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The Swiss Secret:

How Switzerland Stayed Out of World War II

Hillary Trump
HST110-13
Dr. John Langdon
November 17, 2016
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Outline

I. Introduction: How was Switzerland able to defend itself against invasion and

occupation by Germany in World War II?

A. Switzerland’s size and population.

B. Switzerland’s precarious location.

II. Discussion of author Stephen P. Halbrook

A. Background and qualifications

1. Ph.D. in Philosophy from Florida State University, J.D. from Georgetown

University Law Center.

2. Civil litigation and criminal defense attorney.

3. Prolific author – has written 8 books and numerous scholarly and popular articles in

support of the Second Amendment and the right to bear arms.

B. How the time and place of publication influenced Target Switzerland

1. Published in 1998 in the United States.

2. In the 1990s, Switzerland’s World War II policies came under increasing scrutiny.

3. The Federal Assault Weapons Ban of 1994 restricted gun ownership.

III. Summary of Target Switzerland

A. Organization

1. Begins with a brief history of Switzerland and its military.

2. Gives a chronological account of Switzerland during World War II.

3. Ends with a brief description of Switzerland in the 21st century.

B. Thesis of Target Switzerland

C. Main issues, events, themes, and arguments in Target Switzerland

1. Armed Neutrality in Switzerland in World War II

a. Avoided military alliances with other nations.

b. Conducted trade with other nations.

c. Would engage in armed resistance to prevent invasion.

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d. Armed neutrality relied on a well-trained citizens’ militia.

2. Structure and composition of the Swiss Militia

a. Consists of a well-trained citizens’ militia.

b. Soldiers keep their gun and uniform at home.

c. Practice their marksmanship skills on a regular basis.

3. Advantages of the Swiss Militia

a. Switzerland had the largest army relative to the size of its population.

b. Mobilized 850,000 troops at the height of World War II.

IV. Evaluation of Target Switzerland

A. Well-organized and easy to follow.

B. Reads well and holds your interest.

C. Utilizes both primary and secondary sources and properly cites them.

D. Strengths – includes a rich variety of sources.

E. Weaknesses – mentions but does not explain Swiss banking connections with Nazi

Germany.

F. Historical and educational value.

V. Discussion and analysis of issues and events covered in Target Switzerland

A. How others have analyzed World War II Switzerland.

B. Authors and scholars who disagree with Target Switzerland.

1. Hega argues that banking ties ultimately prevented Germany from invading

Switzerland.

2. Vincent argues that Switzerland avoided war with Germany through economic

concessions rather than military deterrence.

3. Ziegler argues that Switzerland indirectly aided Germany and thus violated

their professed neutrality.

C. Authors and Scholars who agree with Target Switzerland

1. Reginbogin maintains that Swiss trade and banking practices were consistent
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with neutrality.

2. Fossedal argues that Switzerland’s citizens’ militia was the primary factor in

deterring German conquest.

3. Tanner argues that strategic rather than economic factors prevented Germany

from invading Switzerland.

D. Personal assessment of Target Switzerland

1. Several factors enabled Switzerland to avoid conflict with Germany.

2. Switzerland’s commitment to armed neutrality was a significant factor in

preventing German invasion as Halbrook discussed.

3. Halbrook failed to discuss other factors that may have influenced Germany in

its decision to honor Swiss neutrality.

VI. Conclusion
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As nation after nation succumbed to Nazi occupation in Europe, one tiny country remained

free. Smaller than Ohio in terms of land mass and population, Switzerland appears at first glance to

be a perfect target for German conquest.1 Switzerland is bordered by Germany to the north and by

Italy to the south. Throughout most of World War II, Switzerland was completely encircled by

Axis-controlled territory. In such a precarious location, how did Switzerland remain independent

and free? In his book, Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II, author Stephen

P. Halbrook seeks to prove how Switzerland was able to defend itself against invasion and

occupation by Germany in World War II.

The author’s background provides insight and context for the book’s content. Halbrook

earned his Ph.D. in Philosophy from Florida State University in 1972 and his J.D. from

Georgetown University Law Center in 1978.2 He currently works as a civil litigation and criminal

defense attorney and is a well-known advocate of gun ownership and Second Amendment rights.3

He has argued and won three cases before the U.S. Supreme Court dealing with gun control

litigation.4 He has authored eight books along with numerous scholarly and popular articles

supporting the right to bear arms.5 He is also a Research Fellow at the Independent Institute, a

libertarian think-tank organization whose mission is to “boldly advance peaceful, prosperous, and

free societies grounded in a commitment to human worth and dignity.”6

The time and place of publication further influenced the point of view expressed in Target

Switzerland. The book was first published in the United States in 1998. During the 1990s,

Switzerland came under increasing scrutiny from the international community for its actions in

1
Richard J. Maybury, World War I: The Rest of the Story and How It Affects You Today (Placerville: Bluestocking
Press, 2003), 100.
2
Stephen P. Halbrook, “Profile,” Stephen P. Halbrook, 2015, accessed 9 November 2015,
http://www.stephenhalbrook.com/profile.pdf.
3
Stephen P. Halbrook, “Profile.”
4
The Independent Institute, “Stephen P. Halbrook,” The Independent Institute, 2015, accessed 9 November, 2015,
http://www.independent.org/aboutus/person_detail.asp?id=517.
5
The Independent Institute, “Stephen P. Halbrook.”
6
The Independent Institute, “About The Independent Institute,” The Independent Institute, 2015, accessed
November 9, 2015, http://www.independent.org/aboutus/
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World War II, particularly for its economic ties with Nazi Germany.7 Additionally, gun ownership

in the United States became increasingly restricted in the 1990s with the passage of the Federal

Assault Weapons Ban of 1994. This ban prohibited the manufacture, sale and possession of

assault-style weapons for civilian use.8 Therefore, Halbrook seeks to improve the image of World

War II Switzerland and implicitly argues that gun ownership and the right to bear arms is in fact

vital for the continued existence of a free nation.

Target Switzerland is organized into three distinct parts with Switzerland’s policy of armed

neutrality representing the central theme of the book. The first part of the book gives a brief history

of the small country. The formation of Switzerland is discussed along with the origins and

evolution of its policy of armed neutrality. The second part of the book gives a chronological

account of Switzerland prior to and during World War II. In this part of the book, Halbrook shows

that as the threat of Axis invasion waxes and wanes throughout the war, the Swiss continuously

modify their defense strategies to deter any threat to their homeland. The third part of the book

gives a brief description of Switzerland in the 21st century. In this part of the book, Halbrook

shows how Switzerland still maintains its policy of armed neutrality and remains out of entangling

alliances with other nations.

Halbrook asserts that Switzerland’s strict adherence to the policy of armed neutrality

ultimately prevented its invasion and occupation by Germany during World War II.9 He seeks to

prove his thesis by showing how Switzerland’s neutral position and strategic military preparedness

in World War II enabled Switzerland to avoid armed conflict with Germany. More specifically,

Halbrook defends his position by closely examining Switzerland’s militia and how it used strategic

planning, quick mobilization, and Switzerland’s mountainous terrain to effectively deter invasion.10

According to Halbrook, the great diversity of languages and ethnicities among

Switzerland’s people made neutrality the most sensible and acceptable form of foreign policy for

7
Stephen P. Halbrook, Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II, (Rockville Centre: Sarpedon, 2001), x.
8
Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, “Assault Weapons Policy Summary,” Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, June 19,
2013, accessed November 9, 2015, http://www.smartgunlaws.org/assault-weapons-policy-summary/#federal.
9
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, viii.
10
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 9.
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their nation.11 Under the dictates of armed neutrality, Switzerland shunned alliances with all other

nations and would only engage in war for the purpose of defense, not conquest.12 Under this

policy, Switzerland could still maintain commercial trade relations with warring nations. During

World War II, Switzerland engaged in trade with both the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers.

Once completely surrounded by Axis-controlled territory, Switzerland depended heavily on trade

with Germany for access to essential commodities.13 According to Halbrook, Switzerland

maintained its neutrality in its commercial dealings with Germany by strictly following the

guidelines for neutrality as dictated by the Hague Conventions and international law.14

Halbrook strongly emphasizes the importance of the Swiss militia to the maintenance of

armed neutrality in World War II. In Switzerland, the army is not structured like a traditional

standing army but as a citizens’ militia, giving it unique advantages. All men are required to serve

in the militia.15 Each member of the militia is issued a rifle and a uniform upon entering the

service, which they must keep at home and maintain in good condition. These citizen soldiers are

required to actively participate in shooting leagues and are required to practice their marksmanship

skills on a regular basis.16 Hugh Wilson, the American Ambassador to Switzerland from 1927 to

1937, noted that “The Swiss citizen retains his uniform and rifle at home, ready for instant

mobilization; and he spends many of his Sundays qualifying for marksmanship awards with his

friends in his community as men of other nationalities spend their leisure at golf, fishing, or other

recreations.”17 The Swiss people have an enduring attachment to marksmanship, and even today,

shooting is the national sport in Switzerland.18 Thus, marksmanship represents an integral part of

the Swiss identity and serves as a major agent of socialization in Switzerland.19

11
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 9.
12
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 8.
13
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 155.
14
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 154.
15
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 241
16
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 26.
17
Hugh R. Wilson, Switzerland: Neutrality as a Foreign Policy (Philadelphia: Dorrance, 1974), 6, quoted in Stephen
P. Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 27.
18
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 42.
19
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 244.
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Halbrook believes Switzerland’s ability to mobilize large numbers of troops in a timely

fashion was instrumental to the success of their strategy of armed neutrality. In comparison to other

European nations in the World War II era, Switzerland had the largest army relative to the size of

its population. At the beginning of World War II, Switzerland was capable of mobilizing 400,000

troops, about 10% of its population.20 This figure ballooned to 850,000 troops during the height of

the war, over 20% of the Swiss population. By comparison, countries such as Denmark, Norway

and the Netherlands only managed to mobilize between 4% and 5% of their populations.21 While

other European armies surrendered to German forces after short resistance, the Swiss army was

prepared to fight to the death and was explicitly commanded to never surrender.22 In many

European countries, the lack of arms and weapons and the failure to properly prepare for war

allowed Germany to conquer them without significant resistance or to simply force the leaders to

surrender without a fight.23

As a whole, Target Switzerland is well-organized and easy to follow. Halbrook carefully

structures his argument such that each part of the book builds upon the context of the last to

support his views on the maintenance of Swiss armed neutrality in World War II. Halbrook

defends his views using a variety of primary and secondary sources and properly cites his sources

using endnotes. Through newspaper articles, historical documents, eyewitness accounts from

generals, soldiers and civilians and insight from other scholars and authors, Halbrook bolsters and

defends his argument with sound reasoning and logic, emphasizing the advantages Switzerland had

in adhering to its policy of armed neutrality. The book reads well and holds your interest as

Halbrook utilizes good organization and a rich variety of sources to support his argument. The

book is of important historical and educational value in that it touches upon a topic rarely discussed

in most history textbooks and classes. Thus, the book fills a void in the conventional knowledge

and understanding of World War II history.

20
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 75.
21
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 75.
22
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 81.
23
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, 105.
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The strengths of the book include its careful organization and its reliance on a wide range

of sources to support the author’s claims. Additionally, the use of maps throughout the book

proved helpful when geographical aspects were pertinent to the discussion. The greatest weakness

of the book was the bias introduced from Halbrook’s background. His support of the right to bear

arms is tacitly incorporated into the book and influences the position he takes. Another deficiency

in the book was that Halbrook made no effort to show how to pronounce the names of various

places, people and things given in foreign languages.

Other authors and scholars have weighed in on the topic of Swiss neutrality in World War

II, and like Halbrook, they attempt to explain how Switzerland was spared the ravages of invasion

and occupation by Germany. To analyze this issue, authors and scholars have thoroughly examined

Switzerland’s military strategy and tactics as well as the economic and trade relations between

Switzerland and Germany. Some, like Halbrook, conclude that Switzerland’s policy of armed

neutrality, which derived its strength from a highly-trained and well-equipped citizens’ militia,

ultimately deterred invasion. Others believe Switzerland was spared invasion by appeasing

Germany through various economic and trade measures.

Among those disagree with Halbrook’s view of Swiss neutrality is Gunther M. Hega. In his

review of Target Switzerland, Hega argues that Switzerland’s ability to resist invasion by Germany

was not due solely to Switzerland’s armed citizenry.24 Although he acknowledges it played a role,

he believes the banking ties between Germany and Switzerland were a greater factor in preventing

Germany from invading Switzerland.25 He equates Germany’s ability to conduct trade with

Switzerland using gold stolen from occupied countries with money laundering.26 Thus, he

essentially believes the Swiss simply appeased Germany by accepting Germany’s stolen gold.

Hega also disagrees with Halbrook’s claim that other European nations succumbed to Nazi

invasion due to lack of arms.27 Instead, Hega argues that plenty of arms were available but armed

24
Gunther Hega, “Book Reviews,” German Studies Review 24:1(2001): 229, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1433213.
25
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 229.
26
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 229.
27
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 229.
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resistance was no match against Germany’s superior military forces.28

In her book Hitler’s Silent Partners, author Isabel Vincent argues along the same lines as

Hega and claims that Switzerland averted war with Germany through economic concessions rather

than military deterrence. These economic concessions resulted from the fact that trade with

Germany was vital for the survival of Switzerland due to Switzerland’s scarcity of natural

resources.29 Among these concessions was a trade agreement between the two nations whereby

Switzerland gave Germany a 150 million Swiss franc line of credit along with military supplies in

exchange for essential commodities such as food and fuel.30 Vincent also points out Swiss banking

policies as another glaring concession made to Germany. She asserts that Swiss banking policies

were essential for funding Germany’s war efforts.31 Vincent states that Switzerland’s national

bank functioned “as a clearing house for the Third Reich by purchasing its gold reserves in

exchange for foreign currency.”32 The Swiss National Bank would then make a profit off this

looted German gold by selling it to other neutral countries at a higher price.33

In The Swiss, the Gold and the Dead, author Jean Ziegler argues that Swiss neutrality during

World War II was really “fictitious neutrality.”34 Like Vincent, Ziegler asserts that the Swiss

essentially funded Germany’s war efforts by accepting Germany’s stolen gold.35 By blindly accepting

Germany’s gold and making no effort to determine whether it had been obtained in a legal manner, he

believes the Swiss ultimately violated their neutrality.36 Ziegler asserts that in the absence of the gold

laundering scheme between Switzerland and Germany, Germany would have been economically

unable to continue its conquest of other countries.37 Thus, he believes Switzerland violated its

professed neutrality by indirectly aiding the German war effort through its banking policies.

28
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 229.
29
Isabel Vincent, Hitler’s Silent Partners (New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997), 114.
30
Vincent, Hitler’s Silent Partners, 114.
31
Vincent, Hitler’s Silent Partners, 109.
32
Vincent, Hitler’s Silent Partners, 105.
33
Vincent, Hitler’s Silent Partners, 105.
34
Jean Ziegler, The Swiss, the Gold and the Dead, trans. John Brownjohn (New York: Harcourt Brace and Co., 1998), 167.
35
Ziegler, The Swiss, the Gold and the Dead, 36.
36
Ziegler, The Swiss, the Gold and the Dead, 73.
37
Ziegler, The Swiss, the Gold and the Dead, 36.
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In Faces of Neutrality, author Herbert R. Reginbogin supports Halbrook’s position on

Swiss neutrality and maintains that Swiss trade and banking practices were consistent with

neutrality. In his assessment, Switzerland consistently adhered to neutrality in its economic

dealings with both the Allied Powers and the Axis Powers, trading with both throughout the war.38

Since Switzerland was surrounded by Axis-controlled territory for most of the war but had to

obtain most of its food and fuel via imports, the Swiss had to perform a delicate balancing act to

preserve their neutrality and at the same time conduct trade with Germany.39 Throughout the war,

Switzerland imported a significantly larger quantity of goods from Germany than it exported to

Germany.40 Thus, Reginbogin implies that the economic relationship between the two countries

benefitted Switzerland significantly more than it benefitted Germany. He also believes that

Switzerland is unfairly criticized for its gold transactions with Nazi Germany. The accusation that

the Swiss did not question the origin of Germany’s gold and profited from this trade “could be

made against all other neutral countries and also against the USA.”41 Reginbogin concludes that

“Swiss conduct during World War II is not free of moral reproach, but on the whole Switzerland

was in compliance with the rules of neutrality and international law as they were understood.”42

In the book Direct Democracy in Switzerland, author Gregory A. Fossedal supports many

of the claims made by Halbrook. Fossedal states that “The real story of Switzerland’s military

bite… lies not in hardware, but people.”43 With its unique citizens’ militia system, Switzerland

could mobilize an army of 400,000 troops in a two-day time span, making it one of the most

formidable army’s in the world.44 Thus, Fossedal believes the real reason Germany never invaded

Switzerland had little to do with the economic ties between the two countries. Instead, he believes

that the manpower needed to invade and conquer Switzerland ultimately deterred Germany.

38
Herbert R. Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, trans. Ulrike Seeberger and Jane Britten (New Brunswick: Transaction
Publishers, 2009), 63.
39
Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, 198.
40
Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, 63.
41
Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, 199.
42
Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, 203.
43
Gregory A. Fossedal, Direct Democracy in Switzerland (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 206.
44
Fossedal, Direct Democracy in Switzerland, 206.
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According to German military estimates, it would have required 300,000 to 500,000 German

troops to initially invade Switzerland followed by a significant military presence to occupy the

country.45 Fossedal also believes the criticism directed at Switzerland for its gold transactions with

Germany is overrated. He argues that the United States indirectly participated in gold transactions

with Germany as they bought significant amounts of gold from Switzerland and Europe in general

during World War II.46

In his book Refuge From The Reich, author Stephen Tanner argues that strategic rather than

economic factors prevented Germany from invading Switzerland. In his assessment, “of all the

factors that influenced Germany’s decision whether or not to invade Switzerland…perhaps

foremost was the fact that Switzerland had no coastline or other geographic advantage that would

assist Germany against its larger enemies.”47 Thus, he believes the invasion of Switzerland was

simply not practical for Germany from a strategic point of view.

Upon examining the competing explanations on how Switzerland managed to avoid armed

conflict with Germany in World War II, it becomes clear that a variety of factors were at play.

Thus, Switzerland’s policy of armed neutrality as described by Halbrook was a significant factor in

avoiding armed conflict with Germany but was not the sole factor as he claims. Halbrook and those

who support his views clearly demonstrate that Switzerland’s highly-trained and well-equipped

citizens militia, with the ability to mobilize large numbers of troops in a relatively short amount of

time made the cost of invasion prohibitive for Germany. Even in his criticism of Target

Switzerland, Hega admits that “the will and ability of the Swiss to defend themselves doubtlessly

played a role in Hitler’s decision to respect Switzerland’s neutrality.”48

One of the shortcomings of Target Switzerland was that Halbrook failed to discuss how

other factors may have influenced Germany in its decision to honor Switzerland’s neutrality.

Critics of Halbrook’s position show that Switzerland made economic concessions to Germany

45
Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, 224.
46
Reginbogin, Faces of Neutrality, 217.
47
Stephen Tanner, Refuge From The Reich (Rockville Centre: Sarpedon, 2000), 108.
48
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 229.
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during World War II and that such concessions appeased Germany to a certain extent. Halbrook

does briefly mention Switzerland’s banking connections and gold transactions with Germany but

makes no effort to seriously consider or address the consequences and impact of this

arrangement.49 Halbrook could have bolstered and strengthened his thesis by making an effort to

engage and disprove alternative viewpoints on how Switzerland maintained its neutrality.50

For a comprehensive analysis of Switzerland’s doctrine of armed neutrality in World War

II, look no further than Target Switzerland. In this book, Halbrook seeks to prove that

Switzerland’s adherence to armed neutrality ultimately deterred Germany from invading

Switzerland in World War II. Although he makes a good case for his thesis, Halbrook could

improve his argument by addressing competing theories on how Switzerland managed to avoid

invasion and occupation by Germany in World War II.51

49
Halbrook, Target Switzerland, x.
50
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 230.
51
Hega, “Book Reviews,” 230.
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Bibliography

Fossedal, Gregory A. Direct Democracy in Switzerland. New Brunswick: Transaction

Publishers, 2002.

Halbrook, Stephen P. “Profile.” Stephen P. Halbrook. 2015. 9 November 2015.

http://stephenhalbrook.com/profile.pdf

Halbrook, Stephen P. Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II. Rockville

Centre: Sarpedon, 2001.

Hega, Gunther M. “Book Reviews.” German Studies Review 24:1 (Feb. 2001): 229-230. JSTOR.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/1433213

Maybury, Richard J. World War I: The Rest of the Story and How It Affects You Today.

Placerville: Bluestocking Press, 2003.

Reginbogin, Herbert R. Faces of Neutrality. Translated by Ulrike Seeberger and Jane Britten.

New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2009.

Tanner, Stephen. Refuge from the Reich. Rockville Centre: Sarpedon, 2000.

The Independent Institute. “Stephen P. Halbrook.” The Independent Institute. 2015. 9 November

2015. http://www.independent.org/aboutus/person_detail.asp?id=517.

Vincent, Isabel. Hitler’s Silent Partners. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997.

Wilson, Hugh R. Switzerland: Neutrality as a Foreign Policy. Philadelphia: Dorrance, 1974.

Quoted in Halbrook, Stephen P. Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World

War II. Rockville Centre: Sarpedon, 2001.

Ziegler, Jean. The Swiss, the Gold and the Dead. Translated by John Brownjohn. New York:

Harcourt Brace and Company, 1998.