporaneous carbonate build-ups all the
way to their respective continental slopes (e.g., Figs. 4, 5, 8, 10, 12,
13). Given the sensitivity of Miocene reef-building organisms to
turbidity, this observation requires explanation as to how the
carbonate-producing ecosystems survived such repeated clastic
intrusions into their territory. Forced regression is proposed to have
enabled this apparent sedimentological paradox (e.g., Figs. 5D, 12B,
F, 13). Since carbonate factories have a tendency to grow up to the
sea level, any fall of the sea level would inevitably expose the build-
ups, allowing regressive clastics to march past the exposed struc-
tures and temporarily to incorporate them into the out-building
shelves. Topographic relief of erosional unconformities and down
stepping of points of coastal onlap indicates exposure of the shelf
by up to 120 m (e.g., Figs. 9e11). The exposed part of the build-ups
would be protected from clastic cover and later serve as nuclei for
future generations of carbonate growth after re-flooding.
Compaction of the surrounding clastics, along with differential
subsidence between the highs, on which the build-ups were
generally formed, and the adjacent basins, would greatly enhance
the likelihood of survival of the build-ups. On the other hand,
carbonate build-ups that were covered by clastics during high-
stands of the sea level, or those within areas subsiding sufficiently
rapidly to be buried during lowstands, seem to have been unable to
 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55
Figure 15. Sub-recent and fossil analogues to the stratigraphic concept presented in this study. A. Pleistocene, Eastern Australia. B. Pennsylvanian, NortheCentral Texas.
renew and sustain carbonate production upon re-flooding, and
expired as a result.
This system appears to have been dominated by interplay be-
tween eustacy and sediment input. Being extremely flat, the coastal
plain at the top of Cycle III would have been susceptible to rapid
floodings resulting from the most minute sea-level rises, thus
allowing the growth of carbonate platforms, which were all very
short-lived, however. This is because the limited accommodation
space created by such floodings would have been filled with
highstand clastics quickly, leading to early demise of any carbonate
systems established during the preceding transgressions (Fig. 8F).
The extensional tectonics at the end of Cycle III may have provided
the ingredient needed to sustain carbonate growth by creating
protected elevated habitats for carbonate producers at structural
highs, while temporarily trapping clastics in the subsiding lows.
This mechanism, however, appears to have been quickly super-
seded by the contest between eustacy and deposition, which has
governed the stratigraphic evolution of the province ever since and
continues to do so at present (Fig. 14).
51
7. Discussion
A wealth of studies have been published recently that focus on
the shallow subsea geology of continental shelves. Using modern
air- and seaborne data-acquisition techniques, these works have
produced vivid images of fluvial-drainage networks formed during
past glaciations when continental shelves were exposed above sea
level. In the tropics, many of such flooded river systems are
juxtaposed against Pleistocene and modern carbonate build-ups.
Present carbonate factories are commonly observed to have been
established upon gently elevated interfluves, bars and levees pro-
duced by the preceding lowstand deltaic systems. The prime areas
of such investigations include the Eastern Shelf of Australia
(Maxwell, 1970; Davies et al., 1989; Fielding et al., 2003; Ryan et al.,
2007; Puga-Bernabe u et al., 2011, Fig. 15A), the Gulf of Papua (Harris
et al., 1993, 1996; Droxler et al., 2010; Tcherepanov et al., 2010), the
Sunda shelf (Sun et al., 2000; van den Bergh et al., 2001; Miall,
2002; Hannebuth et al., 2003, 2011; Wilson, 2005; Sathiamurthy
and Voris, 2006; Pigott et al., 2011; Reijenstein et al., 2011), the
52 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55
Red Sea (Purser et al., 1987), and the continental shelves offshore
Belize (Esker et al., 1998; Elmer Ferro et al., 1999) and Costa Rica
(Bauch et al., 2011).
Studies of the sub-recent sub-sea geology provide evidence for
juxtaposition of sediments produced by fluvial and carbonate
depositional systems, which are not normally considered close
relatives, in unexpected places that at present may lie several 100s
of km offshore and in waters up to 140 m deep. These observation
are used here as analogues to the past depositional settings, in
which carbonate build-ups in Central Luconia are interpreted to
have become repeatedly onlapped by shallow-marine and fluvial
sediments. The Plio-Pleistocene succession of the Sunda shelf forms
a prime part of this analogy. Hannebuth et al. (2003) argued that
the bulk of the deposition of these strata occurred under regimes of
forced regression, by-passing contemporaneous carbonate build-
ups that were temporarily exposed on the shelf. Pigott et al.
(2011) also stress the importance of forced regression for realign-
ment of fluvial morphologies and deposition of down-stepping
terraces on the inner Sunda shelf during recessions of the Pleisto-
cene sea levels. Hiscott (2001) demonstrated forced regression to
have strongly affected the deposition of the young strata of the
Baram Delta. Hence, the models outlined in this study for the
buried carbonate province of Central Luconia are not at all unique in
the context of geoscience, but merely shed a fresh light onto deeper
subsurface inspired by the recent advances in our understanding of
the shallow subsea geology in similar, albeit younger, settings.
In contrast with the abundance of presently submerged coastal
plains interacting with carbonates, which are easily imaged by
modern remote-sensing tools, comparatively fewer examples of
similar clastic-carbonate constellations have been described in
published literature from older strata. Well known partial ana-
logues, albeit of only a limited relevance for the Miocene semi-
isolated shelf-top carbonate build-ups described here, are those
of the Devonian Canning Basin, NW Australia (Holmes and Christie-
Blick, 1993; Southgate et al., 1993). Somewhat more fitting are the
examples described from the Upper Palaeozoic intra-cratonic ba-
sins of North America (e.g., Brown et al., 1973; Dutton, 1982;
Galloway, 1989; Olszewski and Patzkowski, 2003) of shelf-top
fluvial sediments abutting the flanks of contemporaneous carbon-
ate mounds and eroding into exposed epeiric carbonate platforms
during lowstands (e.g., Fig. 15B).
Examples most relevant to the current study are those from
nearby SE Asian basins: the Oligocene of Central Kalimantan (Saller
et al., 1993), the Miocene of the Mahakam Delta (Wilson, 2005) and
the Miocene-Pliocene shelf of the Gulf of Papua (Tcherepanov et al.,
2010). The early studies of Central Luconia inadvertently also pro-
vide fitting analogies for the stratigraphic model proposed in this
paper. Epting (1989), for example, interpreted ‘shallow marine and
deltaic clastics’ to flank carbonate platforms expanding into and
over these abutting sediments. Carbonate build-ups in Central
Luconia have been commonly e and correctly e depicted with
feathery edges, with ‘wings’ and small-scale clinoforms extending
away from the main carbonate bodies (e.g., Epting, 1980, 1989;
Scherer, 1980; Aigner et al., 1989; Lawrence et al., 1990;
Vahrenkamp, 1998; Vahrenkamp et al., 2004; Bracco Gartner
et al., 2004; Zampetti et al., 2004a, b; Zampetti, 2010; Burgess
et al., 2013). Such carbonate geomorphology unequivocally dem-
onstrates shallow bathymetry of the surrounding basins, which
must have been filled with clastics in order to support the overlying
carbonate ‘wings’.
Observations gathered here contrast with the notion of the post-
Cycle III carbonate province originating at the time of ‘maximum
transgression’, as in the context of an overall transgress-regressive
regime of the Sarawak Basin (Ho, 1978; Doust, 1981; Mat-Zin and
Swarbrick, 1997). Instead, it appears that it was the time of
maximum regression, associated with extremely low bathymetric
gradients and shallow water depths, which had been instrumental
in providing a suitable foundation for extensive carbonate growth
when the coastal plain developed during Cycle III became
dismembered into gentle growth grabens and horsts (Fig. 14A;
Yamin Ali and Abolins, 1999; van Vliet and Krebs, 2009).
This change in paradigm, from ‘maximum transgression’ to
‘maximum regression’, is important as it sets a different stage for
the interpretation of the subsequent depositional settings. In the
‘maximum transgression’ scenario, it is intuitive to expect the post-
Cycle III carbonate build-ups to have developed in isolation from
clastics, which would have been pushed landward first and only
gradually return to cover the province under much younger ‘pro-
delta muds’ and ‘megaforesets’. The alternative, ‘maximum
regression’ scenario, on the other hand, opens the door for an
interpretation of the clastics as of regressive deltaics filling up a
limited accommodation space and frequently prograding beyond
contemporaneous carbonate build-ups (Fig. 14). The resulting flat
bathymetries developed prior to marine transgressions are then
interpreted to have accentuated the effect of flooding, with coast-
lines travelling over 100s of km landward of their lowstand shelf-
edge positions (Figs. 7e13). Frequent variations of the sea level
are thus understood to have been associated with rapid and long-
distance migrations of the palaeoshorelines, analogous to those
observed in the Quaternary of the Sunda shelf (Sun et al., 2000; van
den Bergh et al., 2001; Miall, 2002; Hannebuth et al., 2003, 2011;
Sathiamurthy and Voris, 2006; Pigott et al., 2011; Reijenstein
et al., 2011).
These interpretations provide a framework that can potentially
explain limitations imposed by the overburden clastic stratigraphy
on hydrocarbon containment within carbonate reservoirs. The
carbonate play in Central Luconia play has been highly successful,
with 72 discoveries in 126 exploration wells, and 27 commercial
developments to date (Fig. 2). However, a majority of the carbonate
reservoirs are underfilled with respect to their thickness (e.g.,
Yamin Ali and Abolins, 1999). A striking coincidence is observed
between major sequence-stratigraphic divides in the clastic over-
burden and the vertical span of hydrocarbon columns discovered in
the carbonate reservoirs. Most hydrocarbon columns are encased
within a single genetic unit of the onlapping clastic stratigraphy,
and roughly half of the hydrocarbon-water contacts coincide with
major flooding surfaces (e.g., Fig. 4A). In a somewhat counter
intuitive manner, the longest hydrocarbon columns are found
within the lowest-relief carbonate build-ups culminating below the
Upper Cycle V, where hydrocarbon columns mostly match the
vertical relief of the host carbonate reservoirs, and in some cases
extend across one or more flooding surfaces in the onlapping
clastics. To the contrary, a disappointing trend is observed of the
higher-relief carbonate platforms culminating in the younger strata
to host very short hydrocarbon columns, which generally end at or
above the highest onlapping flooding surface (Fig. 16A).
The observation of most hydrocarbon-water contacts being
limited to the highest onlapping clastic sequence is interpreted to
relate to the shallowing- and cleaning-up character of the deltaic
sediments building up the stratigraphic column. The coarsest-
grained lithology (siltstone to sandstone as indicated by well-log,
cuttings and core data) found towards the top of each regressive
system is considered responsible for the leakage of hydrocarbons
from those carbonate build-ups where the hydrocarbon-water
contacts coincide with major flooding surfaces (Fig 4A). A direct
evidence for migration of hydrocarbons via silt- and sand-grade
clastic ‘thief beds’ is found in the Shallow Clastics and Kumang
fields in the south of the province (e.g., Figs. 8F, 9E), where the
Upper Cycle V sands form prolific reservoirs. This relationship be-
tween the cleaning-upward cyclicity of the overburden deltaics and
 E. Ko
sa / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 35e55
Figure 16. Summary of overburden sequence stratigraphy and implications for hydrocarbon exploration. A. Discovered hydrocarbon columns vs. vertical relief of carbonate build-
ups. B. Historical exploration success rates. C. Subdivision of the stratigraphy into common-risk segments sharing similar lithological characteristics and exploration history.
the hydrocarbon-water contacts within the carbonate reservoirs is
obviously of no relevance to the outboard areas away from the
deltaic topsets. An impressively high level of exploration success
has been achieved recently in the outer fringes of Central Luconia,
where carbonate pinnacles are buried under deltaic foresets
composed of clay-dominated lithologies (Fig. 16BeC; Wong
Abdullah et al., 2012; Khazali et al., 2013).
8. Conclusions
Post-Middle-Miocene clastic strata surrounding and overlying
the carbonate province of Central Luconia are interpreted to
comprise a series of transgressive/regressive deltas, which during
sea-level lowstands have migrated past the temporarily exposed
carbonate build-ups towards the continental slopes. As a result,
deltaic topsets are interpreted to frequently encompass the car-
bonate build-ups. Forced regression is identified as the mechanism
that had enabled the deltas to build out beyond the carbonate
build-ups without smothering them terminally. Erosional un-
conformities and down-stepping clinoforms are taken for evidence
of forced regression. Upon marine re-flooding, the previously
exposed carbonate edifices are interpreted to have became re-
colonised by reef-building organisms and to have served as cen-
tres of renewed carbonate production.
The deltaic topsets show distinct cleaning-upward trends, with
the coarsest fraction concentrated just under major flooding sur-
faces. Hydrocarbon-water contacts within the carbonate reservoirs
are observed to commonly coincide with the highest onlapping
flooding surfaces. This general rule is void in out-of-shelf settings,
however, where a number of exceptionally long columns e and
53
large volumes of hydrocarbons - have recently been reported. Other
controls, such as hydrocarbon generation and its timing relative to
burial of the carbonate reservoirs, migration pathways, pore pres-
sure and the mechanical competence of the cap rock, also play part
in the ability of the carbonate structures to contain hydrocarbons.
Acknowledgements
This paper has benefitted from thorough critical reviews by H.
Johnson, P. Winefield, G. Loftus, F. Hoogendijk, G. Solomon, A.
MacNeil and an anonymous reviewer. Their diligent work has
greatly helped to improve the manuscript, and is much appreciated.
Companies involved with petroleum exploitation in Central Luco-
nia: Petronas, Carigali, Shell, Sapura Kencana and Mubadala Pe-
troleum, are thanked for granting their permission to publish.
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